Chapter 7:

Applications of Thermodynamics to Flow

Processes

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Equations of Balance
Balance Equations for
General Equations of Balance Equations for
Single-Stream Steady-Flow
Balance Steady-Flow Processes
Processes

+∆ =0 ∆ =0 = =
(7.1) (7.2)
(2.25)

1
1 ∆ + + ∆
+∆ + + 2 ∆ + + ∆ = +
2 2
= +
= + (2.31a)
(2.29)
(2.27)

+∆
∆ − = ≥0 ∆ − = ≥0
,
− = ≥0 ,
, (5.17) (5.18)
(5.16)

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 7.1: Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
• Although momentum balances (equations of fluid dynamics)
are typically applied to pipe flow, thermodynamics provides
equations relating pressure, velocity, cross-sectional area,
enthalpy, entropy, and specific volume of a flowing stream
• Problems in compressible flow that do not require
momentum balances are within the scope of thermodynamics
• For adiabatic, steady-state, one-dimensional compressible
flow with no shaft work or changes in potential energy:
∆
∆ + =0
2
In differential form: =− (7.3)

• The continuity equation is also applicable:

5 4
4⁄5 = 0 or − − =0 (7.4)
5 4
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Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids (2)

• The appropriate fundamental property relation:
= +5 8 (6.9)
• Defining the specific volume as a function of S &P :
=5 =5
5= + 8
= >
=8 ?

• A more convenient form by mathematical identity:

=5 =5 =
=
= >
= >
= >

• Substituting in Eqns. (3.3) and (6.18) yields:

=5 @5
=
= >
A>
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 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids (3)
• From physics, the speed of sound, c, in a fluid is given by:
=8 =5 5
C = −5 → =−
=5 ?
=8 ?
C
• Substituting into the equation for dV :
5 @ 5
= − 8 (7.5)
5 A> C
• Combining Eqns. (6.9), (7.3), (7.4), and (7.5):
@
1−G 5 8+ 1+ − 4=0 (7.7)
A> 4
• Where G* is the Mach number, defined as the ratio of the speed
of the fluid in the duct to the speed of sound: G ≡ u/c
*Recommended symbol by IUPAC is Ma
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Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids (4)

• Relating Eqns. (6.9), (7.3) and (7.7) to eliminate VdP :
@
+G 1
A>
− + 4=0 (7.8)
1−G 1−G 4

• Together with Eqn. (7.3), this relates du, dS, dH, dA and dV
• If the preceding equations represent changes along a length dx,
then dividing (7.7) and (7.8) by dx creates:
8 @ 4
5 1−G + 1+ − =0 (7.9)
N A> N 4 N
@
+G 1 4
A>
− + =0 (7.10)
N 1−G N 1−G 4 N

• The 2nd Law, applied to adiabatic flow, implies ⁄ N≥0

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 Pipe Flow
• For constant cross-sectional area, dA/dx = 0, these become:
@
8 1+
A>
=−
N 5 1−G N
@
+G
A>
=
N 1−G N
• For subsonic flow, G2 < 1, and all terms on the right-hand side
of each equation are positive, hence:
8
< 0 and >0
N N

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 Nozzles
• Well-designed nozzles have areas that change in a way that
makes the flow nearly frictionless. In the limit of reversible
flow, dS/dx = 0, transforming Eqns. (7.9) and (7.10) into:
8 1 4
=
N 54 1 − G N
1 4
=−
N 4 1−G N
• Characteristics of nozzle flow for G < 1 or G > 1:
Subsonic: G < 1 Supersonic: G > 1

Converging Diverging Converging Diverging

dA/dx - + - +
dP/dx - + + -
du/dx + - - +
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Nozzles (2)
Subsonic: M < 1 Supersonic: M > 1

Converging Diverging Converging Diverging

dA/dx - + - +

dP/dx - + + -

du/dx + - - +

• Thus, in typical industrial applications, for subsonic flow:

– Velocity increases and pressure decreases in converging flow
– Converging flow can deliver a constant flow into regions of variable P

• For converging/diverging nozzles, the velocity can increase

from subsonic to supersonic locally, creating a shockwave
downstream of the nozzle
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 Converging/Diverging Nozzles

• Assume the cross-sectional area before and after the nozzle are
the same
• Define the inlet pressure as P1 and the discharge pressure as P2
• The relationship between velocity and pressure in an isentropic
nozzle can be expressed analytically for the ideal-gas state and
constant heat capacities
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Converging/Diverging Nozzles (2)

• Combining Eqns. (6.9) and (7.3) for isentropic flow gives:

= −5 8
• Integration, defining nozzle entrance and exit as 1 and 2:
>S VW ⁄V
2U8 5 8
− = −2 R 5 8 = 1− (7.11)
>T U−1 8

• Eqn. (7.11) can be solved for the pressure ratio for which u2
reaches the speed of sound, i.e., where:
=8
= C = −5
=5 ?

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 Converging/Diverging Nozzles (3)
=8
= C = −5
=5 ?

• Taking a derivative of Eqn. (3.23c) with respect to V :

85 V = const. (3.23Y)
=8 U8
=−
=5 ?
5
• Substitution into the top equation:
= U8 5
• Substitution into Eqn. (7.11) and with u1 = 0, 8 ⁄8 becomes:
V⁄ VW
8 2
= (7.12)
8 U+1
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Throttling Processes

• Throttling process: when a fluid flows through a restriction,

such as an orifice, a partly closed valve or a porous plug,
without any appreciable change in kinetic or potential energy
• Primary result: pressure drop in the fluid
• Produces no shaft work, and in the absence of heat transfer:
∆ =0 or =
• The process is therefore isenthalpic, or occurring at constant
enthalpy
• In the ideal-gas state there is no change in temperature
• For a real-gas, typically temperature decreases, but not always

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 Throttling Process Calculations
• For processes involving superheated steam, use the
superheated steam tables (Appendix E.2)
• Assuming the inlet (1) and outlet (2) pressures are known, as
well as the inlet temperature:
– Look up H1, which will be equal to H2 for a throttling process
– At P2, skim through the temperatures until you find an enthalpy value
close to H1
– Interpolate between the appropriate table entries to determine the
actual final temperature, T2 for which H = H1 at P = P2
– If the exit state is in VLE (H1 is between Hl and Hv at P2), interpolate
between saturated liquid and vapor conditions to determine the
exhaust quality (vapor fraction)

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Throttling Process Calculations (2)

• For superheated vapors for which tabulated data are
unavailable, an iterative process is required, starting with :
\ ]^ \
∆ =− + A> − + =0
_

• Assuming the inlet (1) and outlet (2) pressures and inlet
temperature are known:
\
1) Evaluate using the appropriate correlations in Chapter 6
]^
2) Initially assume = to determine an initial value of A>
_
\
3) Given this initial guess for , determine
]^ \
4) Solve for using the equation below, re-evaluate A> and
_
and iterate
\ \
−
= +
]^
A>
_
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 Joule/Thomson Coefficient, µ

• The sign of the temperature change in the throttling of a real

gas is determined by the sign of the derivative below, known
as the Joule/Thomson coefficient:
=
a=
=8 _

• When µ > 0, throttling results in a temperature decrease

• When µ < 0, throttling results in a temperature increase
• By mathematical identity:
W
= = = = = 1 =
=− =− =−
=8 _
= >
=8 b
= >
=8 b
A> =8 b

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Joule/Thomson Coefficient, µ (2)

• Because CP is always > 0, the sign of µ depends on = ⁄=8 b :
= =5
=5− (6.20)
=8 b
= >

• Substituting V = ZRT/P :
= f =g
=−
=8 b
8 = >

• Combining all these equations:

f =g
a=
A> 8 = >

• Thus, the sign of µ depends on the sign of =g⁄=8 b

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 Inversion Curves
• Locally, =g⁄=8 b can go
to 0 for real gases
• Plotting the points where
µ = 0, yields a boundary
between µ > 0 to µ < 0
• This boundary is called
an inversion curve
• Figure 7.2: solid line
correlates data for Ar,
CH4, N2, CO, C2H4, C3H8,
CO2, & NH3
• Dashed line is found
from the RK EOS
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 7.2: Turbines (Expanders)
• Turbines/Expanders: expansion of a gas in a nozzle to produce
a high-velocity stream where internal energy is converted to
kinetic energy which is then converted into shaft work when
the stream impinges on blades attached to a rotating shaft
• These typically consist of alternate sets of nozzles and rotating
blades through which vapor or gas flows in a steady-state
expansion process
• Overall: conversion of internal energy of a high-pressure
stream into shaft work
• Specifically, when steam is used, the device is called a turbine;
when some other high-pressure gas is used, it is often called
an expander

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Steady-State Flow Through a Turbine/Expander

• In a properly designed turbine, heat transfer and potential and

kinetic energy changes are negligible
• The resulting energy balances are then:
= ∆ = − 7.13
=∆ = − (7.14)
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 Ideal Turbine Operation
• Usually, the inlet conditions (T1 and P1) and the discharge
pressure (P2) are known or specified
• An ideal turbine would operate reversibly and adiabatically,
making the process isentropic: ∆S = 0, or = , fixing the
final state
• A reversible adiabatic turbine produces the maximum amount
of work possible for the specified conditions
hijk lmnhC = ∆ ? (7.15)

• (∆H)s represents ∆H for an isentropic process

• Actual turbines produce less work because of irreversibilities,
requiring the introduction of turbine efficiency:
o≡
(hijk lmnhC)
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Expansion in a Turbine/Expander

∆
o= (7.16)
∆
• Ideal process between 2
isobars with ∆S = 0
produces the largest ∆H
• In a real, irreversible
process, ∆S > 0,
yielding a smaller ∆H
• Typically, o ~ 0.7 − 0.8

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 Turbine/Expander Calculations
• For processes involving superheated steam, use the
superheated steam tables (Appendix E.2)
• Assuming P1, P2, and T1 are known:
– Look up H1 & S1 and assuming ∆S = 0, define the latter as equal to r

– At P2, skim through the temperatures until you find an entropy value
close to S1 = r
– Interpolate between the appropriate columns to determine the actual
final temperature, T2
– If the exit state is in VLE, interpolate between saturated liquid and
vapor conditions to determine the exhaust quality (vapor fraction)
– For the final state, interpolate for (or use the vapor fraction) to
determine r
– The difference between r
and H1 is the isentropic work:
r
− = (∆ ) = (hijk lmnhC)
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Turbine/Expander Calculations (2)

• For processes involving superheated steam, use the

superheated steam tables (Appendix E.2)
• Continuing from before:
– If the efficiency, o, is known, determine the real work:
=∆ =o ∆
– If the real final state is needed, then determine the real H2 :
= +∆ = +
– Skim steam stables to find calculated value of H2 at pressure P2
– Interpolate for the appropriate final temperature/vapor fraction
– If real ∆S is desired, interpolate for real S2 and find real ∆S

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 Turbine/Expander Calculations (3)

• For superheated vapors for which tabular property data is not

available, an iteration process is required, starting with the
assumption of isentropic behavior, i.e.:
\ ]^ 8 \
∆ =− + A> ln − f ln + =0 (6.75)
? 8
• Assuming P1, P2, and T1 are known:
\
1) Evaluate using the appropriate correlations in Chapter 6
2) For expanders, T2 is typically < T1, so assume some decrease to
]^
determine an initial value of A>
?
\
3) Given the initial guess for , determine

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Turbine/Expander Calculations (4)

• Continuing from previous page:

4) Solve for using the equation below :
\ \ 8
− + f ln
8
= exp
]^
A>
?
]^
5) Using this new T2, re-evaluate A> and \
and iterate for T2
?
r
6) Since this corresponds to an ideal case, this is actually
7) Determine (∆H)S from a variation of Eqn. (6.74):
]^ r \ \
∆ ? = A> − + −
_
8) Given the turbine efficiency, then: =∆ =o ∆

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 Turbine/Expander Calculations (5)

• Continuing from before:

9) If the real final temperature is desired, iterate through Eqn. (6.74):
]^ \ \
? = A> − + −
_

r ]^ \
10) Using the previously determined , A> and (from steps 6 &
_
7), solve for T2 using the following equation:
\
?+ − \
= +
]^
A>
_
]^
11) Using this new T2, re-evaluate A> and \
and iterate for T
_
12) The final state, T2, is finally known!

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 7.3: Compression Processes

• Compression processes bring about pressure increases

• Compressors, pumps, fans, flowers, and vacuum pumps are all
devices designed for this purpose – all vital for fluid transport
• Compression of gases to moderate pressures is typically
brought about by rotating blades (rotary equipment)
• Compression of gases to high pressures requires reciprocating
pistons
• Pumps (not compressors) are used for liquids

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Steady-State Flow Through a Compressor

• The energy equations for compressing gases are identical to

those for turbines and expanders:
= ∆ = − 7.13
=∆ = − (7.14)
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 Ideal Compressor Operation
• Usually, the inlet conditions (T1 and P1) and the discharge
pressure (P2) are fixed/known
• Ideally, like turbines, compressors operate reversibly and
adiabatically, thus isentropically: ∆S = 0, or = , fixing the
final state
• The isentropic (adiabatic and reversible) compressor requires
the minimum amount of work for compression of the gas
hijk lmnhC = ∆ ? (7.15)
• Actual compressors require more work because of
irreversibilities, requiring the introduction of compressor
efficiency:
(hijk lmnhC)
o≡
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Adiabatic Compression Process

∆
o= (7.17)
∆
• Ideal process between 2
isobars with ∆S = 0,
produces the lowest ∆H
• In a real, irreversible
process, ∆S > 0,
yielding a larger ∆H
• Typically, o ~ 0.7 − 0.8

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 Compressor Calculations

• Because expanders and compressors operate similarly, the

calculation process is almost identical, except pressure
increases produce temperature increases
• Using steam tables, follow the procedures used for turbines
(and expect a temperature increase this time)
• When tabulated properties are unavailable, follow the same
procedures as expanders, with two exceptions:
bS
– Because T2 > T1, initially guess something like = 1.01
bT

– Once ∆ is known, use the compressor efficiency to determine the

real work: =∆ = ∆ /o

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 Pumps
• Pumps, typically rotating equipment, are used to increase the
pressure of liquids
• Determination of the shaft work derives from the
fundamental property relation in Eqn. (6.9) for an isentropic
process: = 5 8 (Cmki )
• Combining with Eqn. (7.15):
>S
hijk lmnhC = ∆ ? =R 5 8
>T

• Far from the critical point where liquid volume can be

assumed independent of P (i.e. for an incompressible fluid):
hijk lmnhC = 5 8 − 8 (7.24)
• As with compressors, o = ∆ ⁄∆ (7.17)
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Pumps (2)
• When liquid cannot be considered incompressible, use
equations for liquids from Chapter 6:
= A> + 1−@ 5 8 (6.27)

= A> − @5 8 (6.28)

• Because temperature changes in the pumped fluid are very

small and becauseV and @ are insensitive to pressure (far
from the critical point), the above equations are typically
directly integrated:
∆ = A> ∆ + 1 − @ 5∆8 (7.25)

∆ = A> ln − @5∆8 (7.26)

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 7.4 Synopsis
After thorough study of this chapter, including working through example and end-of-
chapter problems, one should be able to:

• Apply relationships between thermodynamic quantities to flow processes such as

flow through pipes and nozzles
• Understand the concept of choked flow and the mechanism by which
converging/diverging nozzles produce supersonic flows
• Analyze throttling processes, and define and apply the Joule/Thomson coefficient
• Compute the work produced by a turbine (expander) of given efficiency expanding a
fluid from a known initial state to a known final pressure
• Define and apply isentropic efficiencies for both processes that produce work and
processes that require work input
• Compute the work required to compress a gas from a given initial state to a final
pressure, using a compressor with known efficiency
• Determine changes in all thermodynamic state variables for compression and
expansion Processes
• Compute work requirements for pumping liquids
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