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Foundations of Education
Foundations of Education
From the dawn of civilization, man has been marching in search of wisdom. Various experiments
are projected through education, so that humanity, happiness and harmony are wedded together.
Education is indispensable for making life and living meaningful and purposive. Its significance cannot be
fully appreciated unless it is looked at in proper perspectives philosophical, sociological and
psychological.
Psychology has a very significant bearing on education because of its influence on the various
factors related to learning and teaching. Without the knowledge of psychology, a teacher is at a loss to
understand the needs and problems in a child s life. This provides the key to know the individual
differences and meets them with appropriate educational programs. It also helps the teachers to offer
guidance and counselling to the pupils. In fact, psychology places education on a scientific basis and
brings dignity to education as a discipline.
In the other hand, the Sociological Foundation of Education has added a new dimension to
education as an interdisciplinary approach. Sociology which involves the study of society, social process
and social change is a growing science. School is a miniature society and what happens in a society also
happens in a school situation. Like parents in a family, teachers take important roles in a school.
Obviously, both psychological and sociological foundations of education have a practical bearing
on our day-to-day living. Studying all of the foundations is a necessity to us, the future teachers and the
teachers to become more productive and efficient in field of teaching.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Adjustment Psychology 9
Characteristics of a Grown, Developed and Happy Person 9
Types of Learners 10
Visual Learners
Auditory Learners
Read-Write Learners
Kinaesthetic Learners
Exceptional Children 10
Physically Handicapped
Mentally Retarded
Gifted Child
Slow Learners
Learning 12-14
Learning Pyramid
Theories of Learning
Cooperative Learning
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning
Transfer of Learning Chart
Near transfer of Learning
Far Transfer of Learning
Motivation 14-16
Components of Motivation
Types of Motivation
Theories of Motivation
Instinct Theory
Drive Reduction Theory
Arousal Theory
Psychoanalytic Theory
Humanistic Theory
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Emotion 16
James-Lange Theory
Cannon-Bard Theory
Schachter-Singer Theory
Lazarus Theory
Facial Feedback Theory
Sensation 17
Absolute Threshold
Difference Threshold
Signal Detection Theory
Sensory Adaptation
Perception 18
Gestalt Principles of Grouping
Maintaining Perceptual Constancy
Size constancy
Brightness constancy
Perceiving Distance
Memory 19-20
Stage Models of Memory
What Student remember
Social Reproduction 21
Structural Function of Social Reproduction
Conflicts
Conflict Theory
◆ Primary 25
◆ Secondary 25
◆ Others 25-26
◆ Basis of Group Formation 26
◆ Society and Community Wheel 27
◆ Community Member Roles and Types 27-29
◆ Institutions in the Society 30
◆ James, Wundt
◆ John B. Watson,
◆ B. F. Skinner
◆ Max Wertheimer
◆ Sigmund Freud
◆ Alfred Adler
UNIT - I PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION
Chapter 1 - EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AS FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION
The word “psychology” comes from the Greek word (Psyche mean Soul, Logos mean Science),
thus the meaning of Psychology is the science of soul. It is the science of behaviour, the activities of
animate creature, which can be observed and measured in an objective way.
Sociology is said to be the study of human social behaviour, especially the study of the origins,
organization, institutions, and development of human society.
If the teacher has no knowledge of children psychology and societal origins, how can we expect
from him that he would succeed in bringing about the desirable changes in children?
It studies about how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational
interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Mainly,
it is concerned with how students learn and develop, often focusing on subgroups such as gifted children
and those subject to specific disabilities
Educational sociology, then, is the application of sociological principles and methods to the
solution of problems in an educational system. It is mostly concerned with schooling, and especially the
mass schooling systems of modern industrial societies, including the expansion of higher, further, adult,
and continuing education.
One simple question may be asked as to why educational psychology should be taught to prospective
teachers in training colleges. The educational psychology helps the teachers in the following ways:
Children pass through different stages of development in life as infancy, childhood and adolescence.
These developmental stages have their own characteristics and demands.
With the help of education psychology the teacher understand the students and their need and
problems, it help teacher in learning process in general and class-room learning in particular.
With the help of psychology teacher understand the individual’s differences. Teacher faces a class of 30
to 50 students who have a different range of individual differences. Teacher with the knowledge of
education psychology and individual differences may adjust his teaching to the needs and requirements
of the class.
Every day experience shows that lack of proper methods of teaching sometimes results in
failure of communication in the classroom. The educational psychology gives us the knowledge
of appropriate methods of teaching. It helps in developing new strategies of teaching.
Mental health of the student and teacher is very important for efficient learning. With the help
of educational psychology, the can understand the various factors, which are responsible for
the mental health and maladjustment.
6. Curriculum construction
Psychological principles are also used in formulating curriculum for different stages.
Psychological tools help the teachers to evaluate the learning out-come of the students. it
helps the teacher to evaluate his own performance.
1. Introspection
Historically introspection is the oldest method of all, which was formerly used in philosophy, and
then in psychology to collect data about the conscious experience of the subject. Introspection
means to see within one self or self observation. To understand one’s own mental health and the
state of mind. This method was developed by the structuralists in psychology who defined
psychology as the study of conscious experiences of the individual.
2. Observation
3. Experimental Method
This method has been developed in psychology by the continuous efforts by psychologists to
make objective and scientific study of human behaviour. One of the major contributions of the
behaviourism is the development of experimental method to understand, control and
predict behaviour. It is the most precise, planned systematic observation. The experimental
method uses a systematic procedure called experimental design.
4. Clinical Method
This method is primarily used to collect detailed information on the behaviour problems of
maladjusted and deviant cases. The main objective of this method is to study individual case or
cases of group to detect and diagnose their specific problems and to suggest therapeutic
measures to rehabilitate them in their environment.
Case study is in-depth study of the subject. It is the in-depth analysis of a person, group, or
phenomenon. A variety of techniques are employed including personal interviews, psychometric
tests, direct observation, and archival records. Case studies are most often used in psychology in
clinical research to describe the rare events and conditions of the subject; case study is specially
used in education psychology.
1. Structuralism
This grew out of the work of James, Wundt, and their associates. These psychologists believed the
chief purpose of psychology was to describe, analyse, and explain conscious experience,
particularly feelings and sensations. The structuralists attempted to give a scientific analysis of
conscious experience by breaking it down into its specific components or structures. For example,
they identified four basic skin sensations: warmth, cold, pain, and pressure. They analysed the
sensation of wetness as the combined experience of cold and smoothness.
2. Functionalism
This is the doctrine that what makes something a thought, desire, pain (or any other type of
mental state) depends not on its internal constitution, but solely on its function, or the role it
plays, in the cognitive system of which it is a part. More precisely, functionalist theories take the
identity of a mental state to be determined by its causal relations to sensory stimulations, other
mental states, and behaviour.
3. Behaviourism
This was introduced in 1913 by John B. Watson, an American psychologist. Watson and his
followers believed that observable behaviour, not inner experience, was the only reliable source
of information. The behaviourists also stressed the importance of the environment in shaping an
individual's behaviour. They chiefly looked for connections between observable behaviour and
stimuli from the environment.
4. Gestalt psychology
Like behaviourism, developed as a reaction against structuralism. Gestalt psychologists believed
that human beings and other animals perceive the external world as an organized pattern, not as
individual sensations. For example, a film consists of thousands of individual still pictures, but we
see what looks like smooth, continuous movement. The familiar saying "The whole is greater than
the sum of its parts" expresses an important principle of the Gestalt movement.
Gestalt psychology was founded about 1912 by Max Wertheimer, a German psychologist. During
the 1930's, Wertheimer and two colleagues took the Gestalt movement to the United States.
5. Psychoanalysis
Was founded during the late 1800's and early 1900's by the Austrian doctor Sigmund Freud.
Psychoanalysis was based on the theory that behaviour is determined by powerful inner forces,
most of which are buried in the unconscious mind. According to Freud and other
psychoanalysts, from early childhood people repress (force out of conscious awareness) any
desires or needs that are unacceptable to themselves or to society.
6. Individual Psychology
Alfred Adler postulates a single "drive" or motivating force behind all our behavior and
experience. By the time his theory had gelled into its most mature form, he called that motivating
force the striving for perfection. It is the desire we all have to fulfill our potentials, and is basically
the same idea as Carl Rogers' idea of self-actualization.
8. Humanistic Psychology
Like Existentialism, Humanism is a broad collection of theories and theorists that are
sometimes hard to pin down. But the best known and most influential person among them has
to be Carl Rogers.
Growth is defined as an increase in size; development is defined as a progression toward maturity. Thus the
terms are used together to describe the complex physical, mental, and emotional processes associated
with the “growing up” of children.
Nature refers to heredity: the genetic makeup or "genotypes" (i.e., information encoded in DNA) an
individual carries from the time of conception to the time of death. Heredity may range from genetic
predispositions that are specific to each individual and that therefore potentially explain differences in
individual characteristics (e.g., temperament), to those supposedly specific to certain groups and that
therefore account for group differences in related characteristics (e.g., gender and height), and to those
that are theorized to be shared by all humans and are generally thought to set humans apart from other
species (e.g., the language acquisition device in humans).
Nurture, by contrast, refers to various external or environmental factors to which an individual is exposed
from conception to death. These environmental factors involve several dimensions. For example, they
include both physical environments (e.g., secondhand smoking and prenatal nutrition) and social
environments (e.g., the media and peer pressure). Also, environmental factors vary in their immediacy to
the individual; they involve multiple layers of forces, ranging from most immediate (e.g., families, friends,
and neighborhoods) to larger contexts (e.g., school systems and local governments) to macro factors (e.g.,
international politics and global warming).
ii) Babyhood is an age of rapid growth and development. Babies grow rapidly both
physically and psychologically. Changes are rapid in appearance (height and weight) and
capacities. The limbs develop in better proportion to the large head. Intellectual growth
and change are parallel to physical growth and change.
iv) The babyhood is an age of decreasing dependency. The baby begins to do things to
itself. With decrease of dependency, a rebellion against being treated as baby.
vi) Babyhood is the beginning of Creativity, sex role and socialization for
adjustment in future life.
vii) Babyhood is a hazardous period. The physical hazards are illness, accidents,
disabilities and death. Psychological hazards are disinterests and negative attitudes.
ii) There is much difference with the behavior of adolescents and adults and often
from those of older children.
iii) Emotions are more easily conditioned during babyhood than at latter stage.
This is due to the reason that the intellectual abilities of babies are limited. They respond
easily and quickly to stimuli. Anyhow there is hesitation to respond in some cases.
c. Development in socialization:
At birth, infants are not gregarious in nature in the sense that there is no difference to
them who attend to their physical needs. During the first year of the babyhood, babies
are in a state of equilibrium which makes them friendly, easy to handle and pleasant to be
with. Around the middle of second year, the equilibrium is tilted making the baby fussy,
non cooperative, and difficult to handle. However, equilibrium is restored so that the
babies begin to exhibit again pleasant and social behaviour.
a. Cognition
To begin with, of all the parts of the body, the brain grows most during early childhood,
making for dramatic changes in cognitive development. Children's memory, for instance,
greatly advances after infancy. Young children can remember large amounts of
information!
Second, children learn to convey thoughts and ideas relating to their everyday lives by
using words and images. Psychologist Jean Piaget best illustrates what children
understand and fail to understand at this stage. Children can't distinguish their
perspectives from others.
b. Self-regulation
Children learn to self-regulate and control behaviour without help. For instance, in terms
of sexuality, early childhood, or the period Sigmund Freud defined as the phallic stage, is a
time in which children focus pleasure on their genitals. After being reprimanded by their
parents and others, children learn to stop touching themselves in public.
Children begin to make progress in terms of moral development. This has much to do with
the values that are instilled by parents. As time goes on in early childhood, children are
able to develop their own senses of right and wrong.
d. Physical Growth
In order to grow, children's physical needs must be met. In early childhood, they require
proper amounts of sleep. Most kids are able to get enough rest by sleeping throughout
the night and taking one nap during the day. They also need timely immunizations, the
right nutritious foods and exercise to lead healthy lives. Gross motor skills improve
dramatically in early childhood if such needs are met.
A child's social world influences the development of his personality and purposeful
behaviour. As children get into the latter stages of early childhood, they are given more
responsibility. According to Erik Erikson's psychoanalytic theory, they are in the initiative
versus guilt stage. If they do not rise to the challenge of taking responsibility, they are
likely to experience anxiety and guilt.
Family relationships play a crucial role in the development of children. The parent-child
relationship is one of the single greatest influences on a child's self esteem and sense of
self-control. Authoritative parenting is best. Children make rapid language advancements
at this stage. The type of environment parents create can set the foundation for literacy if
books and effective verbal exercises are utilized.
g. Emotional Development
Preschoolers become increasingly able to discuss their emotions and those of others. They
can understand that people can react to the same event with different emotions. Children
at this stage can even develop the type of empathy that will allow them to understand and
respond to a friend's sadness.
Psychology of Adolescence
a. Quarter-life crisis
Is a term applied to the period of life immediately following the major changes of
adolescence, usually ranging from the early twenties to the early thirties. The term is
named by analogy with mid-life crisis.
Even during normal adolescence, substantial emotional adjustments are required. If the timing is
not typical, particularly in a boy whose physical development is delayed or a girl whose
development occurs early, additional emotional stress is likely. Most boys who grow slowly
eventually attain normal height. However, adolescents whose growth or sexual development is
delayed should be evaluated to rule out diseases and other physical causes and given reassurance
if the evaluation is negative.
In early adolescence, a child begins to develop the capacity for abstract, logical thought. This
increased sophistication leads to an enhanced awareness of self and the ability to reflect on one's
own being. Because of the many noticeable physical changes of adolescence, this self-awareness
often turns into self-consciousness, with an accompanying feeling of awkwardness. The
adolescent also has a preoccupation with physical appearance and attractiveness and a
heightened sensitivity to differences from peers.
f. Juvenile delinquency
Refers to antisocial or illegal behavior by children or adolescents. Most legal systems prescribe
specific procedures for dealing with juveniles, such as juvenile detention centres.. Youth crime is a
major issue and is an aspect of crime which receives great attention from the news media and
politicians. Crime committed by young people has risen since the mid-twentieth century, as
have most types of crime
Adjustment Psychology
“Adjustment” can be defined as a process of altering one's behaviour to reach a harmonious relationship
with their environment. This is typically a response brought about by some type of change that has taken
place. The stress of this change causes one to try to reach a new type of balance or homeostasis between
the individual (both inwardly and outwardly), and with their environment.
Types of Learners
a. Visual Learners
They tend to be fast talkers.
They exhibit impatience and have a tendency to interrupt.
They use words and phrases that evoke visual images.
They learn by seeing and visualizing.
b. Auditory Learners
They speak slowly and tend to be natural listeners.
They think in a linear manner.
They prefer to have things explained to them verbally rather than to read written information.
They learn by listening and verbalizing.
c. Read-Write Learners
They prefer for information to be displayed in writing, such as lists of ideas.
They emphasize text-based input and output.
They enjoy reading and writing in all forms.
d. Kinaesthetic Learners
They tend to be the slowest talkers of all.
They tend to be slow to make decisions.
They use all their senses to engage in learning.
They learn by doing and solving real-life problems.
They like hands-on approaches to things and learn through trial and error.
Exceptional Children
a. Physically Handicap
Some people with disabilities do not like the term "handicap" because of a belief that it originally
meant someone who could not work and went begging with their cap in hand. This, however,
appears to not be the true origin of the word. It originated in a lottery game known as Hand In
Cap in the 1600s which involved players placing money in a cap.
c. Intellectual giftedness
An intellectual ability significantly higher than average. It is different from a skill, in that skills are
learned or acquired behaviours. Like a talent, intellectual giftedness is usually believed to be an
innate, personal aptitude for intellectual activities that cannot be acquired through personal
effort.
d. slow learner
They want to learn, but he/she is slow. That is the direct meaning of it. A very dumb person, a
person that cannot comprehend the most obvious details of something that is very familiar and
common in the eyes of many.
1. Inconsequential
These are the types of people who smile at you and sometimes go up to you and actually talk to
you. They know your name and everything about you - but you've never seen them in your whole
life.. They're just never seen and hardly ever recite.
2. Sipsip
Their hands are perpetually raised, ready to recite. They always sit up front and their heads
automatically nod every 5 seconds to what the teacher is saying. They have endless questions,
some of which they ask the teacher after class. They cover their papers during exams and never
share answers. If you ask them, "Did you study?" they will either say "No" or "Not really" but
they get the highest scores. They have one friend or none.
3. Provance
They usually live in the dorm because they're from the provinces. They're the ones who eat ulam
for lunch with mountain of rice (3 cups usually). Their money don’t fold, they jingle. They
speak neither English nor Tagalog well.
4. Involved
They love joining the students council and cause-oriented or catechist groups. They love staging
rallies. They hang around together and have lunch or snacks with a teacher/coordinator. They love
wearing wooden crosses round their necks. They're musically inclined - they play the guitar during
mass. If they weren't involved they become inconsequential.
5. Nerd
They're really nice, they are the living saints. They never cut class. They are quite (they hardly
recite), but they get the highest grades in the class. They study together in a big group. They're
really cool, they let you copy when the teacher isn't looking. Teachers and classmates love them -
but they never get invited to parties. They usually skinny.
6. Sosyal
They are not necessarily rich but they act it. They have bad grades. They always cut class. They're
always organizing some party or get-together and they love to pull all their names in their
invitations. They're "best friends" with the nerds who help them pass. Teachers who were
inconsequential love the sosyals - the friends they'd always wanted in their youth. The sosyals act
chummy with these teachers whom they really hate.
7. Chismosa
They're the ones who always want to look at your date book, diary, or notebook to the extent of
pulling it like a child if you don’t want to show it. Favorite lines are "Don’t tell. haaaaa!" and
"Guess whose preeeeegnaaaant?!" They're very friendly if they think you have chismis. They're
very paranoid that people are angry with them.
8. Yuckies
They are so nice, always smiling, they're disgusting. All the teachers love them and they win most
of the awards in graduation. They have the smelliest ba-on in the class, usually cold meat na
sumisingaw.
10. Baduy
They are the ones you borrow ballpens from and you never return them. They don’t speak
English. They're the ones who know the latest dance craze in Eat Bulaga and they usually aspire to
become ROTC officers. They never get invited to parties.
11. Weird
People love to talk about them because they're so strange. They're usually loners because they're
very picky with friends. They have friends abroad and in other schools (who are weird as well).
They don’t cut class, they're usually in the Deans List. They have hyper acidic stomachs because
since there's no one to eat with, hardly ever do.
12 Happy-go-lucky
They bring the least things to school, they borrow everything they need. They always cut class,
come in late. They never take notes. They hardly study but amazingly pass, they're just lazy. They
always sit at the back where they talk. Teachers hate them. They go to school basically to see their
friends.
Learning
a. Learning Pyramid
h. Far transfer
Far transfer tasks involve skills and knowledge being applied in situations that change. Far transfer
tasks require instruction where learners are trained to adapt guidelines to changing situations or
environments. Although this type of training is more difficult to instruct (transfer of learning is less
likely), it does allow the learner to adapt to new situations.
How does interest relate to attention? Can most people choose to pay attention to things that
they’re not particularly interested in for long periods of time? I wouldn’t think so. And yet many
descriptions of ADD and ADHD (especially, it seems, those geared toward children with the
disorder) say that “it much easier … to sustain attention in … work … when tasks are interesting,
meaningful, or in some way motivating …”, as if this were something unique to individual afflicted
with ADD. But that just sounds like bullshit to me. Even Wikipedia says that “[those affected] face
some of their greatest challenges in the areas of self-control, self-motivation, as well as executive
functioning”.
On the contrary, it seems more likely to me (and I speak as someone medicated for the disorder)
that most people who have these problems have them because they work on very abstract and
complicated subject with very little immediate emotional or adrenal influence. And, for humans,
that’s a recipe for those problems.
In every day language, aptitude is usually defined as a natural or inherent talent for a certain skill or
activity. For example, we often talk about a student’s aptitude for learning languages, a child’s
aptitude for drawing, a mother’s aptitude for crossword puzzles or even a husband’s aptitude for
golf! Another way of thinking about aptitude is as a competency – whether innate, acquired or
developed –for a certain type of work and this competency can be physical or mental. In the field
of intelligence, aptitude is often considered to represent specific subsets of mental ability which
provides useful information on an individual’s potential, particularly with regards to education and
employment.
Motivation
c. Instinct Theory
Humans have the same types of innate tendencies. Babies are born with a unique ability that
allows them to survive; they are born with the ability to cry. Without this, how would others know
when to feed the baby, know when he needed changing, or when she wanted attention and
affection? Crying allows a human infant to survive. We are also born with particular reflexes which
promote survival. The most important of these include sucking, swallowing, coughing, blinking.
Newborns can perform physical movements to avoid pain; they will turn their head if touched on
their cheek and search for a nipple (rooting reflex); and they will grasp an object that touches the
palm of their hands.
According to Clark Hull (1943, 1952), humans have internal internal biological needs which
motivate us to perform a certain way. These needs, or drives, are defined by Hull as internal states
of arousal or tension which must be reduced. A prime example would be the internal feelings of
hunger or thirst, which motivates us to eat. According to this theory, we are driven to reduce these
drives so that we may maintain a sense of internal calmness.
e. Arousal Theory
Similar to Hull's Drive Reduction Theory, Arousal theory states that we are driven to maintain a
certain level of arousal in order to feel comfortable. Arousal refers to a state of emotional,
intellectual, and physical activity. It is different from the above theory, however, because it
doesn't rely on only a reduction of tension, but a balanced amount. It also does better to explain
why people climb mountains, go to school, or watch sad movies.
f. Psychoanalytic Theory
Remember Sigmund Freud and his five part theory of personality. As part of this theory, he
believed that humans have only two basic drives: Eros and Thanatos, or the Life and Death drives.
According to Psychoanalytic theory, everything we do, every thought we have, and every emotion
we experience has one of two goals: to help us survive or to prevent our destruction. This is similar
to instinct theory, however, Freud believed that the vast majority of our knowledge about these
drives is buried in the unconscious part of the mind.
g. Humanistic Theory
Although discussed last, humanistic theory is perhaps the most well know theory of motivation.
According to this theory, humans are driven to achieve their maximum potential and will always do
so unless obstacles are placed in their way. These obstacles include hunger, thirst, financial
problems, safety issues, or anything else that takes our focus away from maximum psychological
growth.
Emotion
The mainstream definition of emotion refers to a feeling state involving thoughts, physiological
changes, and an outward expression or behavior. But what comes first? The thought? The
physiological arousal? The behavior? Or does emotion exist in a vacuum, whether or not these
other components are present? There are five theories which attempt to understand why we
experience emotion.
a. James-Lange Theory
The James-Lange theory of emotion argues that an event causes physiological arousal first and
then we interpret this arousal. Only after our interpretation of the arousal can we experience
emotion. If the arousal is not noticed or is not given any thought, then we will not experience any
emotion based on this event.
b. Cannon-Bard Theory
The Cannon-Bard theory argues that we experience physiological arousal and emotional at the
same time, but gives no attention to the role of thoughts or outward behavior.
According to this theory, an event causes physiological arousal first. You must then identify a
reason for this arousal and then you are able to experience and label the emotion.
d. Lazarus Theory
Lazarus Theory states that a thought must come before any emotion or physiological arousal. In
other words, you must first think about your situation before you can experience an emotion.
According to the facial feedback theory, emotion is the experience of changes in our facial
muscles. In other words, when we smile, we then experience pleasure, or happiness. When we
frown, we then experience sadness. it is the changes in our facial muscles that cue our brains and
provide the basis of our emotions. Just as there are an unlimited number of muscle
configurations in our face, so to are there a seemingly unlimited number of emotions.
Sensation
Sensation is the process by which our senses gather information and send it to the brain. A large
amount of information is being sensed at any one time such as room temperature, brightness of
the lights, someone talking, a distant train, or the smell of perfume. With all this information
coming into our senses, the majority of our world never gets recognized. We don't notice radio
waves, x-rays, or the microscopic parasites crawling on our skin. We don't sense all the odors
around us or taste every individual spice in our gourmet dinner. We only sense those things we are
able too since we don't have the sense of smell like a bloodhound or the sense of sight like a hawk;
our thresholds are different from these animals and often even from each other.
a. Absolute Threshold
The absolute threshold is the point where something becomes noticeable to our senses. It is the
softest sound we can hear or the slightest touch we can feel. Anything less than this goes
unnoticed. The absolute threshold is therefore the point at which a stimuli goes from
undetectable to detectable to our senses.
b. Difference Threshold
Once a stimulus becomes detectable to us, how do we recognize if this stimulus changes. When
we notice the sound of the radio in the other room, how do we notice when it becomes louder. It's
conceivable that someone could be turning it up so slightly that the difference is undetectable. The
difference threshold is the amount of change needed for us to recognize that a change has
occurred. This change is referred to as the Just Noticeable Difference.
Have you ever been in a crowded room with lots of people talking? Situations like that can make it
difficult to focus on any particular stimulus, like the conversation we are having with a friend. We
are often faced with the daunting task of focusing our attention on certain things while at the same
time attempting to ignore the flood of information entering our senses. When we do this, we are
making a determination as to what is important to sense and what is background noise. This
concept is referred to as signal detection because we attempt detect what we want to focus on and
ignore or minimize everything else.
d. Sensory Adaptation
The last concept refers to stimuli which has become redundant or remains unchanged for an
extended period of time. Ever wonder why we notice certain smells or sounds right away and then
after a while they fade into the background? Once we adapt to the perfume or the ticking of the
clock, we stop recognizing it. This process of becoming less sensitive to unchanging stimulus is
referred to as sensory adaptation, after all, if it doesn't change, why do we need to constantly
sense it?
Perception
The German word "Gestalt" roughly translates to "whole" or "form," and the Gestalt psychologist's
sincerely believed that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. In order to interpret what we
receive through our senses, they theorized that we attempt to organize this information into
certain groups. This allows us to interpret the information completely without unneeded
repetition. The Gestalt principles of grouping include four types: similarity, proximity, continuity,
and closure.
Refers to our ability to see things differently without having to reinterpret the object's
properties. There are typically three constancies discussed, including size, shape, brightness.
Refers to our ability to see objects as maintaining the same size even when our distance from them
makes things appear larger or smaller. This holds true for all of our senses. As we walk away from
our radio, the song appears to get softer. We understand, and perceive it as being just as loud as
before. The difference being our distance from what we are sensing.
d. Brightness constancy
Refers to our ability to recognize that color remains the same regardless of how it looks under
different levels of light. That deep blue shirt you wore to the beach suddenly looks black when you
walk indoors. Without color constancy, we would be constantly re-interpreting color and would be
amazed at the miraculous conversion our clothes undertake.
e. Perceiving Distance
We determine distance using two different cues: monocular and binocular. Monocular cues are
those cues which can be seen using only one eye. They include size; texture, overlap, shading,
height, and clarity.
Memory
b. Sensory Memory
Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory. During this stage, sensory information
from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time, generally for no longer than
a half-second for visual information and 3 or 4 seconds for auditory information. We
attend to only certain aspects of this sensory memory, allowing some of this information
to pass into the next stage - short-term memory.
d. Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. In Freudian
psychology, long-term memory would be call the preconscious and unconscious. This
information is largely outside of our awareness, but can be called into working memory to
be used when needed. Some of this information is fairly easy to recall, while other
memories are much more difficult to access.
Education begins at home. One does not only acquire knowledge from a teacher;
one can learn and receive knowledge from a parent, family member and even an
acquaintance. In almost all societies, attending school and receiving an education is
extremely vital and necessary if one wants to achieve success.
However, unfortunately we have places in the world, where not everyone has an
opportunity to receive this formal type of education. The opportunities that are
offered are greatly limited. Sometimes there are not enough resources to provide
schooling. Furthermore because parents need their children to help them work in
factories, have odd jobs, or just do farm work.
b. Issues of Society
Social Reproduction
b. Conflicts
Agent of Society
The purpose of education is to pass on some values from one generation onto the
next, yet those values have changed somewhat since later generations explore new
limits when it comes to student discipline, learning standards, the teaching of
religion and other relevant issues. There has to be some kind of mirror between what
the system teaches and what the dominant society around that system would like to
see. So if you living in the US you still won’t expect to learn much about Marx since his name is
synonymous with communism and everything anti-capitalist. Similarly you will be fed the biblical
creationist theory regarding the six days of the earth’s creation in certain states that have voted for
a return to this model of creation despite a mass of scientific data showing the contrary.
The role of a teacher in society is both significant and valuable.It has far-reaching influence on the
society he lives in and no other personality can have an influence more profound than that of a
teacher. Students are deeply affected by the teacher's love and affection, his character, his
competence, and his moral commitment. A popular teacher becomes a model for his students. The
students try to follow their teacher in his manners, costumes, etiquette, style of conversation and
his get up. He is their ideal.
The definition of the Filipino family has been slowly changing in the last few decades.
The Filipino family is described as being basically nuclear but functionally extended.
This means that most families consist of the parents and their children, but there is
recognition and respect for the ties between the nuclear family and the whole network of
relatives from both sides of the family. Grandparents, godparents, uncles, aunts,
etc. --- all play some part in raising the children. Major decisions are consulted with
them, especially when the parents are still young and starting out.
d. Government Works
The present government wants to give state schools more independence from local
authorities. The aim is to reduce bureaucracy, enable schools to adopt a specialist
area such as sport or music, and encourage more competition amongst schools.
Critics argue that such reforms will create a “two-tier education system.”
An individual's sexual orientation refers to her or his relative attraction to members of the same
sex ( homosexual), other sex ( heterosexual), or both sexes ( bisexual).
b. Gender Roles
Gender roles are cultural and personal. They determine how males and females
should think, speak, dress, and interact within the context of society. Learning plays a role in this
process of shaping gender roles. These gender schemas are deeply embedded cognitive
frameworks regarding what defines masculine and feminine. While various socializing agents—
parents, teachers, peers, movies, television, music, books, and religion—teach and reinforce
gender roles throughout the lifespan, parents probably exert the greatest influence, especially on
their very young offspring.
The term race refers to groups of people who have differences and similarities in
biological traits deemed by society to be socially significant, meaning that people
treat other people differently because of them. For instance, while differences and
similarities in eye color have not been treated as socially significant, differences
and similarities in skin color have
d. Language
A sociology of language would seek to understand the way that social dynamics are affected by
individual and group language use. It would have to do with who is 'authorized' to use what
language, with whom and under what conditions. It would have to do with how an individual or
group identity is established by the language that they have available for them to use. It would
seek to understand individual expression, one's (libidinal) investment in the linguistic tools that one
has access to in order to bring oneself to other people.
e. Technology
The journal “Sociology of Science and Technology” specialises in problems in sociology of science
and technology. It is published under scientific guidance of the Institute for the History of Science
and Technology named after Sergey I. Vavilov, St. Petersburg Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences.
Founded in 2009, it is published 4 times a year, in Russia.
f. Ideology
This term has a long, complex, and extraordinarily rich history. As a specifically sociological
concept, it originated in the work of Karl Marx, and to this day its deployment in a particular
sociological analysis remains a sign that such analysis is either Marxist or strongly influenced by
Marxism.
g. Secularism
This is the concept that government or other entities should exist separately from
religion and/or religious beliefs.
In one sense, secularism may assert the right to be free from religious rule and teachings,
and the right to freedom from governmental imposition of religion upon the people within a state
that is neutral on matters of belief. (See also Separation of church and state and Laïcité.) In another
sense, it refers to the view that human activities and decisions, especially political ones, should be
based on evidence and fact unbiased by religious influence.[1
Stereotypes
a. Gender Stereotypes
This simplistic generalizations about the gender attributes, differences, and roles of
individuals and/or groups. Stereotypes can be positive or negative, but they rarely
communicate accurate information about others. When people automatically apply
gender assumptions to others regardless of evidence to the contrary, they are
perpetuating gender stereotyping. Many people recognize the dangers of gender
stereotyping, yet continue to make these types of generalizations.
b. Educational Stereotypes
Thirdly, there are some stereotypes related to educational skills. Real women don’t do math, or
you’re too pretty to be a math major are some of the stereotypes. Women see this and say math is
only for male. This prevents them from going into math class. Even if they go into math class and
they might not do well. Men see women as taking art and dance classes. I disagree with these
stereotypes, because women are doing better than women. Women are going to places that men
go and do things that men do. We think that things are impossible for women and say only a man
can do it. This is wrong and it should not be considered as the right idea in recognizing women.
Social Stratification
In early societies, people shared a common social standing. As societies evolved and became more
complex, they began to elevate some members. Today, stratification, a system by which society
ranks its members in a hierarchy, is the norm throughout the world. All societies stratify their
members. A stratified society is one in which there is an unequal distribution of society’s rewards
and in which people are arranged hierarchically into layers according to how much of society’s
rewards they possess. To understand stratification, we must first understand its origins.>
Hunting and gathering societies had little stratification. Men hunted for meat while women
gathered edible plants, and the general welfare of the society depended on all its members sharing
what it had. The society as a whole undertook the rearing and socialization of children and shared
food and other acquisitions more or less equally. Therefore, no group emerged as better off than the others.
The rigidity of social stratification varies according to a society's level of social mobility. The
greater the level of social mobility, the more easily a person can move from a lower social class to a
higher one.
Primary groups
Are small groups with intimate, kinship-based relationships: families, for example. They commonly last for
years. They are small and display face-to-face interaction.
Secondary groups
In contrast to primary groups, are large groups involving formal and institutional relationships. They may
last for years or may disband after a short time. The formation of primary groups happens within
secondary groups.
Primary groups can be present in secondary settings. For example, attending a university exemplifies
membership of a secondary group, while the friendships that are made there would be considered a
primary group that you belong to. Likewise, some businesses care deeply about the well being of one
another, while some immediate families have hostile relations within it.
Individuals almost universally have a bond toward what sociologists call reference groups. These are groups to which
the individual conceptually relates him/herself, and from which he/she adopts goals and values as
a part of his/her self identity.
a. Peer group
A peer group is a group with members of approximately the same age, social status, and interests.
Generally, people are relatively equal in terms of power when they interact with peers.
b. Clique
An informal, tight-knit group, often in a High School/College setting, that shares common
interests. Most cliques exhibit an established yet shifting power structure.
c. Club
A club is a group, which usually requires one to apply to become a member. Such clubs may be
dedicated to particular activities: sporting clubs.
d. Household
All individuals who live in the same home. anglophone culture may include various models of
household, including the family, blended families, share housing, and group homes.
e. Community
A community is a group of people with a commonality or sometimes a complex net of overlapping
commonalities, often–but not always–in proximity with one another with some degree of
continuity over time.
g. Gang
A gang is usually an urban group that gathers in a particular area. It is a group of people that often
hang around each other. They can be like some clubs, but much less formal. [citation needed]
h. Mob
A mob is usually a group of people that has taken the law into their own hands. Mobs are usually
groups which gather temporarily for a particular reason.
i. Posse
A posse was originally found in English common law. It is generally obsolete, and survives only in
America, where it is the law enforcement equivalent of summoning the militia for military
purposes.. However, it can also refer to a street group.
j. Squad
This is usually a small group, of around 3 to 8 people, who work as a team to accomplish their
goals.
k. Team
Similar to a squad, though a team may contain many more members. A team works in a similar
way to a squad.
l. In-group
m. Out group
4. Accepted norms and values with reference to matters relevant to the group;
a. Core participants
There are usually as small group of people who quickly adapt to online interaction and provide a
large proportion of an online group's activity. Some speculate that 10% of the membership make
up 90% of the community activity. These individuals visit frequently and post often. They are
important members. Understanding and meeting their needs will go a long way to making your
community successful. They can be a source of volunteer leadership (hosts, cybrarians, greeters)
and ideas for improving the community. Ask them what they think, need and want to do. On the
flip side, be careful that they do not dominate and make it hard for less active folks to participate
b, Readers/Lurkers
Readers or Lurkers are the unseen forces that DO affect a community. Community
owners estimate that there are approximately 10 to 100 readers per active poster. They
represent a combination of people new to the community, those not yet comfortable in posting,
people who will only read and never post, and people who come in and then drift away without
engaging. This group represents a huge pool of potential active members. Gentle efforts to pull
them in with welcoming email, offering of guides, greeters or mentors and other efforts are well
rewarded. The readers also play another very important role: audience to the active posters,
especially in larger, open, social communities. For commercial communities that rely on page
views to drive advertising revenues, readers are indispensable.
People who post frequently influence the pace of an online interaction space and can,
unknowingly and unintentionally, dominate that space making it harder for others to participate.
Most often, dominators don't know they are dominating. Facilitators can gently ask via email for
the member to give others a little more time to respond, while also acknowledging their
important contribution, for the line between core member and dominator is pretty fuzzy.
Dominators can often be given productive roles to take advantage of their interest and time, such
as volunteer hosts or content experts.
The bumblebees and butterflies! This group of people is very important in larger communities
where there may be a large selection of conferences and topics from which to choose. These
members tend to participate across a range of interests, and in doing so, are in the best position to
let others know of interesting happenings across the community. They make wonderful greeters
and mentors, and often have interest in bringing new resources to a community as cybrarians. They
keep spaces from getting dull or stale. On the other hand, they can disrupt slower, deeper
conversations with their "flitting" in and out.
e. Flamers
Flamers live, as they say, to flame. Flaming is defined as sending hostile, unprovoked messages .
What is actually considered a flame varies by community, but often there are people who enjoy
challenging other members just for the "fun of it." Name-calling, innuendo and such are the tools
of flamers. The interesting dynamic of flaming is that to an extent, it draws community interest as a
form of entertainment. At the other end, it drives people away if it goes over the line of community
norms. Flamers can also be the source of new ideas which, when applied within community norms,
creating what is known as "creative abrasion" and can be helpful in workgroups and brainstorms.
Some people very successfully develop online personas with "bigger than" life personalities and
characteristics. They may be the online version of the "Class Clown, " the humorist or one-line
master, or just have a unique way of communicating that stands out. These are strong attractors of
community attention, especially in social communities. They can help lighten the atmosphere for a
community, helping balance tense situations and introduce ways for people to reveal more about
themselves in a potentially less threatening manner. When they push too hard against community
norms, they can be perceived as negative influences for two main reasons: interrupting "serious"
threads or conversations, and for not knowing when to quit based on group norms (usually
unspoken norms.)
g. Energy Creatures
Perhaps the most famous archetype in online communities, the Energy Creature is an individual
who so irritates a community that they form up around him or her to try and counteract the
"creature's" energy. They community may try shunning the energy creature, but often get pulled
into the vortex and become energy creatures themselves. At their worst, energy creatures can
destroy a conversation or community. At their best, they are often caricatured mirrors of the
community, helping us recognize our own potentially negative patterns. They can be catalysts for
groups to break through to a deeper level of communication. Sometimes they can even wake up a
sleeping group.
Defenders sometimes defend an individual (sometimes to the point of being perceived as a slavish
defender) or groups. They can be hypersensitive to the smallest slight or suggestion of attack,
perhaps because of previous experiences. They may also have highly developed intuitive skills,
which can be very productive for a community and serve as an "early warning" signal of a
changing community dynamic.
i. Needlers
It only takes one line, repeated, inserted, and insinuated, over time, to recognize a needler. They
have a point to make and it appears again, and again, and again. Often in the form of a cynical "I
told you so," Needlers know they are right and won't let you forget it. Their point may be insightful
or irrelevant, but the value of the point is quickly lost on an audience who gets fatigued from the
repetition. This is different from a spammer because the point is often "on point." But it can loose
its power and context, regardless of the quality. In some cases, this may be from a visionary who is
ahead of her/his time, who needles with the best interest of the group in mind. Other times it is
from a person who will not budge from their stance. Needlers can also keep us "honest" by not
letting a group evade critical issues or behaviors. They can be bellwethers of new ideas.
j. Newbies or NewBees
Sometimes called "clueless newbies," newbies (or New Bees, as I like to call them) are members
new to a community. They might also be new to online interaction. When new folks jump into an
online interaction without checking it out, observing the interaction or learning the community
norms, they can be perceived as rude and clueless. In some communities, newbies are treated to
a baptism of fire by old hands as a way of either being accepted or rejected from the group.
Newbies are also the source of new blood, ideas, interest and "pollination," thus the new-bee
appellation. Newbies deserve our attention and should be supported with information to help
them become part of the group.
k. PollyAnnas
Also known as the PC (politically correct) Police. PollyAnnas also operate across a range of
"acceptable" behavior, from being a source of appreciation of community members, to the being
"nice" at the expense of being honest or "real." They see the bright side to most anything, so they
can be a positive influence. However, Pollyannas drive some people so nuts they will leave a thread
just to escape. PollyAnnas avoid conflict and withdraw before clarity is reached because they are
averse to conflict.
l. Spammers
Spammers post the same thing over and over again. Often, it is commercial material with little or
no relevance to the community. Sometimes members start spamming as a reaction to feeling that
they are not being "heard." Sometimes it is simply a matter of ignorance of community norms and
the general disapproval of spam by experienced Internet users. Spammers should be contacted via
email immediately and asked to stop.
These are the people who present immutable positions. They appear to be initially unwilling to see
points of view beyond their own. They push instead of probe. They are usually willing to take the
blame for their style (ownership) but shy away from the responsibility of the impact of their style.
They engage only on their own terms, but may refuse to engage others who utilize the same
tactics. Interaction often escalates and winning is the goal. They also are keepers of important
information that the community may need, but not particularly liked. They ask the tough
questions, but may not like to be asked them back in return.
Sometimes characterized as wishy-washy, with no clear convictions, and as members who shrink
away from the tough issues. Often they won't fully engage or justify their positions. On the other
side, they often can help neutralize a polarized situation and offer new, combined viewpoints for a
community. They tend to carry new information into a group that has polarized on issues and can
be a breath of fresh air.
o. Untouchable Elders
We tend to thrust this archetype on others -- the expert, the guru -- and sometimes unconsciously
create a different set of rules or norms for the elder. Most often, the elder does not seek this
recognition. Elders may not held accountable to the same community norms or scrutiny of the
other members. Elders can dominate new members by a few words, regardless of the value of the
words of others around them. Their wisdom is gold to a community, but their influence can
inadvertently muzzle the rest of the group who might feel uncomfortable posting in such company.
b. Religion
c. Education
d. Scientific institutions
e. Hospitals
f. Legal systems
g. Penal systems
i. Military
l. Organisations
John B. Watson
Alfred Adler
Reference Websites:
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EDUCATION/8171566553.html
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