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1 An Introduction to Machining 20 Precision Grinding ....................359
Technology ......................................1 21 Band Machining.........................387
2 Careers in Machining 22 Introduction to CNC
Technology ....................................13 Machining .................................. 403
3 Shop Safety .................................. 25 23 CNC Programming Basics ........417
4 Understanding Drawings .......... 33 24 CNC Milling ...............................431
5 Measurement ................................57 25 CNC Turning ............................. 445
6 I.,ayout ~orl<. ..................................85 26 Automated Manufacturing ..... 455
7 Hand Tools ....................................95 27 Quality Control ..........................467
8 Fasteners ......................................131 28 Metal Characteristics.................481
9 Jigs and Fixtures ......................... 147 29 Heat Treatment of Metals .........497
10 Cutting Fluids .............................153 30 Metal Finishing ..........................517
11 Sawing and Cutoff Machines ...159 31 Electromachining Processes.....531
12 Drills and Drilling Machines ...169 32 Nontraditional Machining
13 Offhand Grinding .................... 203 Techniques ..................................539
14 The I.,athe .....................................211 33 Other Processes ..........................551
15 Other I.,athe Operations ............251 Reference Section .................................570
16 Cutting Tapers and Screw Glossary of Technical Terms ............. 604
Threads on the I.,athe .................269
Acl<.nowledgments ...............................625
17 Broaching Operations ...............291 Index .......................................................626
18 The Milling Machine ................297
19 Milling Machine Operations ...327
••
VII
Copyright 2014 Goodheart-Willcox

CHAPTER 1 4. 3 Prints ............................................................. 40
An Introduction to Machining 4.4 Types of Drawings Used in the Shop ....... 41
Technology ................................................ 1 4. 5 Parts List ....................................................... 44
4.6 Drawing Sizes .............................................. 44
1.1 The Evolution of Machine Tools.................. 2
4.7 Geometric Dimensioning and
1.2 Basic Machine Tool Operation .................... 5 Tolerancing................................................... 45
1.3 Nontraditional Machining Processes ......... 8
1.4 Automating the Machining Process ........... 9 CHAPTER 5
1.5 The Evolving Role of the Machinist ......... 10 Measurement .......................................... 57
1.6 Acquiring Machining Skills and
Knowledge ................................................... 11 5.1 The Rule ....................................................... 58
5.2 The Micrometer Caliper ............................. 60
CHAPTER2 5.3 Vernier Measuring Tools ............................ 65
Careers in Machining Technology ...... 13 5.4 Gages ............................................................. '.i'O
5.5 Dial Indicators ............................................. '.i'2
2.1 Machining Job Categories .......................... 14
5.6 Other Gaging Tools ...................................... '.i'4
2.2 Preparing to Find a Job in Machining
5.7 Helper Measuring Tools ............................. '.i'8
Technology ................................................... 20
2.3 How to Get a Job ......................................... 21
2.4 Keeping Your Skills Current ..................... 23
CHAPTER6
Layout Work ............................................ 85
CHAPTER3 6.1 Making Lines on Metal .............................. 86
Shop Safety .............................................25 6. 2 Squares ......................................................... 90
6.3 Measuring Angles ....................................... 91
3.1 Safety in the Shop ....................................... 26
6.4 Simple Layout Steps .................................... 92
3.2 General Machine Safety ............................. 29
3.3 General Tool Safety ..................................... 30
3.4 Fire Safety .................................................... 30
CHAPTER7
Hand Tools ............................................... 95
CHAPTER4 7.1 Clamping Devices ....................................... 96
Understanding Drawings .....................33 7.2 Pliers ............................................................. 9'.i'
7.3 Wrenches ...................................................... 99
4.1 Dimensions .................................................. 36
7.4 Screwdrivers .............................................. 104
4.2 Information Included on Drawings ......... 3'.i'
7.5 Striking Tools ............................................. 105
•• •
VIII

•
Machining Fundamentals IX
7.6 Chisels ........................................................ 106 12.3 Drills ........................................................... 173

7.7 Hacksaw ..................................................... 109 12.4 Drill-Holding Devices .............................. 178
7.8 Files ..............................................................113 12.5 Work-Holding Devices ............................. 180
7.9 Reamers ....................................................... 117 12.6 Cutting Speeds and Feeds ....................... 183
7.10 Hand Threading ......................................... 119 12.7 Cutting Fluids ............................................ 186
7.11 Hand Polishing.......................................... 127 12.8 Sharpening Drills ...................................... 187
12.9 Drilling ....................................................... 190
CHAPTERS 12.10 Countersinking ......................................... 194
Fasteners ................................................131 12.11 Counterboring ........................................... 195
8.1 Threaded Fasteners ................................... 132
12.12 Spotfacing................................................... 196
8.2 Nonthreaded Fastening Devices ............. 140
12.13 Tapping ....................................................... 197
8.3 Adhesives ................................................... 142
12.14 Reaming ..................................................... 198
8.4 Using Adhesives ........................................ 144
12.15 Microdrilling ............................................. 199
CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 13
.gs
JI and Fi·xtures •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
147 Offhand Grinding ................................203
9.1 Jigs ............................................................... 148
13.1 Abrasive Belt Grinders ............................. 204
9.2 Fixtures ....................................................... 150
13.2 Bench and Pedestal Grinders .................. 205
9.3 Jig and Fixture Construction ................... 150
13.3 Grinding Wheels ....................................... 206
13.4 Abrasive Belt and Wheel Grinder
Safety .......................................................... 207
CHAPTER 10 13.5 Using a Dry-Type Grinder ....................... 208
Cutting Fluids .......................................153 13.6 Using a Wet-Type Grinder ....................... 208
10.1 Types of Cutting Fluids ............................ 154 13.7 Portable Hand Grinders ........................... 209
10.2 Application of Cutting Fluids .................. 156
10.3 Evaluation of Cutting Fluids ................... 157 CHAPTER 14
~he I.,athe ............................................... 211
CHAPTER 11 14.1 Lathe Size ................................................... 212
Sawing and Cutoff Machines ............159 14.2 Major Parts of a Lathe ............................... 212
11.1 Metal-Cutting Power Saws ...................... 160 14.3 Work-Holding Attachments .....................217
11.2 Power Hacksaw .......................................... 161 14.4 Work-Holding between Centers ...............217
11.3 Power Band Saw ........................................ 163 14.5 Using Lathe Chucks .................................. 223
11.4 Using Power Hacksaws and Band 14.6 Cutting Tools and Tool Holders .............. 227
Sc1..ws ............................................................ 1.6~ 14.7 Cutting Speeds and Feeds ....................... 234
11.5 Metal-Cutting Circular Saws ................... 166 14.8 Preparing Lathe for Operation ................ 237
11.6 Power Saw Safety ....................................... 167 14.9 Cleaning the Lathe .................................... 238
14.10 Lathe Safety ............................................... 238
CHAPTER 12 14.11 Facing Operations ..................................... 239
Drills and Drilling Machines ............169 14.12 Turning Operations .................................. 240
12.1 Drilling Machines ..................................... 170 14.13 Parting and Grooving Operations .......... 245
12.2 Drill Press Safety ....................................... 173

x Machining Fundamentals
Other Lathe Operations ......................251 Milling Machine Operations .............327
15.1 Boring on a Lathe ...................................... 252 19.1 Vertical Milling Machine ......................... 328
15.2 Drilling on a Lathe .................................... 253 19.2 Vertical Milling Machine Operations .... 328
15.3 Reaming on a Lathe .................................. 254 19.3 Milling Machine Care .............................. 337
15.4 Knurling on a Lathe .................................. 255 19.4 Horizontal Milling Machine Operations337
15.5 Filing and Polishing on a Lathe .............. 257 19.5 Cutting a Spur Gear .................................. 347
15.6 Steady and Follower Rests ....................... 258 19.6 Cutting a Bevel Gear................................. 351
15.7 Mandrels .................................................... 260 19.7 Thread Milling .......................................... 354
15.8 Grinding on the Lathe ............................... 261 19.8 Milling Machine Safety............................ 355
15.9 Milling on a Lathe ..................................... 264 19.9 Industrial Applications ............................ 356
15.10 Special Lathe Attachments ...................... 264 19.10 High-Velocity Machining ......................... 356
15.11 Industrial Applications of the Lathe ...... 264
CHAPTER20
CHAPTER 16 Precision Grinding ...............................359
Cutting Tapers and Screw Threads on 20.1 Types of Surface Grinders ........................ 360
the Lathe.................................................269 20.2 Work-Holding Devices ............................. 363
16.1 Taper Turning ............................................ 270 20.3 Grinding Wheels ....................................... 363
16.2 Measuring Tapers ......................................276 20.4 Cutting Fluids ............................................ 368
16.3 Cutting Screw Threads on the Lathe ...... 278 20.5 Grinding Applications.............................. 369
20.6 Grinding Problems ................................... 371
CHAPTER 17 20.7 Grinding Safety ......................................... 372
Broaching Operations .........................291 20.8 Universal Tool and Cutter Grinder ......... 372
20.9 Sharpening Cutters .................................... 374
17.1 Broaches and Broaching Machines......... 292
20.10 Cylindrical Grinding ................................ 377
17.2 Advantages of Broaching ......................... 294
20.11 Internal Grinding ...................................... 380
17.3 Keyway Broaching .................................... 294
20.12 Centerless Grinding .................................. 380
CHAPTER 18 20.13 Form Grinding .......................................... 382
20.14 Other Grinding Techniques..................... 382
The Milling Machine ..........................297
18.1 Types of Milling Machines ...................... 298 CHAPTER21
18.2 Milling Operations ................................... 303 Band Machining ...................................387
18.3 Milling Cutter Basics ................................ 304
21.1 Band Machining Advantages .................. 388
18.4 Types and Uses of Milling Cutters ......... 306
21.2 Band Blade Selection ................................ 389
18.5 Holding and Driving Cutters ...................313
21.3 Welding Blades .......................................... 391
18.6 Milling Cutting Speeds and Feeds .......... 316
21.4 Band Machine Preparation ...................... 393
18.7 Cutting Fluids .............................................319
21.5 Band Machining Operations ................... 395
18.8 Milling Work-Holding Attachments .......319
21.6 Band Machine Power Feed ...................... 396
18.9 Milling Safety Practices ........................... 323
21.7 Other Band Machining Applications ..... 398

Machining Fundamentals xi
21.8 Troubleshooting Band Machines ............ 400 CHAPTER26

21.9 Band Machining Safety ............................ 400 Automated Manufacturing.................455
26.1 Flexible Manufacturing Systems ............ 456
CHAPTER22
26.2 Robotics ...................................................... 458
Introduction to CNC Machining .......403
26.3 Safety in Automated Manufacturing ..... 461
22.1 History of CNC ......................................... 404 26.4 Rapid Prototyping Techniques ............... 461
22.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Using 26.5 The Future of Automated
CNC ............................................................ 404 Manufacturing .......................................... 464
22.3 CNC Milling Machines ............................ 405
22.4 CNC Turning Machines ........................... 407 CHAPTER 27
22.5 CNC Safety .................................................410 Quality Control.....................................467
22.6 CNC Coordinate Systems .........................411
27.1 The History of Quality Control ............... 468
22.7 CNC Movement Systems ......................... 413
27.2 Types of Quality Control ......................... 469
CHAPTER23 27.3 Nondestructive Testing Techniques ....... 470
27.4 Other Quality Control Techniques ......... 479
CNC Programming Basics ..................417
23.1 Developing CNC Programs ......................418 CHAPTER28
23.2 Programming Methods .............................419 Metal Characteristics ...........................481
23.3 CAD and CAM Software ......................... 421
28.1 Classifying Metals .................................... 482
23.4 CNC Programming Codes ...................... 424
28.2 Ferrous Metals ........................................... 482
23.5 CNC Modal Commands .......................... 425
28.3 Nonferrous Metals .................................... 489
28.4 High-Temperature Metals ........................ 493
CHAPTER24
28.5 Rare Metals ................................................ 493
CN C Milling .........................................431
28.6 Other Materials ......................................... 493
24.1 Miscellaneous Function Codes ............... 432
24.2 Work-Holding Devices ............................. 434 CHAPTER 29
24.3 Planning the Program······························ 435 Heat T,reatment
.lJ of Metals •••••••••••••••••••497
24.4 Initial Programming and Preparing the
Machine ...................................................... 436 29.1 Heat-Treatable Metals ............................... 498
24.5 Programming the Machining 29.2 Types of Heat Treatment .......................... 498
Operations .................................................. 438 29.3 Heat Treatment of Other Metals ............. 501
29.4 Equipment for Heat-Treatment................ 502
CHAPTER25 29.5 Hardening Carbon Steel .......................... 505
CN C Turning .........................................445 29.6 Tempering Carbon Steel ........................... 506
29.7 Case Hardening Low-Carbon Steel ........ 506
25.1 Work-Holding Devices for CNC Turning
Centers ........................................................ 446 29.8 Hardness Testing ...................................... 507
25.2 Planning for a CNC Turning Program .. 447 29.9 Heat Treatment Safety .............................. 513
25.3 Initial Programming ................................. 449
25.4 Programming the Machine Operations. 450

xii Machining Fundamentals
Metal Finishing .................................... 517 Other Processes ..................................... 551
30.1 Quality of Machined Surfaces .................. 518 33.1 Machining Plastics .................................... 552
30.2 Other Metal Finishing Techniques ......... 522 33.2 Chipless Machining .................................. 557
33.3 Powder Metallurgy ................................... 560
CHAPTER31 33.4 High-Energy-Rate Forming (HERF) ....... 562
Electromachining Processes ............... 531 33.5 Cryogenic Applications ............................ 566
31.1 Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) .... 532
31.2 Electrochemical Machining (ECM) ........ 536
Reference Section ................................. 570
Glossary of Technical Terms .............. 604

CHAPTER32
Nontraditional Machining Acknowledgments ............................... 625
Techniques ............................................. 539
32.1 Chemical Machining ................................ 540
Index .......................................................626
32.2 Hydrodynamic Machining (HDM) ........ 542
32.3 Ultrasonic Machining ............................... 543
32.4 Electron Beam Machining (EBM) ........... 546
32.5 Laser Beam Machining ............................ 547

CHAPTER
• •
1 1
Learning Objectives Technical Terms

After studying this chapter, you will be able to: broaching machine machinist
• Discuss h ow m odern machine technology computer numerical control milling machine
affects the workforce. (CNC) numerical control (NC)
drill press sawing machine
• Give a brief explanation of the evolution of
grinding machine skill standards
m achine tools.
lathe turning
• Provide an overview of machining processes. machine tools
• Explain how CNC machining equipment
operates.
• Describe the role of the machinist.
1
2 Machining Fundamentals
A study of technology will show that industry And no industry or country can hope to take
has progressed from the time when everything was advantage of the most advanced machine tools with-
made by hand to the present fully automated manu- out the aid of a machinist a person highly skilled
facturing of products. Machine tools have played an in the use of machine tools and capable of creating
essential role in all technological advances. the complex machine setups required of modem
Without machine tools, Figure 1-1, there manufacturing.
would be no airplanes, automobiles, television These high-paying skilled jobs in manufac-
sets, or computers. Many of the other industrial, turing, such as tool and die making and precision
medical, recreational, and domestic products we machining, require aptitudes comparable to those of
take for granted would not have been developed. college graduates. Jobs that require few or no skills
For example, if machine tools were not available have almost disappeared.
to manufacture tractors and farming implements,
farmers might still be plowing with oxen and hand-
forged plowshares. 1.1 The Evolution of Machine Tools
It is difficult to name a product that does not Machine tools are the class of machines which,
require, either directly or indirectly, the use of a taken as a group, can reproduce themselves (manu-
machine tool somewhere in its manufacture. Today, facture other machine tools). There are many varia-
no country can hope to compete successfully in a tions of each type of machine tool, and they are
global economy without making use of the most available in many sizes. Tools range from those small
advanced machine tools available. enough to fit on a bench top to machines weighing
several hundred tons.
The evolution of machine tools is somewhat akin
to the old question, ''Which came first, the chicken
or the egg?'' You could also ask, ''How could there
be machine tools when there were no machine tools
to make them?''
1.1.1 Early Machine Tools

The first machine tools, the bow lathe and bow
drill, were handmade and human-powered. They
have been dated back to about 1200 BC. Until the
end of the seventeenth century, the lathe could only
be used to tum softer materials, such as wood, ivory,
or at most, soft metals like lead or copper. Eventu-
ally, the bow lathe with its reciprocating (back-and-
forth) motion gave way to treadle power, which
made possible work rotation that was continuous in
one direction. Later, machines were powered by a
''great wheel'' turned by flowing water or by a per-
son or animal walking on a treadmill. Power was
transmitted from the wheel to one or more machines
by a belt and pulley system.
When inventor James Watt first experimented
with his steam engine, the need for perfectly bored
cylinders soon became apparent. This brought about
the development of the first true machine tool. It was
a form of the lathe and was called a ''boring mill,"
CNC Software, Inc. ©Copyright 1983-2013. Al/ rights reserved.
Figure 1-2. The water-powered tool was developed
Figure 1-1. Machine tools have made it possible to manufacture in 1774 by Englishman John Wilkinson.
parts with the precision and speed necessary for low-cost mass This machine was capable of turning a cylinder
production. Without machine tools, most products on the market
36'' in diameter to an accuracy of a ''thin-worn shilling''
today would not be available or affordable.

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Machining Technology 3
Waterwheel
Casting being
machined
Boring bar
DoALL Co.
Figure 1-2. The first true machine tool is thought to be the boring mill invented by John Wilkinson in 1774. It enabled James
Watt to complete the first successful steam engine. The boring bar was rigidly supported at both ends, and was rotated by
waterpower. It could bore a 36'' diameter cylinder to an accuracy of less than 1/16''.
(an English coin about the size of a modem US quar-

ter). However, operation of the boring mill, like all
metal cutting lathes at the time, was hampered by
the lack of tool control. The ''mechanic'' (the first
machinist) had to unbolt and reposition the cutting
tool after each cut.
About 1800, the first lathe capable of cutting
accurate screw threads was designed and con-
structed by Henry Maudslay, an English master
mechanic and machine toolmaker. As shown in
Figure 1-3, a handmade screw thread was geared
to the spindle and moved a cutting tool along the
work. Maudslay also devised a slide rest and fitted
it to his lathe. It allowed the cutting tool to be accu-
rately repositioned after each cut. Maudslay's lathe
is considered the ''granddaddy'' of all modem chip-
making machine tools.
In retrospect, the Industrial Revolution could DoALL Co.
not have taken place if there had not been a cheap, Figure 1-3. Henry Maudslay's screw-cutting lathe. This
convenient source of power: the steam engine. machine tool, constructed on a heavy frame, combined a
Until the advent of the steam engine, industry had master lead screw and a movable slide rest. The lead screw
had to be changed when a different thread pitch was required.
to locate near sources of water power. This was
often some distance from raw materials and work-
ers. With cheap power, industry could locate where
workers were plentiful and where the products they Until the boring mill and lathe were developed to
produced were needed. The steam engine, in tum, the point where metal could be machined with some
would not have been possible without machine tools. degree of accuracy, there could be no steam engine.

The milling machine was the next important

development in machine tools. It also evolved from
the lathe. In 1820, Eli Whitney, an American inven-
tor and manufacturer, devised a system to mass-
produce muskets (guns). Whitney began using a
milling machine, Figure 1-4, to make interchange-
able musket parts. Until then, muskets were made
individually by hand, so parts from one musket
would not fit in another. Whitney's milling machine
even had power feed, but it had one defect. There
was no provision to raise the worktable. The part
had to be raised by shimming after each cut. Since
each machine was used to produce the same part
again and again, this shortcoming was not a great
problem. This problem was quickly corrected.
Whitney had another problem, however. His
ideas were used in several armories producing gun
parts. There was no standard of measurement at that
DoALL Co.
time, so parts made in one armory were not inter-
changeable with parts made in another armory. It Figure 1-4. One of the first practical milling machines
was not until the mid-1860s that the United States manufactured in America. Eli Whitney used it and similar
machines to mass-produce musket parts that were
adopted a standard measuring system. interchangeable.
By 1875, basic machine tools such as the lathe,
the milling machine, and the drill press, Figure 1-5,
were capable of attaining accuracies of one one-thou- Factories were rapidly turned over from producing
sandth of an inch. America was well on its way to consumer goods to military hardware. Of special
becoming the greatest industrial nation in the world. importance to the war effort was the opening up
This proficiency in machining and manufactur- of heavy industry professions to women. This sup-
ing would help America greatly during World War II. plied the labor needed to produce the large quanti-
A large part of the United States' success in WWII ties of guns, ammunition, tanks, planes, and ships
was due to its distinct manufacturing advantage. necessary to win the war, Figure 1-6.
13 IN CH W £1CHTl:0 L ATH,11 . lllo. :, UPRICHJ1' li) R I\. L. , ll o. I 'M:ILI.INO MAOIOl'fli .
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher
Figure 1-5. Illustrations of Pratt & Whitney machine tools from an 1876 advertisement. Built from heavy iron castings, the
machines were driven by overhead pulleys and belting. A central steam engine or large electric motor powered the overhead
pulleys in factories until the 1920s.

• Foot power. A treadle or a treadmill made

possible continuous rotation of the work in
one direction.
• Animal power. Treadmills were used to
power early devices for boring cannon bar-
rels. Human foot power was not sufficiently
strong for this work.
• Water power. Not always dependable as a
power source, because of lack of water dur-
ing dry seasons.
• Steam power. The first real source of depend-
able power. A centrally located steam engine
turned shafts and overhead pulleys that were
belted to the individual machines.
Library of Congress, Prints & Photograph Division, FSA-OW/ Collection, LC-DIG-fsac-1 a34951 • Central electrical power. Large electric
Figure 1-6. Lathe operator machining parts for transport motors simply replaced the steam engines.
planes at the Consolidated Aircraft Corporation plant, Power transmission to the machines did not
Fort Worth, Texas.
change.
• Individual electrical power. Motors were
1.1.2 Power Sources built into the individual machine tools. Over-
head belting was eliminated.
As machine tools were improved, so was the way
they were powered. At first, the changes were very
slow, taking hundreds of years. The greatest changes
have come only in the last 150 years or so. The follow-
1.2 Basic Machine Tool Operation
ing are the various power sources used by machine Almost all machine tools have evolved from the
tools throughout history in the order they evolved: lathe, Figure 1-7. This machine tool performs one of
• Hand power. The bow lathe and bow drill are the most important machining operations, turning. It
examples. The direction of rotation changed operates on the principle of work being rotated against
at each stroke of the bow. the edge of a cutting tool, as shown in Figure 1-8.
'
_,_ -
Photo courtesy of Grizzly Industrial, Inc. www.grizzly.com
Figure 1-7. A modern lathe featuring chuck safety guard, foot brake, coolant system, inch/metric dials, and a universal gearbox
capable of cutting inch, metric, and diametral threads. Except those tools that perform nontraditional machining operations, all
machine tools have evolved from the lathe.

• Band machining. A vertical band saw uses a

Work
rotation continuous saw blade. Chip removal is rapid
and accuracy can be held to close tolerances,
eliminating or minimizing many secondary
machining operations.
Cutter 1.2.2 Drill Press

bit~
A drill press, Figure 1-10, rotates a cutting tool
(drill) against the material with sufficient pressure
to cause the tool to penetrate the material. It is pri-
Tool marily used for cutting round holes. See Figure 1-11.
travel Drill presses are available in many versions. Some
are designed to machine holes as small as 0.0016''
(0.04 mm) in diameter.
Figure 1-8. The lathe operates on the principle of the work
being rotated against the edge of a cutting tool.
Many other operations---drilling, boring, threadcut-

ting, milling, and grinding can also be performed on
a lathe. The most advanced version of the lathe is the
CNC turning center.
1.2.1 Sawing Machines

A sawing machine, Figure 1-9, or saw, makes . . --
...
~--
,. •
~
use of a multitoothed saw blade to cut away material. ......

..
Sawing machines come in a variety of forms. All saw-
ing machines perform one of two basic operations:
• Cutoff sawing. Sawing and cutoff machines
cut stock material into more manageable
lengths in preparation for other machining
operations .
•
•
.
-- ' .
•
•
..
•••
•
Photo courtesy of Grizzly Industrial, Inc. www.grizzly.com Willis Machinery and Tools Corp.
Figure 1-9. Sawing machines, like this horizontal band Figure 1-10. A typical 20'' variable-speed gear head drill
saw, make use of a continuous saw blade, with each tooth press with power feed. It can drill holes up to 1Y2'' in diameter
functioning as a precision cutting tool. in cast iron.

1.2.4 Milling Machine

A milling machine rotates a multitoothed cutter
into the work, Figure 1-13. A wide variety of cutting
operations can be performed on milling machines,
including machining flat, or contoured surfaces,
slots, grooves, recesses, threads, gears, and spirals.
Milling machines are available in more variations
than any other family of machine tools, Figure 1-14,
and are well suited to computer-controlled opera-
tion. The most advanced version of a milling
machine is the CNC milling center.
Cutter
Goodheart-Willcox Publisher rotation
Figure 1-11. A drill press operates by rotating a cutting tool
(drill) against the material with sufficient pressure to cause
the tool to penetrate the material.
Arbor
1.2.3 Grinding Machines

A grinding machine, Figure 1-12, or grinder,
removes metal by rotating a grinding wheel or abra-
sive belt against the work. The process falls into two
basic categories:
• Offhand grinding. Work that does not require
great accuracy is handheld and manipulated A Work travel
until ground to the desired shape.
• Precision grinding. Only a small amount of
material is removed with each pass of the
grinding wheel, so that a smooth, accurate
surface is generated. Precision grinding is a
finishing operation.
End mill
rotation
.-. . .
..
.. •
•
.
.• . .. • .. . .
• •
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Figure 1-12. Grinding is a cutting operation, like turning, Figure 1-13. Milling removes material by rotating a multitoothed
drilling, milling, or sawing. However, instead of the one, two, or cutter into the work. A With peripheral milling, the surface
multiple-edge cutting tools used in other applications, grinding being machined is parallel to periphery of the cutter. B End
uses an abrasive tool composed of thousands of cutting edges. mills have cutting edges on the circumference and the end.

Tool travel
Work is stationary
during cutting operation
Figure 1-15. A broach is a multitoothed cutting tool that

moves against the work. Each tooth removes only a small
portion of the material being machined. The cutting operation
may be on a vertical or horizontal plane.
• Electrochemical machining (ECM). A

method of material removal that shapes a
Photo courtesy of Grizzly Industrial, Inc. www.grizzly.com workpiece by removing electrons from its
Figure 1-14. A modern milling machine featuring power feed,
surface atoms. In effect, ECM is exactly the
variable speed controls, an automatic stop function, coordinate opposite of electroplating.
display, and selectable resolution up to one micrometer. • Chemical milling. A process in which chemi-
cals are used to etch away selected portions
of metal.
1.2.5 Broaching Machines • Chemical blanking. A material removal
A broaching machine is designed to push or pull method in which chemicals are used to pro-
a multitoothed cutter across the work, Figure 1-15. duce small, intricate, ultrathin parts by etch-
Each tooth of the broach (cutting tool) removes only ing away unwanted material.
a small amount of the material being machined. • Hydrodynamic machining (HOM). A computer-
controlled technique that uses a 55,000 psi
water jet to cut complex shapes with minimum
1.3 Nontraditional Machining waste. The work can be accomplished with or
Processes without abrasives added to the jet.
There are a number of machining operations • Ultrasonic machining. A method that uses
that have not evolved from the lathe. They are clas- ultrasonic sound waves and an abrasive
sified as nontraditional machining processes. These slurry to remove metal.
processes include the following: • Electron beam machining (EBM). A ther-
• Electrical discharge machining (EDM). An moelectric process that focuses a high-speed
advanced machining process that uses a beam of electrons on the workpiece. The heat
fine, accurately controlled electrical spark to that is generated vaporizes the metal.
erode metal.

• Laser machining. The laser produces an 1.4.2 Computer Numerical Control

intense beam of light that can be focused onto
In the mid-1970s, with the introduction of the
an area only a few microns in diameter. It is
microchip, the use of onboard computers on indi-
useful for cutting and drilling.
vidual machine tools became possible. This led to
the introduction of computer numerical control
(CNC), Figure 1-16.
1.4 Automating the Machining CNC machine tools are much easier to use than
Process manually controlled machines. They have menu-
selectable displays, advanced graphics (the multi-
In the late 1940s, the United States Air Force
function screen displays the full operational data as
was searching for ways to increase production on
a part is being machined), and a word address for-
complex parts for the new jet aircraft and missiles
mat for programming. The program is made up of
then going into production. The Parsons Corpora-
sentence-like commands. Programs can be entered
tion, a manufacturer of aircraft parts, had developed
at the machine or downloaded from an external
a two-axis technique for generating data to check
computer. Programs on punched tapes are no longer
helicopter blade airfoil patterns. This system used
used. A modem CNC machining center is shown in
punched-card tabulating equipment. To determine
Figure 1-17.
the accuracy of the data, a pattern was mounted on
A CNC machine tool offers several benefits,
a Bridgeport milling machine. With a dial indica-
including:
tor in place, the X and Y points were called out to
• Accuracy. It is capable of producing consis-
a machinist operating the machine's X-axis hand-
tent and accurate workpieces.
wheel and another machinist who controlled the
Y-axis handwheel. With enough reference points • Repeatability. It is able to produce any num-
established, the generated data proved accurate to ber of identical workpieces once a program is
±0.0015'' (0.038 mm). verified.
• Flexibility. Changeover to running another
1.4.1 The Development of Numerical type of part requires only a short period of
Control nonproductive machine downtime.
Parsons realized that the technique might also
be developed into a two-axis, or even three-axis,
machining system. With an Air Force contract to
manufacture a contoured integrally stiffened air-
craft wing section, the Parsons Corporation subcon-
tracted with the Servomechanism Laboratory at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology to design a
three-axis machining system. MIT eventually took c:....._
--
over the entire development project. I
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number system on punched (perforated) tape. Pro- , p ...
gramming required the use of an early computer on

which MIT was also experimenting.
Later in that year, MIT demonstrated the first
machine tool capable of executing simultaneous
cutting tool movement on three axes. Since math- AMT- The Association for Manufacturing Technology
ematical information was the basis of the concept, Figure 1-16. CNC machine tools are equipped with
MIT coined the term numerical control (NC) . The onboard computers that permit computer-aided or manual
first NC machines became available to industry programming. All controls needed for complete machine
in 1955. operation are in one location.

• Handling heavy materials.

• Positioning parts with great repetitive precision.
The automotive industry makes extensive use
of robots in the manufacture and assembly of motor
vehicles, Figure 1-19.
1.5 The Evolving Role of the

Machinist
In recent years, the number of highly skilled
machinists has been in decline. CNC machine tools
have compensated for this trend to some degree.
Since these machines operate under programmed
control, the men and women who use them do not
Mack Molding Co., Arlington, Vermont require the same level of skill or training as a skilled
Figure 1-17. A modern CNC turning and machining center
machinist.
with multiaxis capabilities. Its advanced multitasking However, because of these same CNC machine
technology allows turning and milling operations to be tools, the demand for machinists has not diminished.
performed with a single setup. Machinists understand machining technology and
what machine tools are capable of accomplishing.
For these reasons, they make the best programmers
The use of robotic systems for loading and and setup personnel.
unloading permits some machine tools to oper- There is still another reason for the high
ate unattended during the entire machining cycle. demand for machinists: although CNC equipment
Robots, Figure 1-18, also have many abilities useful is found in almost all machine shops, surveys con-
in industrial applications: sistently show that there is still considerable work
• Operating in hazardous and harsh environments. being produced on conventional manually oper-
• Performing operations that would be tedious ated machine tools.
for a human operator. Whether planning a CNC program or prepar-
ing to produce work on a conventional machine
tool, a machinist must make many decisions on how
to manufacture a part in the most economical way.
A machinist must be able to perform the following
activities:
• Make a thorough study of the print.
• Determine the machining that must be done.
• Ascertain tolerance requirements.
• Plan the machining sequence.
• Determine how the setup will be made.
• Select the machine tool, cutter(s), and other
tools and equipment that will be needed.
• Calculate cutting speeds and feeds.
• Select a proper cutting fluid for the material
being machined.
Fanuc Robotics
All of this is possible because of the skill,
Figure 1-18. A robot is a programmable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to move material, tools, or specialized knowledge, and experience of the machinist. Essen-
devices through programmed motions for the performance tially, a machinist is able to visualize the machining
of a variety of tasks. This robot is deburring a complex part program.
following machining operations.

Rainer Plendl/Shutterstock. com
Fig~re 1-19. The automotive industry makes extensive use of robots for positioning parts, welding, painting, and performing
quality control tasks. Many production operations include computer-controlled robotic assembly lines like this one.
1.6 Acquiring Machining Skills The National Institute for Metalworking Skills
(NIMS), with the aid of the metalworking industry,
and Knowledge developed a set of skills standards, industry require-
The skills and knowledge needed by the ments for skilled workers. NIMS uses these stan-
machinist are not acquired in a short time. It nor- dards to certify individuals through performance
mally requires taking part in a multiyear salaried testing and accredited training programs that meet
apprentice program. In addition to machine tool their standards. The standards provide skilled work-
training under an experienced machinist, the pro- ers with certification that will afford them industry
gram also involves related subjects such as English, recognition.
algebra, geometry, trigonometry, print reading,
safety, production techniques, and CNC principles
and programming.

•
1e
Suininary 3. The Industrial Revolution could not have taken

place without the cheap, convenient power of
• Machine tools and machinists are vital to our the .
modern industrialized world. 4. Eli Whitney's mass-production system for
• Modern machine technologies require highly muskets had a major problem because _ _.
educated machinists. A. there were no skilled workers
• Machine tools are the foundation of industry and B. there was no good source of power
precision metalworking.
C. there was no standard of measurement
• Evolving power sources have changed the way
D. All of the above.
machine tools operate and what materials they
can machine. E. None of the above.
• Basic machine tool processes include turning, 5. What occurred in the mid-1860s that was very
sawing, drilling, grinding, milling, and broaching. important to the development of machining
technology in the United States?
• There are a growing number of nontraditional
machining processes. 6. List seven power sources in the order they
have evolved.
• Automation and computers have dramatically
affected machine tool operations. 7. Almost all machine tools have evolved from
the .
• Through skill, knowledge, and experience, a
machinist determines the best possible way to 8. List three types of basic machine tools and
manufacture a part, whether using manual or briefly describe their operation.
CNC machining techniques. 9. List four types of nontraditional machining
processes and briefly describe their operation.
Review Questions 10. The introduction of the microchip in the mid-
1970s led to the introduction of machine
Answer the following questions using the information tools.
provided in this chapter. 11. CNC machine tools operate according to a(n)
1. Jobs such as tool and die making and precision _ _ made up of sentence-like commands.
machining require aptitudes comparable to 12. List four industrial applications of robots.
those of . 13. When planning the manufacture of a part, a
A. high school graduates machinist must .
B. college graduates A. ascertain tolerance requirements
C. high school equivalency graduates B. select the machine tool, cutter(s), and other
D. All of the above. tools and equipment that will be needed
E. None of the above. C. select a proper cutting fluid for the
material being machined
2. One of the first machine tools, the bow lathe _ _.
A. could only turn softer materials
E. None of the above.
B. has been dated back to about 1200 BC
C. eventually gave way to treadle power
E. None of the above.
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were under rapidly shifting conditions, it is uncritical to demand unity.
We might as well expect to find a model drama in a diary. The
important fact is that we have in these digressions a continuous
exposition of Byron’s satire during the most important years of his
life.
The peculiar features of the octave stanza, with its opportunity
for double and triple rhymes and the loose structure of its sestette,
made it more suited to Byron’s genius than the more compact and
less flexible heroic couplet. At the same time the concluding couplet
of the octave offered him a chance for brief and epigrammatic
expression. In general it may be said that no metrical form lends
itself more readily to the colloquial style which Byron preferred than
does the octave.
In utilizing this stanza, Byron, accepting the methods of Pulci
and Casti, allowed himself the utmost liberties in rhyming and verse-
structure. We have already seen that in several youthful poems, and,
indeed, in some later ephemeral verses, he had shown a fondness
for remarkable rhymes. By the date of Beppo he had broken away
entirely from the rigidity of the Popean theory of poetry, and had
confessed that he enjoyed a freer style of writing:
“I—take for rhyme, to hook my rambling verse on,

The first that Walker’s lexicon unravels,
And when I can’t find that, I put a worse on,
328
Not caring as I ought for critics’ cavils.”
In Don Juan this employment of uncommon rhymes had become a

genuine art. Byron once declared to Trelawney that Swift was the
greatest master of rhyming in English; but Byron is as superior to
Swift as the latter is to Barham and Browning in this respect. Indeed
Byron’s only rival is Butler, and there are many who would maintain,
on good grounds, that Byron as a master of rhyming is greater than
the author of Hudibras. When we consider the length of Don Juan,
the constant demand for double and triple rhymes, and the fact that
Byron seldom repeated himself, we cannot help marvelling at the
linguistic cleverness which enabled him to discover such unheard-of
combinations of syllables and words. Some of the most extraordinary
329
have become almost classic, e.g.:—
“But—Oh! ye lords of ladies intellectual,

330
Inform us truly, have they not hen-pecked you all?”
“Since in a way that’s rather of the oddest, he

331
Became divested of his native modesty.”
Naturally in securing such a variety of rhymes he was forced to draw

from many sources. Foreign languages proved a rich field, and he
obtained from them some striking examples of words similar in
sound, sometimes rhyming them with words from the same
language, sometimes fitting them to English words and phrases.
Some typical specimens are worthy of quotation:
332
Latin—in medias res, please, ease.
333
Greek—critic is, poietikes.
334
French—seat, tête-à-tête, bete.
335
Italian—plenty, twenty, “mi vien in mente.”
336
Spanish—Lopé, copy.
337
Russian—Strokenoff, Chokenoff, poke enough.
Byron also resorts to the uses of proper names, borrowed from
many tongues:
338
Dante’s—Cervantes.
339
Hovel is—Mephistophelis.
340
Tyrian—Presbyterian.
341
Avail us—Sardanapalus.
342
Pukes in—Euxine.
It may be added, too, that he was seldom over-accurate or
careful in making his rhymes exact. In one instance he rhymes
343
certainty—philosophy—progeny. Most stanzas have either double
or triple rhymes, but there are occasional stanzas in which all the
344
rhymes are single.
In Don Juan run-on lines are the rule rather than the exception.
Certain stanzas are really sentences in which the thought moves
straight on, disregarding entirely the ordinary restrictions of
345
versification. In more than one case the idea is even carried from
346
one stanza to another without a pause. In one extraordinary
instance a word is broken at the end of a line and finished at the
347
beginning of the next, following the example set by the Anti-
Jacobin in Rogero’s song in The Rovers. Like a public speaker,
Byron at times neglects coherence in order to keep the thread of his
discourse or to digress momentarily without losing grip on his
audience.
Much of the humor of Don Juan is due to the varied employment
of many forms of verbal wit: puns, plays upon words, and odd
repetitions and turns of expression. The puns are not always
commendable for their brilliance, though they serve often to
burlesque a serious subject. In at least one stanza Byron uses a
348
foreign language in punning. In general it is noticeable that puns
349
become more common in the later cantos of the poem. There are
also many curious turns of expression, comparable only to some of
350
the quips of Hood and Praed. Frequently, they are exceedingly
clever in the suddenness with which they shift the thought and give
the reader an unexpected surprise, e.g.:
“Lambo presented, and one instant more
351
Had stopped this canto and Don Juan’s breath.”
Repetitions of words or sounds often convey the effect of a pun, e.g.:
“They either missed, or they were never missed,

352
And added greatly to the missing list.”
The witty line,

353
“But Tom’s no more—and so no more of Tom,”
is an excellent example of Byron’s verbal artistry.
It should be added here, also, that Byron displayed a singular
capacity for coining maxims and compressing much worldly wisdom
into a compact form. Some of his sayings have so far passed into
common speech that they are almost platitudes, e.g.:
354
“There is no sterner moralist than pleasure.”
As has been pointed out, this kind of sententious utterance in the
form of a proverb or an epigram was very common with the Italian
burlesque writers, especially with Pulci.
Something of the universality of Don Juan, of its appeal, not only
to particular countries and peoples, but also to the world at large,
355
may be indicated by the number of translations of it which exist. It
appeared in French in 1827, in Spanish in 1829, in Swedish in 1838,
in German in 1839, in Russian in 1846, in Roumanian in 1847, in
Italian in 1853, in Danish in 1854, in Polish in 1863, and in Servian in
1888. Since these first versions appeared, other and more
satisfactory ones have been published in most of the countries
named. It was chiefly through Don Juan that Byron became, what
Saintsbury calls him, “the sole master of young Russia, young Italy,
young Spain, in poetry.” In these days when Byron’s defence of the
rights of the people is less necessary, when his opposition to
despotism would find few tyrants to oppose, and when his
condemnation of war has developed into a widespread movement
for universal peace, the powerful impetus which his satire gave to
the progress of democracy is likely to be overlooked. His attitude of
defiance furnished an illustrious example to struggling nations, and
356
gave them hope of better things.
Within this limited space it has been possible to touch only upon
one or two phases of the many which this poem, perhaps the
greatest in English since Paradise Lost, presents to the reader.
Byron’s satire, in assuming a wider scope and a greater breadth of
view, in growing out of the insular into the cosmopolitan, has also
blended itself with romance and realism, with the lyric, the
descriptive, and the epic types of poetry until it has created a new
literary form and method suitable only to a great genius. His satiric
spirit, in assailing not only individuals, but also institutions, systems,
and theories of life, in concerning itself less with literary grudges and
personal quarrels than with momentous questions of society, in
progressing steadily from the specific to the universal, has
undergone a striking evolution. The tone of his satire has become
less formal and dignified, and more colloquial, while a more frequent
use of irony, burlesque, and verbal wit makes the poem easier and
more varied. Byron joins mockery with invective, raillery with
contempt, so that Don Juan, in retaining certain qualities of the old
Popean satire, seems to have tempered and qualified the acrimony
of English Bards. The inevitable result of this development was to
make Don Juan a reflection of Byron’s personality such as no other
of his works had been. Don Juan is Byron; and in this fact lies the
explanation of its strength and weakness.
CHAPTER IX
“THE VISION OF JUDGMENT”
Byron’s Vision of Judgment, printed in the first number of The

Liberal, October 15, 1820, was the climax of his long quarrel with
Southey, the complicated details of which have been related at
357
length by Mr. Prothero in his edition of the Letters and Journals.
Byron’s hostility to Southey was due apparently to several causes,
some personal, some political, and some literary. He believed that
Southey had spread malicious reports about the alleged immorality
of his life in Switzerland with Jane Clermont, Mary Godwin, and
Shelley; he considered the laureate to be an apostate from liberalism
and a truckler to aristocracy; and he had no patience with his views
on poetry and his lack of respect for Pope. The two men were, in
fact, fundamentally incompatible in temperament and opinions,
Southey being firmly convinced that Byron was a dissipated and
dangerous debauchee, while Byron thought Southey a dull, servile,
and somewhat hypocritical scribbler.
Since The Vision of Judgment was Byron’s only attempt at
genuine travesty, it may be well to differentiate between the travesty
and other kindred forms of satire, all of which are commonly grouped
under the generic heading, burlesque. Broadly speaking, a
burlesque is any literary production in which there is an absurd
incongruity in the adjustment of style to subject matter or subject
matter to style, humor being excited by a continual contrast between
what is high and what is low, what is exalted and what is
358
commonplace. The peculiar effect of burlesque is ordinarily
dependent upon its comparison with some form of literature of a
more serious nature. Of the subdivisions of burlesque, the parody
aims particularly at the humorous imitation of the style and manner
of another work, the original characters and incidents being
displaced by incidents of a more trifling sort. The parody has been a
popular variety of satire, and examples of it may be discovered in the
359
productions of any sophisticated or critical age. The travesty, in
the narrow sense of the term, is a humorous imitation of another
work, the subject matter remaining substantially the same, being
made ridiculous, however, by a grotesque treatment and a less
imaginative style. A serious theme is thus deliberately degraded and
debased. The commonest subjects of travesty have been derived, as
one might expect, from mythology or from the great epic poems. Its
popularity, except in certain limited periods, has never equalled that
360
of the parody.
Considered simply as a travesty, Byron’s Vision is remarkable in
two respects: first, in that it burlesques a contemporary poem, while
most other travesties ridicule works of antiquity, or at least of
established repute; second, in that it has an intrinsic merit of its own
far surpassing that of the poem which suggested it. Thus the general
dictum that a travesty is valuable chiefly through the contrast which it
presents to some nobler masterpiece is contradicted by Byron’s
satire, which is in itself an artistic triumph.
Southey’s Vision of Judgment, of which Byron’s Vision is a
travesty, was written in the author’s function as poet-laureate shortly
after the death of George III. on January 29, 1820. Certainly in many
361
ways it lent itself readily to burlesque. It was composed in the
unrhymed dactyllic hexameter, a measure in which Southey was
even less successful than Harvey and Sidney had been. It was full of
adulation of a king, who, however much he may have been
distinguished for domestic virtues, was surely, in his public activities,
no suitable subject for encomium. It was dedicated, moreover, to
George IV. in language which seems to us to-day the grossest
362
flattery. The poem itself, divided into twelve sections, deals with
the appearance of the old King at the gate of heaven, his judgment
and beatification by the angels, and his meeting with the shades of
illustrious dead—English worthies, mighty figures of the Georgian
age, and members of his own family.
Many special features of Southey’s poem were disagreeable to
Byron. It was a vindication and a eulogy of the existing system of
government in England, George III, whom Byron despised, being
described as an ideal sovereign. Southey had made a contemptuous
reference to what he was pleased to call the watchwords of Faction,
“Freedom, Invaded Rights, Corruption, and War, and Oppression,” a
summary which must have been distasteful to a man who had been
raising his voice in resistance to political tyranny. Southey had also
carefully omitted Dryden and Pope from the list of great writers
whom George III met in heaven. On the whole Southey’s poem was
pervaded by a tone of arrogance and self-satisfaction which was
exceedingly offensive to Byron.
Byron had begun his travesty on May 7, 1821, and had sent it to
363
Murray from Ravenna on October 4th. Unconscious of the fact
that this satire was in Murray’s hands, Southey meanwhile had
published his Letter to the Courier, January 5, 1822, vindictively
personal, and containing one unlucky paragraph: “One word of
advice to Lord Byron before I conclude. When he attacks me again,
let it be in rhyme. For one who has so little command of himself, it
will be a great advantage that his temper should be obliged to keep
tune.” When this Letter came to Byron’s notice, his anger boiled
over; he sent Southey a challenge, which through the discretion of
364
Kinnaird, was never delivered ; and he decided immediately to
publish his Vision, which he had almost determined to suppress.
Murray, however, delayed the proof, and on July 3, 1822, Byron,
irritated by this tardiness and enthusiastic over his newly planned
365
periodical, The Liberal, sent a letter by John Hunt, the proprietor
of the magazine, requesting Murray to turn the satire over to Hunt. In
the first number of The Liberal, then, the Vision was given the most
conspicuous position, printed, however, without the preface, which
Murray, either ignorantly or unfairly, had withheld from Hunt. A
vigorous letter from Byron recovered the preface, which was inserted
366
in a second edition of the periodical. The consequences of
publication somewhat justified Murray’s apprehensions. John Hunt
was prosecuted by the Constitutional Association, and on July 19,
1824, only three days after Byron’s body had been buried in the
church of Hucknall Torkard, was convicted, fined one hundred
pounds, and compelled to enter into securities for five years. In
fairness to Byron, it must be added that he had offered to come to
England in order to stand trial in Hunt’s stead, and had desisted only
367
when he found that such procedure would not be allowed.
In his Vision, Byron had at least four objects for his satire. He
wished to ridicule Southey’s poem by burlesquing many of its absurd
elements; he aimed to proceed more directly against Southey by
exposing the weak points in his character and career; he desired to
present a true picture of George III, in contrast to Southey’s idealized
portrait; and he intended to make a general indictment of all illiberal
government and particularly of the policy then being pursued by the
English Tory party. He seized instinctively upon the weaknesses of
the panegyric, and while preserving the general plan and retaining
many of the characters, freely mocked at its cant and smug conceit.
Through a style purposely grotesque and colloquial, he turned
Southey’s pompous rhetoric into absurdity; by touches of realism
and caricature he made the solemn angels and demons laughable;
while, occasionally rising to a loftier tone suggestive of the spirit of
Don Juan, he reasserted his love of liberty and hatred of despotism.
In executing his project, Byron deliberately neglected a large part
of Southey’s Vision and confined himself almost exclusively to the
scene at the trial of the King. He began actually with the situation
represented in Section IV of Southey’s poem, omitting all the
preliminary matter, and ended with Southey’s Section V, avoiding
entirely the meeting of George with the English worthies. So far as
subject matter is concerned, Byron travestied only two of the twelve
divisions of the earlier work. He concentrated his attention on the
judgment of the King, and then deserted formal travesty in order to
introduce his attack on Southey.
It was part of Byron’s scheme that angels and demons, serious
characters in Southey’s poem, should be made the objects of mirth.
By a dexterous application of realism, he changed the New
Jerusalem of Southey into a very earthly place, where angels now
and then sing out of tune and hoarse, and where six angels and
twelve saints act as a business-like Board of Clerks. These creatures
of the spiritual realm are very substantial beings, not at all immune
from mortal infirmities and passions. Saint Peter is a dull somnolent
personage who grumbles over the leniency of heaven’s Master
towards earth’s kings, and sweats through his apostolic skin at the
appalling sight of Lucifer and demons pursuing the body of George
to the very doors of heaven. Satan salutes Michael,
“as might an old Castilian

Poor noble meet a mushroom rich civilian,”
and the archangel, in turn, greets the fallen Lucifer superciliously as

“my good old friend.” It is probable that in this practice of treating
with ridicule those beings who are commonly spoken of with
reverence, Byron is imitating Pulci, whose angels and devils are
also, in their attributes, more human than divine.
Byron’s trial scene, in which Lucifer and Michael dispute for the
possession of George III, is an admirable travesty of Southey’s
representation of the same episode. The glorified monarch of
Southey’s Vision meets in Byron’s satire with scant courtesy from
Lucifer, who acts as attorney for the prosecution. Lucifer admits the
king’s “tame virtues” and grants that he was a “tool from first to last”;
but he charges him with having “ever warr’d with Freedom and the
free,” with having stained his career with “national and individual
woes,” with having resisted Catholic emancipation, and with having
lost a continent to his country. Wilkes and Junius, the two
shamefaced accusers of Southey’s Vision, now act in a different
manner. Wilkes scornfully extends his forgiveness to the king, and
Junius, while reiterating the truth of his original accusations, refuses
to be enlisted as an incriminating witness. This section of the satire
is splendidly managed. The whole assault on the king tends to show
him as more misguided than criminal. The lines,
“A better farmer ne’er brush’d dew from lawn,
A worse king never left a realm undone!”
create a kind of sympathy for George in that they portray him as a

man placed in a position for which he was manifestly unfitted.
Southey’s name is mentioned only once before the 35th stanza
of Byron’s poem, but from that point until the conclusion the work
deals entirely with him. These stanzas constitute what is probably
Byron’s happiest effort at personal satire. For once he did not act in
haste, but carefully matured his project, studied its execution, and
permitted his first impulsive anger to moderate into scorn. With due
attention to craftsmanship, he surveyed and annihilated his enemy,
laughing at him contemptuously and making every stroke tell. It
should be observed too that he chose a method largely indirect and
dramatic. He did not, as in English Bards, merely apply offensive
epithets; rather he placed Southey in a ridiculous situation and made
him the sport of other characters. The satire, is, therefore,
exceedingly effective since it allows the victim no chance for a
368
reply. By turning the laugh on Southey, Byron closed the
controversy by attaining what is probably the most desirable result of
purely personal satire—the making an opponent seem not hateful
but absurd.
Byron’s poem, however, was something more than a chapter in
the satisfaction of a private quarrel. It is also a liberal polemic,
assailing not only the whole system of constituted authority in
England, but also tyranny and repression wherever they operate.
The indictment of George III, which at times approaches sublimity, is
in reality directed against the entire reactionary policy of
contemporary European statesmen and rulers. The doctrines of the
revolutionary Byron, already familiar to us in Don Juan, are to be
found in the ironic stanzas upon the sumptuous funeral of the king, a
passage admired by Goethe; respect for monarchy itself had died
out in a nobleman who could say of George’s entombment:
“It seemed the mockery of hell to fold
The rottenness of eighty years in gold.”
With all its broad humor, the satire is aflame with indignation. In this
respect the poem performed an important public service. In place of
stupid content with things as they were, it offered critical comment on
existing conditions, comment somewhat biassed, it is true, but
nevertheless in refreshing contrast to the conventional submission of
the great majority of the British public.
Much of what has already been pointed out with regard to the
sources and inspiration of Don Juan may be applied without
alteration to The Vision of Judgment, which is, as Byron told Moore,
written “in the Pulci style, which the fools in England think was
369
invented by Whistlecraft—it is as old as the hills in Italy.” The
Vision, being shorter and more unified, contains few digressions
which do not bear directly upon the plot; but it has the same
colloquial and conversational style, the same occasional rise into
true imaginative poetry with the inevitable following drop into the
commonplace, the same fondness for realism, and the same broad
370
burlesque. Hampered as it is by the necessity of keeping the
story well-knit, Byron’s personality has ample opportunity for
expression.
It is probable that Byron’s description of Saint Peter and the
371
angels owes much to his reading of Pulci. In at least one instance
there is a palpable imitation. Saint Peter in the Vision, who was so
terrified by the approach of Lucifer that,
“He patter’d with his keys at a great rate,

372
And sweated through his apostolic skin,”
suffered as did the same saint in the Morgante Maggiore who was
weary with the duty of opening the celestial gate for slaughtered
Christians:
“Credo che molto quel giorno s’affana:
E converrà ch’egli abbi buono orecchio,
Tanto gridavan quello anime Osanna
Ch’eran portate dagli angeli in cielo;
373
Sicchè la barba gli sudava e ’l pelo.”
In employing the realistic method in depicting the angels, Byron

seems to have caught something of Pulci’s grotesque spirit.
One line of the Vision,
“When this old, blind, mad, helpless, weak, poor worm,”
seems to imitate the opening of Shelley’s powerful Sonnet; England
in 1819, already quoted,
“An old, mad, blind, despised, and dying king.”
Professor Courthope has suggested that Byron’s Don Juan owes
374
something to the work of Peter Pindar. The evidence for the
relationship seems, however, to be very scanty. Wolcot never
employed the octave stanza, nor, indeed, did he ever show
evidences of true poetic power. The two men were, of course, alike
in that they were both liberals, both avowedly enemies of George III,
and both outspoken in their dislikes. But Byron seldom except in
parts of the Vision used the method of broad caricature so
characteristic of Pindar. In the Vision, too, occurs the only obvious
reference on Byron’s part to Pindar’s satire. He describes the effect
of Southey’s dactyls on George III, in the lines:
“The monarch, mute till then, exclaim’d, ‘What! What!

375
Pye come again? No more—No more of that.’”
The couplet recalls Pindar’s delightful imitations of that king’s

eccentric habit of repeating words and phrases. However, Byron’s
style in both Don Juan and the Vision is drawn more from Italian than
from English models.
The Vision of Judgment is, if we exclude Don Juan as being
more than satire, the greatest verse-satire that Byron ever wrote. It is
only natural then to compare the poem with other English satires
which have high rank in our literature. A practically unanimous
critical decision has established Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel
as occupying the foremost position in English satire before the time
of Byron. Unquestionably this work of Dryden’s is admirable; it is
witty, pointed, and direct, embellished with masterly character
sketches and almost faultless in style. It does, however, suffer
somewhat from a lack of unity, due primarily to the fact that the
narrative element in the poem is subordinate to the description.
Byron’s Vision, on the other hand, has a single plot, which is
carefully carried out to a climax and a conclusion. Action joins with
invective and description in forming the satire. Thus the two poems,
approximately the same length if we consider only Part I of Absalom
and Achitophel, give a decidedly different impression. Dryden’s satire
seems a panorama of figures, while Byron’s has the coherence and
clash of a drama.
Absalom and Achitophel is witty but seldom humorous; while
Byron joins caricature and burlesque to wit. The best lines in
Dryden’s poem, such as:
“Beggar’d by fools, whom still he found too late;

He had his jest, and they had his estate,”
excite admiration for the author’s cleverness, but rarely arouse a

smile; the Vision, the contrary, is full of buffoonery. Dryden’s sense of
the dignity of the satirist’s office did not permit him to lower his style,
and he never became familiar with his readers; the very essence of
Byron’s satire is its colloquial character.
Dryden kept his personality always in the background, while the
egotistical Byron could not refrain from letting his individuality lend
fire and passion to whatever he wrote. Thus the Vision, despite the
fact that it is the most cool of Byron’s satires, cannot be called calm
and restrained. Self-control, the will to subdue and govern his
impulses and prejudices, was beyond his reach. Fortunately in the
Vision he did take time to exercise craftsmanship, but he never
attained the polished artistry and firm reserve of his predecessor.
Certainly in urbanity, in dignity, and in justice Dryden is the superior,
just as he is undoubtedly less imaginative, less varied, and less
spirited than Byron.
The two satires are, then, radically different in their methods.
One is a masterpiece of the Latin classical satire in English, formal
and regular, and using the standard English couplet; the other is our
finest example of the Italian style in satire—the mocking, grotesque,
colloquial, and humorous manner of Pulci and Casti. Both are
effective; but one is inclined to surmise that the purple patches in
Absalom and Achitophel will outlast the more perfect whole of The
Vision of Judgment.
The probable results of the publication of a work of such a
sensational character had been foreseen by both Murray and
Longman. When the first number of The Liberal appeared containing
not only The Vision of Judgment but also three epigrams of Byron’s
on the death of Castlereagh, it was received by a torrent of hostile
criticism from the Tory press. The Literary Gazette for October 19,
1822, called Byron’s work “heartless and beastly ribaldry,” and added
on November 2, that Byron had contributed to the Liberal “impiety,
vulgarity, inhumanity, and heartlessness.” The Courier for October 26
termed him “an unsexed Circe, who gems the poisoned cup he
offers us.” On the Whig side, in contrast, Hunt’s Examiner for
September 29 spoke of it as “a Satire upon the Laureate, which
contains also a true and fearless character of a grossly adulated
monarch.”
Byron himself described it to Murray as “one of my best
376
things.” Later critical opinion has also tended to rank it very high.
Goethe called the verses on George III “the sublime of hatred.”
Swinburne, himself a revolutionist but no partisan of Byron’s,
exhausts superlatives in commenting on it: “This poem—stands
alone, not in Byron’s work only, but in the work of the world. Satire in
earlier times had changed her rags for robes; Juvenal had clothed
with fire, and Dryden with majesty, that wandering and bastard
muse. Byron gave her wings to fly with, above the reach even of
these. Others have had as much of passion and as much of humor;
Dryden had perhaps as much of both combined. But here, and not
elsewhere, a third quality is apparent—the sense of a high and clear
imagination.—Above all, the balance of thought and passion is
admirable; human indignation and divine irony are alike understood
and expressed; the pure and fiery anger of men at the sight of
wrong-doing, the tacit inscrutable derision of heaven.” Nichol, in his
life of Byron, says:—“Nowhere in so much space, save in some of
the prose of Swift, is there in English so much scathing satire.”
Two figures in Byron’s poem have been made the basis of a
shrewd comparison by Henley. He says: “Byron and Wordsworth are
like the Lucifer and Michael of The Vision of Judgment. Byron’s was
the genius of revolt, as Wordsworth’s was the genius of dignified and
useful submission; Byron preached the doctrine of private revolution,
Wordsworth the dogma of private apotheosis—Byron was the
passionate and dauntless ‘soldier of a forlorn hope,’ Wordsworth a
kind of inspired clergyman.” Byron’s sympathies in the Vision, as in
Cain, were undoubtedly with Lucifer, the rebel and exile, and his
poem will live as a satiric declaration of the duty of active resistance
to despotism and oppression.
CHAPTER X
“THE AGE OF BRONZE” AND “THE BLUES”
Byron’s Monody on the Death of Sheridan, written at Diodati on

July 17, 1816, and recited in Drury Lane Theatre on September 7,
was followed by a period of several years in which he ceased to
employ the heroic couplet in poetry of any sort. The reasons for this
temporary abandonment of what had been, hitherto, a favorite
measure, are not altogether clear, although his action may be
ascribed, in part, to his renunciation of things English and to the
influence upon him of his study of the Italians. During his residence
in Italy, Byron used many metrical forms: the Spenserian stanza,
ottava rima, terza rima, blank verse, and other measures in some
shorter lyrics and ephemeral verses. Not until The Age of Bronze,
which he began in December, 1822, did he return to the heroic
couplet of English Bards.
On January 10, 1823, Byron, then living in Genoa, wrote a letter
to Leigh Hunt, in which, among other things, he said: “I have sent to
Mrs. S[helley], for the benefit of being copied, a poem of about seven
hundred and fifty lines length—The Age of Bronze—or Carmen
Seculare et Annus haud Mirabilis, with this Epigraph—‘Impar
Congressus Achilli’.” By way of description, he added: “It is
calculated for the reading part of the million, being all on politics,
etc., etc., etc., and a review of the day in general,—in my early
English Bards style, but a little more stilted, and somewhat too full of
377
‘epithets of war’ and classical and historical allusions.” The work
as revised and completed contains 18 sections and 778 lines.
Originally destined for The Liberal, it was eventually published
anonymously by John Hunt, on April 1, 1823.
The Age of Bronze is, then, entirely a political satire, intended
chiefly as a counterblast to the recent stringent regulations of the
reactionary Congress of Verona (1822). It comprises, however, other
material: an introductory passage on the great departed leaders, Pitt,
Fox, and Bonaparte; frequent digressions treating of the struggles for
constitutional government then taking place in Europe; and some
lines attacking the landed proprietors in England for their luke-warm
opposition to foreign war. It is, in nearly every sense, a timely poem,
although the note of “Vanitas Vanitatum” sounded in the early
sections gives the satire a universal application.
For a comprehension of Byron’s motives in writing The Age of
Bronze, it is necessary to understand something of the situation in
Europe at the time. Following the numerous insurrections of 1820–
22 in Spain, Portugal, Naples, Greece, and the South American
States, the European powers, guided by the three members of the
Holy Alliance, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, sent delegates to meet
at Verona on October 20, 1822, for a consideration of recent
developments in politics. The leading figure at the conference was
Metternich, the Austrian statesman, although Francis of Austria,
Alexander of Russia, and Frederick William of Prussia were among
the monarchs present. Montmorenci, representing an ultra-royalist
ministry under Villiele, was there to look after the interests of France;
while England, deprived at the last moment of Castlereagh’s
services by his suicide, sent Wellington. The gathering finally
resolved itself into a conclave for the purpose of discussing the right
of France to interfere in the affairs of Spain, by restoring Ferdinand
VII, a member of the House of Bourbon, to the throne of which he
had been deprived by the Constitutionalists. Wellington, after
protesting against the agreement reached by the other envoys to
378
permit the interference of France, left the Congress, by Canning’s
instructions, in December. His withdrawal, however, did not affect the
ultimate decision of the Congress to stamp out revolt whenever it
assailed the precious principle of Legitimacy. War between France
and Spain broke out in 1823; Ferdinand VII was replaced upon his
tottering throne; and the despotic policy of Metternich triumphed, for
a time, over democracy. Canning’s only reply was to recognize the
independence of the rebellious colonies of Spain, and to assert the
belligerency of the Greeks, then fighting for their liberty against the
Turks.
It is to the year which saw the work of the Congress of Verona
that Byron’s secondary title, Annus haud Mirabilis, obviously refers.
In a striking passage in the beginning of the poem, he pays a tribute
to the mighty dead, contrasting, by implication, the leaders of the
Congress with the departed heroes: Pitt and Fox, buried side by side
in Westminster Abbey; and Napoleon,
“Who born no king, made monarchs draw his car.”
The summary which Byron presents of Napoleon’s career is full of
admiration for the fallen emperor’s genius, and of resentment at the
indignities which, according to contemporary gossip, he had been
compelled to undergo on St. Helena. The man “whose game was
empires and whose stakes were thrones” was forced, says the poet,
to become the slave of “the paltry gaoler and the prying spy.” The
passage is both an appreciation and a judgment, wavering, as it
does, between sympathy and condemnation for the conqueror who
burst the chains of Europe only to renew,
“The very fetters which his arm broke through.”
The reference to these giants of the past leads Byron naturally to a
glorification of such liberators as Kosciusko, Washington, and
Bolivar, and to a joyful heralding of revolutions in Chili, Spain, and
Greece:
“One common cause makes myriads of one breast,

Slaves of the east, or helots of the west;
On Andes’ and on Athos’ peaks unfurl’d,
The self-same standard streams o’er either world.”
Under the influence of this enthusiasm he prophecies a liberal

outburst which will end in the regeneration of Europe.
Contrasted with the optimism of this aspiring idealism is Byron’s
gloom over the deeds of the Congress of Verona. The measures
advocated by this gathering, as we have seen, were reactionary and
autocratic; and Byron’s description of it, tinged with liberal sentiment,
is vigorously satirical. In the conference headed by Metternich,
“Power’s foremost parasite,” he can see nothing but a body of
tyrants,
“With ponderous malice swaying to and fro,

And crushing nations with a stupid blow.”
Many of the allusions in Byron’s sketches of the members recall the

language used by Moore in his Fables for the Holy Alliance. Moore’s
views of the situation in Europe agreed substantially with those of
Byron. Byron’s reference to the “coxcomb czar,”
“The autocrat of waltzes and of war,”
recalls Moore’s mention of that sovereign in Fable I:
“So, on he capered, fearless quite,

Thinking himself extremely clever,
And waltzed away with all his might,
As if the Frost would last forever.”
Byron accuses Louis XVIII, who was not present at the

Congress, of being a gourmand and a hedonist,
“A mild Epicurean, form’d at best

To be a kind host and as good a guest.”
The same idea is conveyed in Moore’s description of that king as,

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7.6 Chisels ........................................................ 106 12.3 Drills ........................................................... 173

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21.8 Troubleshooting Band Machines ............ 400 CHAPTER26

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Glossary of Technical Terms .............. 604

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Learning Objectives Technical Terms

1.1.1 Early Machine Tools

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(an English coin about the size of a modem US quar-

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The milling machine was the next important

13 IN CH W £1CHTl:0 L ATH,11 . lllo. :, UPRICHJ1' li) R I\. L. , ll o. I 'M:ILI.INO MAOIOl'fli .

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• Foot power. A treadle or a treadmill made

Photo courtesy of Grizzly Industrial, Inc. www.grizzly.com

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• Band machining. A vertical band saw uses a

Cutter 1.2.2 Drill Press

Many other operations---drilling, boring, threadcut-

1.2.1 Sawing Machines

use of a multitoothed saw blade to cut away material. ......

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1.2.4 Milling Machine

1.2.3 Grinding Machines

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Figure 1-15. A broach is a multitoothed cutting tool that

• Electrochemical machining (ECM). A

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• Laser machining. The laser produces an 1.4.2 Computer Numerical Control

By 1952, MIT had designed a control system and • r. .M,

mounted it on a vertical spindle machine tool. The -·...- - ...... . .

gramming required the use of an early computer on

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• Handling heavy materials.

1.5 The Evolving Role of the

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Rainer Plendl/Shutterstock. com

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Suininary 3. The Industrial Revolution could not have taken

“I—take for rhyme, to hook my rambling verse on,

In Don Juan this employment of uncommon rhymes had become a

“But—Oh! ye lords of ladies intellectual,

“Since in a way that’s rather of the oddest, he

Naturally in securing such a variety of rhymes he was forced to draw

Repetitions of words or sounds often convey the effect of a pun, e.g.:

“They either missed, or they were never missed,

The witty line,

Byron’s Vision of Judgment, printed in the first number of The

“as might an old Castilian

and the archangel, in turn, greets the fallen Lucifer superciliously as

create a kind of sympathy for George in that they portray him as a