EFFECT OF INTRA-ROW SPACING ON THE GROWTH AND YIELD OF TWO

VARIETIES OF GROUNDNUTS: A REVIEW

BY

MIRACLE LAZARUS

KASU/18/AGR/1042

DEPARTMENT OF CROP SCIENCE

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE

KADUNA STATE UNIVERISTY KAFANCHAN CAMPUS

JUNE 2024
 ABSTRACT

Groundnut production in Kafanchan, Nigeria, faces limitations due to various factors, with

improper intra-row spacing being a significant contributor. This study investigates the impact of

intra-row spacing on the growth and yield performance of two distinct groundnut varieties. The

research aims to identify the optimal spacing for each variety to maximize yield potential within

the Kafanchan region.

 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) also known as peanut in North and South America (Gadhiya et

al., 2014). Groundnut belongs to the family Leguminosae and sub-family Papilionoideae. It is an

annual legume and one of the world’s most important oilseed crops (Mukhtar et al., 2013). The

genus Arachis comprises of over 80 described species and is divided into nine taxonomic

sections:Trierectoides Erectoides, Procumbentes, Rhizomatosae, Heteranthae, Caulorrhizae,

Extranervosae Triseminatae and Arachis (Rami et al., 2013). Groundnut is the thirteenth world

food crops. It is position fourth in oil generation or palatable oil after soybean, rapeseed, and

cottonseed and third vegetable most important protein (Food and Agricultural Organisation,

2017a). Groundnut has been discovered to have originated from South America and later spread

to Brazil (Zhao et al., 2012). It was acquainted by Portuguese from Brazil to West Africa and

afterward to South Western India in the sixteenth Century, in the present day; the groundnut is

grown in practically every one of the nations of the world (Anjana et al., 2016). It is grown in all

continents with a complete region of 24.6 million hectares, and a production of 41.3 million tons

(FAO, 2013). In Africa, about 11.7 million hectares of land is utilized for groundnut production

and 10.9 million tons of yearly generation. The importance of this crop cannot be over

emphasised; it is utilized for diverse purposes; it is a good source of cooking oil, frying, salad,

margarine and groundnut butter. It is a cash crop broadly developed in all the tropical and sub

tropical locales of the world for direct use as nourishment, for oil, and for the high protein meal

produced after oil extraction.

The seeds have palmitic, oleic and linoleic acids representing about 90% of total fatty acids at

seed maturity (Engin et al., 2018). Groundnut is a good sources of vitamins E, K, and B(the

richest source of thiamine and niacin) and other basic minerals (Kassa et al., 2009). Groundnut

cake after oil extraction is especially utilized for animal feeding with high protein content . It

was reported that consuming groundnut at least four times a week demonstrated a 37% decreased

danger of heart disease. Studies also indicated that groundnut contain anticancer activity with

half hindrance of expansion of related leukemia cells (Hwang et al., 2008). Efforts have been

made by several researchers to improve the quality and quantity of the available groundnut

varieties.

Despite it's many advantages, groundnut production is limited by a variety of biotic and abiotic

factors. Weak acceptance of improved agronomic cultural practices is a major aspect of crop

production and management that restricts productivity and reduce yield income farmers. The

usage of improved varieties, and the implementation of the acceptable seeding rates and spacing,

weed control and fertilizer application will help improve productivity. The most (majority) of

farmers depend on unimproved local varieties that produce low yields and are susceptible to

pests and diseases ( Ibrahim et al., 2019).

In Nigeria, groundnut cultivation serves both forage and seed purposes. Nigeria dedicates

between 1.0 to 2.5 million hectares annually to groundnut cultivation, with yields ranging from

500 to 3000 kg per hectare. Groundnut production in Nigeria plays a vital role in the country’s

agriculture and economy. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Nigeria

ranks among the top producers of groundnut globally, with significant production concentrated

in the northern states, including Kaduna State. This study intents to study the effect of intra-row

spacing on the growth and yield of two varieties of groundnut in kafanchan, Kaduna state.
1.2 Statement of the Problem

Inadequate spacing has been a factor in the declining yield of groundnut in the study area. One

crucial factor influencing yield is intra-row spacing, the distance between individual plants

within a row. The problem lies in finding the optimal intra-row spacing for groundnut production

that can been use to increase the yield of groundnut.

1.3 Justification of the Study

Studying the effect of intra-row spacing on different varieties of groundnut in kafanchan is

valuable for several reasons. Firstly, it helps optimize yield and productivity by determining the

most suitable spacing for each variety in the local condition of kafanchan. Secondly, it provides

insight about crop management practices that can enhance productivity, such as water and

nutrient usage. Additionally, it contributes to the agricultural research by expanding our

understanding of how agronomic practices, like spacing, interact with genetic traits to influence

crop performance. Studies have shown that closer intra-row spacing can initially lead to higher

plant populations. However, excessive crowding can cause competition for light, hindering

photosynthesis and potentially reducing pod yield. Mani et al. (2021) [1] observed that wider

spacing (25cm) resulted in better growth parameters compared to closer spacing (15cm) in

groundnut varieties. Optimal spacing allows for better utilization of resources like water and

nutrients. Closer spacing might restrict individual plant access to these vital elements, impacting

growth and ultimately, yield.

1.4 Objective of the Study

The Study was set out to review the work of other researchers on the effect of intra-row spacing

on the growth and yield of two varieties of groundnut.

1. The effect of intra-row spacing on the growth and yield of groundnut in kafanchan.

2. The effect of variety on the growth and yield of groundnut in kafanchan.

3. The effect of interaction between intra-row spacing and variety on the growth and yield

of groundnut in kafanchan.
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Botany and Distribution of Groundnut

The cultivated groundnut or peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) originated in South America. The

term Arachis is derived from the Greek word "arachos", meaning a weed, and hypogaea,

meaning underground chamber, i.e. in botanical terms, a weed with fruits produced below the

soil surface. There are two most common names used for this crop i.e. groundnut or peanut. The

term groundnut is used in most countries of Asia, Africa, Europe and Australia, while in North

and South America it is commonly referred to as peanut. The term groundnut refers to the pods

with seeds that mature underground; the connotation of peanut is because this crop belongs to the

leguminous family which includes also other crops such as peas and beans. It is a legume crop

and not related to other nuts (e.g. walnut, hazelnut or cashews). The terminology of nut is used

due its unusual growing habit where flowers are formed above ground (soil) and after

fertilization the gynoecium penetrates the soil and forms pods which contain seeds (kernels). In

this manuscript the term groundnut will be used due its wider acceptance. The earliest

archaeological records of groundnuts in cultivation are from Peru, dated 3750-3900 years before

present (BP). Groundnuts were widely dispersed through South and Central America by the time

Europeans reached the continent, probably by the Arawak Indians. There is archaeological

evidence of their existence from Mexico, dated 1300-2200 BP. After European contact,

groundnuts were dispersed world-wide. The Peruvian runner type was taken to the Western

Pacific, China, Southeast Asia and Madagascar. The Spanish probably introduced the Virginia

type to Mexico, via The Philippines, in the sixteenth century. The Portuguese then took it to
Africa, and later to India, via Brazil. Virginia types apparently reached the Southeast US with the

slavetrade. Gibbons et al. (1972) noted substantial secondary diversity in Africa and Asia.The

types they found and their locations supported these various conjectures regarding dispersal.

2.2 Economic Importance of Groundnut

In some continents for example, Asia, Africa and South America, accounted for 97% of the

global groundnut territory and 95% production industrially; the oil produce from the seed is

utilized in manufacturing industries for the production of lubricants and other items such as

shaving cream, soap and plastics. In addition to the global analysis, Taru et al. (2010) reported

that 50 percent of total groundnut production is used for oil extraction, 37% for confectionery

use and 12 percent for seed production globally. The seed cake, haulms (vegetable plant part)

gives extraordinary hay which has been used for livestock feed and fertilizer and shell have been

used as filter for wallboard band

Insulators (Taru et al., 2010).

2.3 Nutritional Importance

Groundnut is a major annual oilseed crop and a good source of protein. Reddy indicated that the

seed of groundnut contains 25 to 32% protein and the cake, the residue after oil extraction, 46-

60% protein. The defatted meal after oil extraction is an ingredient in livestock feeds, added to

several food preparations like bread, biscuits, cookies and cereal based preparations for infants to

improve the diets of malnourished people in developing countries.

Sugars in groundnut seed play an important role as precursors in the production of the typical

roasted groundnut flavour. Seed sugars provide a source of carbon for the production of flavour

compounds. Sucrose, upon hydrolysis, produces fructose and glucose, which upon heating can

react with some specific amino acids to form flavour components. The flavour of the roasted

groundnut plays an important role in its acceptance by consumers and other users. Flavour also

plays an important role in the acceptability of groundnut products such as peanut butter. (Newell

et al., 1976) noted that free amino acid and free sugars are important precursors of groundnut

flavour.

2.4 Cultural Practices

2.4.1 Planting time

The time of sowing has a considerable influence on growth and yield of groundnut. Early sowing

in the season may encourage higher vegetative growth which may invite various diseases and

pests. However, delayed sowing may shrink the vegetative phase, which in turn reduces dry

matter accumulation leading to poor partitioning to reproductive parts and ultimately poor

realization of the potential yield. The optimum time of sowing and promising varieties are the

backbone to catch potential yield of groundnut. As the crop is grown under rainfed conditions,

adequate soil moisture is required during pegging and pod development stages, to get better

yield.

2.4.2 Method of planting

Groundnuts can be planted using a number of methods which include planting on flat ground

(FG), earthing up after plant on flat ground (EFG), planting on raised bed (RB) and planting on

R (Olayinka et al., 2015). Earthing up is the raising of the soil around the plant in order to cover
the pegs, depending on the cultivar (Mhungu and Chiteka, 2010). Nevertheless, planting simply

on FG is the most common method practised in smallholder sectors. Farmers consider EFG,

making R or RB to be laborious and time consuming.

2.4.3 Soil nutrient requirement

Light, sandy loam soil is favored for the production of groundnut. Temperature of 30 ⁰c is

viewed as the ideal for fast germination and development of pods (Chandran et al., 2016). The

soil should also be light colored. This shows that it is relatively low in organic matter, which

averts parasitic maladies. It additionally implies that the soil will not stain the pods, which can

reduce the market value of the crop if it is solid in the pod. The pH ought to be 5.5 to 7.0

(slightly acidic to neutral). Groundnut cannot tolerate saline soils (Desmae and sones, 2017).

2.4.4 Climate requirement

Groundnut requires between 250 to 1,000 mm of rain during the developing time frame: very

early maturing groundnut varieties need 250-400 mm; early varieties 300-500 mm; late maturing

varieties 500-1,000mm. In the event that the rainfall is above 1,000 mm at that point groundnut

should be grown on ridges unless the soil is much drained (Desmae and Sones, 2017). In

addition, the ideal temperatures for growing groundnut should be between 25-30◦C. Ideal

temperatures above 35◦C are not favorable to groundnut production. Under lower temperatures,

the germination is delayed; the delay in germination exposes the seeds to soil pathogen attack for

a longer period. At temperature below 17◦C, crop growth almost ceases. The limit for

germination of groundnut is around 18◦C, however, temperatures between 20-30◦C results in

ninety-five percent (95%) germination.

2.4.5 Fertilizer requirement

Groundnut being an oilseed crop is most defenseless to phosphorus shortages, which bring about

nitrogen just as potassium insufficiency; fertilizer requirement of groundnut includes Single

Super Phosphate (SSP) and gypsum essentially (Manan and Sharma, 2018). The general fertilizer

recommendation of NPK kg ha-1 is: 25 kg of N - 50 kg of Phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) - 100

kg of Potassium oxide (K2O). However for realistic purposes two bags of NPK 15:15:15 in

addition to two bags of Single Super Phosphate (SSP) and a bag of Muriate of Potash (MOP) can

be applied per ha. If the groundnut crop follows a well-fertilized cereal crop at that point two

bags of SSP might be adequate per ha. Application of 400 kg ha-1 gypsum at peak

flowering/pegging stage both improves the seed filling and builds the oil content (Ajeigbe et al.,

2014). Due to shortage and significant expense of chemical fertilizer the utilization of poultry

manure is an alternative which additionally have demonstrated beneficial outcome on the yield

of groundnut (Ibrahim et al., 2016). Poultry manure is an outstanding source of organic manure

which contains high nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium and other significant nutrients (Ibrahim et

al., 2016).

2.4.6 Weed management

Groundnut does not contend well with weeds and yields will be brutally reduced if the crop is

not effectively weeded, especially during the first 3-6 weeks after sowing (Ajeigbe et al., 2014).

There is therefore a need for early weed control for better yield. The normally yield misfortune

because of weeds has been accounted for 30 percent and may reach up to 60 percent under poor

management practices. Sharma et al. (2015) additionally reported that when weeds are not
controlled viably it will prompt overwhelming misfortune during harvesting by intermingling

with and breaking pods from plants. It is therefore important to control weeds on groundnut

fields using cultural, mechanical, physical or chemical methods, particularly during the first six

weeks after sowing.

2.4.7 Harvesting

Groundnut is an indeterminate plant, so the pod maturity is not homogeneous (Saxena et al.,

2014). They further added that, in choosing the best harvest date, a farmer must explore his/her

crops all the time, as the groundnut plant usually gives an indication of when tharvest. According

to Ajeigbe et al. (2014) groundnut matured between 80-120 days; some of the indications of

maturity are;

Pod colour: inner walls display a dark-brown colour as a result of darkening of the inner tissue of

the hull. At the point when 75 percent of the pods of the selected number of plants have reached

maturity by showing the dark discoloration, harvesting can begin. The external wall of the pods

should show different shades on the inner cell layer when scraped with a blade. The colours are

white on the immature and yellow pods, and orange, light brown or black on mature pods.

Harvesting can be done when 70 percent of the pods show the other colours except white.

Seed colour: the colour of seeds in the pods can likewise be utilized as a sign. Young, immature

seed is usually white in colour and changes to pink and dull pink as the seed matures.

Leaves: the leaves develop a yellow colour and are dry at the tips.Prevailing weather conditions:

these can impact the assurance of the harvest date since they influence quality. Drought decides

the harvest date when the soil is desiccated to such a degree that the plant withers and the seeds
in the pods begin to shrivel and take on a ripe appearance. Such groundnuts must be harvested

immediately.

Effect of row spacing on the growth and yield of peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) stands : A

Review by M. A. Awal*, Lija Aktar (2015).

Among the various factors that influence the yield of peanut, plantation with proper row spacing

is very important. Planting density is one of the main factors that plays an important role on

growth, yield and quality of peanut too. Nimje (1996) reported that accumulation of plant dry

matter and branch formation were found to be greater and yield attributes like pod/plant,

yield/plant and 1000-grain weight were the highest when the crop is grown with proper spacing.

Optimum spacing ensures proper growth of the aerial and underground parts of the plant through

efficient utilization of solar radiation, nutrients, water, land as well air spaces (Miah et al., 1990).

A large number of research works were conducted throughout the world in order to augment the

production of peanut. It was found that there is a proper spacing for planting of peanut beyond

which the crop can not produce better yield. Proper attention should therefore be given on

underlying concept as peanut has wider scopes for its cultivation in Bangladesh. Research reports

on response of row spacing on peanut crop are scarce in Bangladesh. Therefore, the experiment

was undertaken with a view to study the effect of row to row distance on the growth and yield of

peanut.
INFLUENCE OF VARIETY, INTRA-ROW SPACING AND IRRIGATION INTERVAL

ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF GROUNDNUT (Arachis hypogaea L.) AT SUDAN

SAVANNAH ZONE OF NIGERIA: A Review by *Ibrahim, A. M., Sanusi, J. and Adesoji,

A. G.(2021).

Groundnut is unique because the plant and its produce have a wide range of uses in the daily life

of the people as well as in the various industries. The roots of the plant help to enrich the soil and

the vines serve as excellent fodder for cattle. The nuts, in addition to being the most

consequential source of edible oil, are useful in numerous ways. It is one of the most important

crops that have the ability to thrive on newly reclaimed sandy soils as a legume of high nutritive

value as well as being a source of edible oil Desire, et al., (2010). Although groundnut is grown

mainly for its seed, with some 40-50% oil content, all other plant parts are useful as food or

animal feed Ahmad, et al., (2007).However,Arslan, (2005) considered groundnut haulm as the

most important of its by-products that can be used to supply feed to livestock and its hay

providing extra income to small holder farmers. Despite the availability of improve groundnut

varieties which are high yielding, early maturing (80-90 days), high in oil content of about (46-
49%) and disease/drought resistant varieties farmers in Nigeria still use local/unimproved

varieties, thus resulting in low yield of groundnut, poor use of agronomic practice such as inter

and intra-row spacing as well as non- usage of irrigation method for groundnut production may

result in low productivity. Therefore non usage of irrigation condition and irrigation interval,

poor soil fertility and use of unimproved groundnut varieties are some of the limiting factors in

achieving desirable groundnut yield. However, this trial was carried-out to investigate the effect

of variety, intra-row spacing and irrigation interval on the performance of groundnut (Arahis

hypogaea Linn.c) at Sudan Savannah zone of Nigeria.

 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Experimental Site

The field trial will be conducted during the wet season of 2024 at the Research farm of the

Faculty of Agriculture, Kaduna state University, Kafanchan. (09 ⁰34’N and 08 ⁰ 18’ E) in the

southern Guinea savannah of Nigeria.

3.2 Treatments and Experimental Design

The experiment will be laid out in a factorial design in split plot in two factors (variety and

intra-row spacing) and will be replicated three times.

 Factor A: intra-row spacing (4 levels)

1. Level 1: 10cm

2. Level 2: 20cm

3. Level 3: 30cm

4. Level 4: 40cm

 Factor B: Groundnut variety (2 levels)

 1. Level 1: Variety 1 (V1): ICRISAT HB 12 (Gaurav) - Medium-duration, high-

yielding, tolerant to common diseases.

2. Level 2: Variety 2 (V2): TMV 2 (Kanika) - Early to medium maturity, very high

yielding, resistant to rust disease

S/N Block 1 Block Block 3

1 V1*T1 V1*T2 V1*T3

2 V2*T3 V1*T4 V2*T4

3 V1*T4 V3*T1 V3*T4

4 V2*T1 V3*T3 V2*T2

5 V3*T4 V3*T2 V2*T1

6 V1*T4 V2*T1 V3*T1

7 V2*T2 V1*T3 V1*T4

8 V3*T2 V2*T2 V3*T1

3.3 Plot Size

The gross plot size will be 1.6 meters*3 meters (4.82 square meters).Each plot will consist of

four ridges per plot. An alleyway of 1 meter will separate replications to minimize border effects.

3.4 Cultural Practices

3.4.1 Land preparation

The field for the experiment will be cleared and ploughed. Then experimental field will be

marked out using measuring tape, pegs and ropes. The land will be cleared using cutlass, hoe,

shovel and rake. Ridges will be made manually by the use of hoe after ploughing .Each plot will

consist of ridges, each measuring 400cm with an inter-row spacing of 50cm.Each replication will

be separated by an alley of 100cm.The intra-row spacing will be specified in the treatment.

Measuring tape and ropes will be used to aid in measuring out the actual bed size. A total of

twenty four(24) ridges will be made.

3.4.2 Planting

The groundnut will be planted on (state date) and will be sown on ridges at 1 seed per hole and

where later thinned to 2 seedlings per hole.

3.4.3 Fertilizer application

Compound fertilizer (N.P.K 15:15:15) will be applied 5 weeks after sowing (WAS) by drilling.

The fertilizer will be applied 10cm away from the crop.

3.4.4 Weed control

First weeding will be carried out 20-35 days after sowing this situation demands the use of

manual hoe.

Weeding will be carried out at least 3times.

3.4.5 Pests and diseases

Pest and diseases will be controlled by spraying of chemicals by the use of knapsack sprayer.

3.4.6 Harvesting

Harvesting will be done manually by the use of hand pulling or hoe when the crop had reached

maturity

3.5 Data Collection

Data will be collected on the following parameters.

3.5.1 Vegetative traits

Plant height (cm)

Plant height will be taken at the interval of two weeks with the help of a measuring tape. 5plants

will be randomly selected and tagged from where yield parameters will be taken. Measurement
will be taken the base the tip of each branch. The average height will be established and

expressed in centimeters per plant.

Germination percentage

The germination percentage will be calculated using the actual number of stands by the expected

number of stands multiplied by 100. Results will be established and recorded

Germination percentage% = number of stands counted x100

Number of leaves/plant

The number of leaves from each of the five tagged plants will be taken at two weeks intervals

after sowing. The average will be taken and expressed as the number of leaves per plant.

3.5.2 Yield traits

Number of pods per plant

The number of pods from each of the five plants will be taken after harvest. The average will be

taken and recorded.

Pod weight (kg/ha)

The weight of pods from each of the tagged plants will be taken after harvest using a weighing

scale. The average will be established and recorded.

100 grain weight (g)

It will be determined by weighing one hundred seeds from each net plot area. The weight will be

taken and recorded.

Total grain yield (tones/ha)

Grain yield from each plot will be recorded and expressed in tones per hectare (tones/ha).

3.6 Statistical Analysis

The data collected will be subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using statistics 10.0

statistical package. Means will be separated using Duncan multiple range test (DMRT).
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