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 ....

COMPETENCIES FOR ANALYSIS

AND APPLICATIONS
TWELFTH
EDITION

differences in research designs and to understand
more fully how the nature of the research ques-
tion influences the selection of a research design.
Part II, Research Designs, includes description
and discussion of different quantitative research
designs, qualitative research designs, mixed meth-
ods research designs, and action research designs.
Part III, Working with Quantitative and Qualitative
Data, includes two chapters devoted to the statisti-
cal approaches and the analysis and interpretation
of quantitative data, and two chapters describ-
ing the collection, analysis, and interpretation of
qualitative data. Part IV, Reporting and Critiquing
Research, focuses on helping the student prepare
a research report, either for the completion of a
degree requ irement or for publication in a refer-
eed journal, and an opportunity for the student to
apply the skills and knowledge acqu ired in Parts I
through III to critique a research report.
Strategy
This text represents more than just a textbook to
be incorporated into a course; it is a total instruc-
tional system that includes stated learning out-
comes, instruction, and procedures for evaluating
each outcome. The instructional strategy of the
system emphasizes the demonstration of skills and
individualization \vithin this structure. Each chap-
ter begins with a list of learning outcomes that
describes the knowledge and skills that the student
should gain from the chapter. In many instances,
learning outcomes may be assessed either as writ-
ten exercises submitted by students or by tests,
whichever the instructor prefers. In most chapters,
a task to be performed is described next. Tasks
require students to demonstrate that they can per-
form particular research skills. Because each stu-
dent works with a different research problem, each
student demonstrates the competency requ ired by
a task as it applies to h is or her o,vn problem. \Vith
the exception of Chapter 1, an individual chapter
is directed toward the atta inment of only one task
(occasionally, students have a choice be~veen a
quantitative and qualitative task).
Text discussion is intended to be as simple and
straightfor,vard as possible. Whenever feasible, pro-
cedures are presented as a series of steps, and con-
cepts are explained in terms of illustrative examples.
In a number of cases, relatively complex topics or
PREFACE VII
topics beyond the scope of the text are presented at
a very elementary level, and students are directed
to other sources for additional, in-depth discussion.
There is also a degree of intentional repetition; a
number of concepts are discussed in different con-
texts and from different perspectives. Also, at the
risk of eliciting more than a few groans, an attempt
has been made to sprinkle the text with touches
of humor-a hallmark of this text spanning four
decades-and perhaps best captured by the pic-
tures and quotes that open each chapter. Each chap-
ter includes a detailed, often lengthy summary \vith
headings and subheadings directly parallel to those
in the chapter. The summaries are designed to facili-
tate both the review and location of related text dis-
cussion. Finally, each chapter (or part) concludes
with suggested criteria for evaluating the associated
task and with an example of the task produced by
a former introductory educational research student.
Full-length articles, reprinted from the educational
research literature, appear at the ends of all chapters
presenting research designs and serve as illustrations
of "real-life" research using that design. For the 12th
edition all of these articles have been annotated \vith
descriptive and evaluative annotations.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
The following resources are available for instruc-
tors to download from W\"'v.p earsonhig h e red
.co m/educato r. Enter the author, title of the text,
or the ISBN number, then select this text, and click
on the "Resources" tab. Download the supplement
you need. If you require assistance in downloading
any resources, contact your Pearson representative.
Instructor's Resource Man ual
With Test Bank
The Instructor's Resource Manual with Test Bank
is divided into two parts. The Instructor:~ Resource
Manual contains, for each chapter, suggested
activities that have been effectively used in Edu-
cational Research courses, strategies for teaching,
and selected resources to supplement the textbook
content. The test bank contains multiple-choice
items covering the content of each chapter, newly
updated for this edition, and can be printed and
edited or used \vith TestGen®.
VII I PREFACE
TestGen®
TestGen is a powerful test generator available
exclusively from Pearson Education publishers.
You install TestGen on your personal computer
(Windows or Macintosh) and create your own tests
for classroom testing and for other specialized
delivery options, such as over a local area net\vork
or on the \Xleb. A test bank, which is also called a
Test Item File (TIP), typically contains a large set
of test items, organized by chapter, and ready for
your use in creating a test based on the associated
textbook material. Assessments may be created for
both print and testing online.
The tests can be do\vnloaded in the following
formats:
TestGen Testbank file-PC
TestGen Testbank file-MAC
TestGen Testbank-Blackboard 9 TIP
TestGen Testbank-Blackboard CE/Vista
(\XlebCT) TIP
Angel Test Bank (zip)
D2L Test Bank (zip)
Moodie Test Bank
Sakai Test Bank (zip)
PowerPoint® Slides
The PowerPoint® slides highlight key concepts and
summarize text content to help students under-
stand, organize, and remember core concepts and
ideas. They are organized around chapter learn-
ing outcomes to help instructors structure class
presentations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I sincerely thank everyone who provided input for
the development of this edition. The following indi-
viduals made thoughtful and detailed suggestions
and comments for improving the 12th edition: Jac-
queline S\vank, University of Florida; Raymond \Xi'.
Francis, Central Michigan University; Robin Lund,
University of Northern lo\va; Alane Starko, Eastern
Mich igan University; Vivian Ikpa, Temple Univer-
sity; Christian Kimm, California State University,
Los Angeles. These reviewers contributed greatly
to the 12th edition and their efforts are very much
appreciated.
I would also like to ackno\vledge the staff at
Pearson, without whose guidance (and patience!)
this text would not have become a reality. In particu-
lar, I thank Kevin Davis, Director & Portfolio Man-
ager, for \vorking \vith me on the 12th edition of
the text so as to build on what \Ve achieved with
the previous editions. Kevin has been my friend and
mentor since he offered my first textbook contract
in 1997, and I am indebted to him for his encour-
agement and support of my writing. Kevin \vorked
diligently to ensure a quality, user-friendly, academi-
cally coherent text and patiently kept me on track in
order to meet publication deadlines. His feedback
on chapter drafts \vas insightful and important to the
development of this 12th edition. Kevin has taught
me a great deal about writing, and I \viii al,vays be
indebted to him for trusting me with ste\vardship of
this wonderful text. The publication of this 12th edi-
tion also coincides \vith the end of my tenure at my
academic home for the past 29 years: Southern Ore-
gon University. I am now officially an Emeritus Pro-
fessor and looking forward to dedicating more time
to \vriting without the time commitment of teaching
full time. At the risk of embarrassing Kevin, I can
state with confidence that the past 20 years of my
professorial career exceeded all of my expectations
because of the opportunities Kevin has given me.
Thank you.
This edition benefited from the efforts of my
Developmental Editor Carolyn Schweitzer. This is
my first collaboration with Carolyn and I am look-
ing forward to working with her on future editions
of Educational Research and Action Research.
While we have never met face-to-face, I trust and
respect all the contributions she has made to
my work and benefit greatly from Carolyn's cre-
ative thinking about ho\v to make an educational
research textbook meaningful and fun. Also at
Pearson, Janelle Rogers ably shepherded the man-
uscript through development and production. An
author does not take on the task of a major revi-
sion of a text of this magnitude without the com-
mitment and support of excellent editors. Kevin
and Carolyn \Vere instrumental in the development
of this edition and I sincerely thank them for their
professionalism, patience, caring, and sense of
humor.
I believe that I have made a positive contribu-
tion to this text, now my fifth edition, and added to
the \visdom of earlier editions by L. R. Gay and Peter
Airasian. Long-time users of the text \viii still "hear"

Lorrie Gay's voice throughout the text, but increas-
ingly there is an Aussie accent and sense of humor
creeping its way into the pages!
I \vish to thank my friend and colleague
Dr. Adam Jordan (Associate Professor, University of
North Georgia) for his thoughtful work on revis-
ing the descriptive and inferential statistics chapters
and feedback and contributions on other quanti-
tative chapters in the text. Similarly, my friend and
colleague at Southern Oregon University, Dr. Dale
Vidmar, was instrumental in the revision of the
reviewing the literature chapter.
PREFACE 1x
Finally, I \vant to thank my best friend and wife,
Dr. Donna Mills (Emeritus Professor, Southern Ore-
gon University), and my son, Jonathan, for their love,
support, and patience. Their commitment to my work
is always appreciated and never taken for granted.
The completion of this edition signals another new
era in my life as my son Jonathan has now graduated
from college, and Donna and I prepare for retire-
ment after long university careers.
Geoff Mills
Etneritus Professor
Southern Oregon University
This page intentionally left blank
Brief Contents

Part I FOUNDATIONAL CONCEPTS AND CHAPTER 13 NARRATIVE RESEARCH 350

PROCESSES CHAPTER 14 ET HNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH 376
CHAPTE R 1 INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER 15 CASE STUDY RESEARCH 402
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 2 CHAPTER 16 MIXED METHODS RESEARCH:
CHAPTE R 2 ETHICS IN EDUCATIONAL INTEGRATING QUALITATIVE AND
RESEARCH 60 QUANTITATIVE METHODS 428
CHAPTE R 3 SELECTING AND DEFINING CHAPTER 17 ACTION RESEARCH 450
A RESEARCH PROBLEM 76
Part Ill WORKING WITH QUANTITATIVE
CHAPTE R 4 REVIEWING THE LITERATURE 94
AND QUALITATIVE DATA
CHAPTE R 5 PREPARING AND EVALUATING
A RESEARCH PLAN 128 CHAPTER 18 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 474
CHAPTE R 6 SELECTING A SAMPLE 146 CHAPTER 19 INFERENTIAL STA TISTICS 500
CHAPTE R 7 SELECTING MEASURING CHAPTER 20 QUALITATIVE DATA
INSTRUMENTS 166 COLLECTION 548
CHAPTER 21 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:
Part II RESEARCH DESIGNS DATA ANALYS IS AND INTERPRETATION 566
CHAPTE R 8 SURVEY RESEARCH 200
Part IV REPORTING AND CRITIQUING
CHAPTE R 9 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH 222 RESEARCH
CHAPTE R 10 CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE
CHAPTER 22 PREPARING A RESEARCH
RESEARCH 248
REPORT 582
CHAPTE R 11 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 272
CHAPTER 23 EVALUATING A RESEARCH
CHAPTE R 12 SINGLE-SUBJECT REPORT 608
EXPERIMENTA L RESEARCH 320

XI
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

PART I FOUNDATIONAL CONCEPTS Gaining Entry to a Research Site 69

AND PROCESSES Summary 73
Performance Criteria Task 1D 75

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 2 CHAPTER 3 SELECTING AND DEFINING
Tasks 1A, 1 B 3 A RESEARCH PROBLEM 76
Task 1C 3 Task 2 77
Welcome! 3 The Research Problem 77
The Scientific Method 4 Identifying a Research Problem 77
Limitations of the Scientific Method 4 Sources of Research Prob/ems 78
Application of the Scientific Method in Education 5 Narrowing the Problem 81
Different Approaches to Educational Research 6 Characteristics of Good Prob/ems 82
The Continuum of Research Philosophies 6 Stating the Research Prob/em 82
Quantitative Research 6 Developing Research Questions 83
Qualitative Research 7 Formulating and Stating a Hypothesis 85
Mixed Methods Research 8 Definition and Purpose of Hypotheses in
Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative Quantitative Studies 86
Research Approaches 8 Types of Hypotheses 87
Classification of Research by Design 10 Stating the Hypothesis 88
Quantitative Approaches 10 Testing the Hypothesis 89
Qualitative Approaches 13 Definition and Purpose of Hypotheses in
Classification of Research by Purpose 16 Qualitative Studies 89
Basic and Applied Research 16 Summary 91
Evaluation Research 17 Performance Criteria Task 2 93
Research and Development (R&D) 17
Action Research 17 CHAPTER 4 REVIEWING THE LITERATURE 94
Summary 20 Task 3A 95
Performance Criteria Task 1 23 Task 38 95
Tasks 1Aand 18 23 Review of Related Literature: Purpose and Scope 95
Task 1C 23 Qualitative Research and the Review of
Task 1A Quantitative Example 24 Related Literature 97
Task 1B Qualitative Example 48 Identifying Keywords and Identifying, Evaluating, and
Annotating Sources 97
Identifying Keywords 97
CHAPTER 2 ETHICS IN EDUCATIONAL
Identifying Your Sources 98
RSEARCH 60 Evaluating Your Sources 109
Task 1 D 61 Annotating Your Sources 111
Ethical Codes 61 Analyzing, Organizing, and Reporting the Literature 114
Informed Consent and Protection from Harm 62 Make an Outline 114
Deception 63 Analyze Each Reference in Terms of Your Outline 115
Ethical Issues Unique to Qua litative Research 64 Analyze the References Under Each Subheading
Navigating Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research 65 for Similarities and Differences 116
Action Research and /RBs 67 Give a Meaningful Overview of Past Research 116

xiii
XIV CONTENTS

Discuss the References Least Related to Your Problem CHAPTER 7 SELECTING MEASURING
First and Those Most Related to Your Problem Just INSTRUMENTS 166
Before the Statement of the Hypothesis 116
Task 6 167
Conclude the Review with a Brief Summary of the
Literature and Its Implications 116 Vignette: Big Pine School District 167
Meta-Analysis 119 Constructs 167
Summary 121 Variables 168
Performance Criteria Tasks 3A and 38 124 Measurement Scales and Variables 168
Tasks 3A and 38 124 Quantitative and Qualitative Variables 170
Task 3 Example 125 Dependent and Independent Variables 170
Characteristics of Measuring Instruments 171
Instrument Terminology 171
CHAPTER 5 PREPARING AND EVALUATING Quantitative and Qualitative Data Collection Methods 172
A RESEARCH PLAN 128 Interpreting Instrument Data 172
Types of Measuring Instruments 173
Task 4A 129
Cognitive Tests 173
Task 48 129
Affective Tests 174
Definition and Purpose of a Research Plan 129
Projective Tests 177
Components of the Quantitative Research Plan 130
Criteria for Good Measuring Instruments 178
Introduction Section 130
Validity of Measuring Instruments 178
Method Section 131
Reliability of Measuring Instruments 182
Data Analysis 133
Test Selection, Construction, and Admin istration 187
Time Schedule 133
Selecting a Test 187
Budget 133
Sources of Test Information 188
Components of the Qualitative Research Plan 134
Selecting from Alternatives 190
Prior Fieldwork 134
Constructing Tests 191
Title 134
Test Administration 192
Introduction Section 134
Summary 194
Research Procedures Section 135
Performance Criteria Task 6 197
Appendixes 139
Task 6 Example 198
Revising and Improving the Research Plan 139
Summary 140
Performance Criteria Task 4 142
PART II RESEARCH DESIGNS
Task 4 Example 143
CHAPTER 8 SURVEY RESEARCH 200
Task 7A 201
CHAPTER 6 SELECTING A SAMPLE 146 Survey Research: Definition and Purpose 202
Task SA 147 Survey Research Designs 202
Task 58 147 Cross-Sectional Surveys 202
Sampling in Quantitative Research 147 Longitudinal Surveys 203
Defining a Population 148 Conducting Survey Research 203
Selecting a Random Sample 148 Conducting a Questionnaire Study 204
Determining Sample Size 155 Administering the Questionnaire 208
Avoiding Sampling Error and Bias 157 Summary 214
Selecting a Nonrandom Sample 158 Example: Survey Study 216
Sampling in Qua Iitative Research 159
Selecting Research Participants: Purposive
Sampling Approaches 160 CHAPTER 9 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH 222
Determining Sample Size 161 Task 78 223
Summary 162 Correlational Research: Definition and Purpose 224
Performance Criteria Task 5 164 The Correlational Research Process 225
Task SA Example 165 Problem Selection 225
 CONTENTS xv

Participant and Instrument Selection 225 Internal Validity 329

Design and Procedure 225 Replication 330
Data Analysis and Interpretation 225 Single-Subject Experimental Research Design in Action 330
Relationship Studies 229 Summary 333
Data Collection 229 Performance Criteria Task 7 335
Data Analysis and Interpretation 230 Task 7 Example 336
Prediction Studies 232 Example: Single-Subject Study 338
Data Collection 233
Data Analysis and Interpretation 233 CHAPTER 13 NARRATIVE RESEARCH 350
Other Correlation-Based Analyses 234 Task 8A 351
Problems to Consider in Interpreting Correlation Narrative Research: Definition and Purpose 352
Coefficients 235 Types of Narrative Research 353
Summary 236 Narrative Analysis and the Analysis of Narrative 354
Example: Correlational Study 239 The Narrative Research Process 354
Key Characteristics of Narrative Research 356
CHAPTER 10 CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE Narrative Research Techniques 356
RESEARCH 248 Restorying 357
Oral History 358
Task 7C 249
Causal-Comparative Research: Definition and Purpose 250 Examining Photographs, Memory Boxes,
and Other Artifacts 358
The Causal-Comparative Research Process 253
Storytelling 358
Design and Procedure 253
Letter Writing 358
Control Procedures 254
Autobiographical and Biographical Writing 359
Data Analysis and Interpretation 255
Other Narrative Data Sources 359
Summary 257
Writing the Narrative 359
Example: Causal- Comparative Study 258
Summary 361

CHAPTER 11 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 272 CHAPTER 14 ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH 376

Task 70 273 Task 88 377
Experimental Research: Definition and Purpose 274 Ethnographic Research: Definition and Purpose 378
The Experimental Process 275 The Ethnographic Research Process 379
Manipulation and Control 276 Key Characteristics of Ethnographic Research 381
Threats to Experimental Validity 277 Types of Ethnographic Research 382
Threats to Internal Validity 278 Ethnographic Research Techniques 383
Threats to External Validity 281 Participant Observation 383
Control of Extraneous Variables 286 Field Notes 385
Group Experimental Designs 288 Observing and Recording Everything
Single-Variable Designs 289 You Possibly Can 387
Factorial Designs 297 Looking for Nothing in Particular; Looking for
Bumps and Paradoxes 388
Summary 300
Summary 390

CHAPTER 12 SINGLE-SUBJECT CHAPTER 15 CASE STUDY RESEARCH 402

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 320 Task BC 403
Task 7E 321 Case Study Research: Definition and Purpose 404
Single-Subject Experimental Designs 322 When to Use Case Study Research 405
Single-Subject versus Group Designs 322 Characteristics of Case Study Research 405
The Single-Variable Rule 322 Case Study Research Design 406
Types of Single-Subject Designs 322 Sample Selection in Case Study Research 408
Data Analysis and Interpretation 328 Data Collection Techniques 408
Threats to Val id ity 328 Conducting and Analyzing Multip ie Case Studies 409
External Validity 328 Summary 412
XVI CONTENTS

CHAPTER 16 MIXED METHODS RESEARCH: PART Ill WORKING WITH QUANTITATIVE

INTEGRATING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DATA
AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
DESIGNS 428
CHAPTER 18 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 474
Task 80 429
The Word Is Statistics, Not Sadistics 475
Mixed Methods Research: Defin ition and Pu rpose 430
The Language of Statistics 475
Types of Basic Mixed Methods Research Designs 431
Preparing Data for Analysis 476
The Explanatory Sequential (QUAN --+ qua/)
Design 431
Scoring Procedures 476
The Explanatory Sequential (QUAL --+ quan)
Tabulation and Coding Procedures 476
Deisgn 432 Types of Descriptive Statistics 477
The Convergent Para/le/ (QUAN + QUAL) Design 433 Frequencies 477
Conducting Mixed Methods Research 433 Measures of Central Tendency 478
Identifying Studies Using Mixed Method Designs 435 Measures of Variability 480
Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study 435 The Normal Curve 482
Summary 437 Skewed Distributions 484
Performance Criteria Task 8 438 Measures of Relative Position 485
Task 8 Example 439 Measures of Relationship 488
Graph ing Data 491
"R" You Ready? 492
CHAPTER 17 ACTION RESEARCH 450 Step 1: Installing Ron Your Computer 493
Task 9 451 Step 2: Getting Your Data Into R 493
Action Research: Definition and Pu rpose 452 Step 3: Calculating Some Descriptive Statistics 495
Key Characteristics of Action Research 452 Postscript 496
Action Research Is Persuasive and Authoritative 452 Summary 497
Action Research Is Relevant 453
Action Research Is Accessible 453 CHAPTER 19 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 500
Action Research Challenges the Intractability Task 10 501
of Reform of the Educational System 453
Concepts Underlying Inferential Statistics 501
Action Research Is Not a Fad 453
Standard Error 501
Types of Action Research 454
Hypothesis Testing 504
Critical Action Research 454
Tests of Significance 504
Practical Action Research 455
Two-Tailed and One-Tailed Tests SOS
Levels of Action Research 455
Type I and Type II Errors 507
The Action Research Process 456
Degrees of Freedom 510
Identifying an Area of Focus 457
Selecting Among Tests of Significance 510
Data Collection, Analysis, and Interpretation 458
The t Test 511
Action Planning 458
Analysis of Variance 518
Summary 460
Multiple Regression 521
Performance Criteria and Examples Task 9 461
Chi Square 525
Write an Area-of-Focus Statement 461
Other Investigative Techniques: Data Mining,
Define the Variables 461 Factor Analysis, and Structural Equation Modeling 528
Develop Research Questions 461 Types of Parametric and Nonparametric
Describe the Intervention or Innovation 461 Statistical Tests 529
Describe the Membership of the Action Calculating Inferential Statistics Using R 530
Research Group 461 Calculating the t Test for Independent Samples Using R 531
Describe Negotiations That Need to Be Undertaken 462 Calculating the t Test for Nonindependent
Develop a Time Line 462 Samples Using R 533
Develop a Statement of Resources 462 Calculating ANOVA with Post Hoc Multiple
Develop Data Collection Ideas 462 Comparison Tests Using R 533
Example: Action Research 463 Calculating Multiple Regression Using R 535
 CONTENTS XVII

Calculating Chi Square Using R 535 Format and Style 585

If You "R" Still Onboard 536 Formatting Theses and Dissertations 586
Summary 538 Preliminary Pages 586
Performance Criteria Task 10 542 The Main Body 589
Task 10 Example 543 References 590
Appendixes 591
CHAPTER 20 QUALITATIVE DATA Writing for Journal Publication 591
COLLECTION 548 Summary 593
Data Collection Sources and Techniques 549 Performance Criteria Task 11 595
Observing 549 Task 17 Example 596
Interviewing 554
Questionnaires 556 CHAPTER 23 EVALUATING A RESEARCH
Examining Records 557 REPORT 608
Validity and Rel iability in Qualitative Research 558
Task 12 609
Validity in Qualitative Research 558
General Evaluation Criteria 609
Reliability in Qualitative Research 562
Introduction 610
Getting Started 563
Method 610
Summary 564
Results 611
Discussion (Conclusions and Recommendations) 611
CHAPTER 21 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:
Abstract or Summary 611
DATA ANALYSIS AND
Design-Specific Evaluation Criteria 612
INTERPRETATION 566
Survey Research 612
Data Analysis and Interpretation: Definition Correlational Research 612
and Purpose 567 Causal- Comparative Research 612
Data Analysis During Data Collection 567
Experimental Research 612
Data Analysis After Data Collection 568 Single-Subject Research 613
Steps in Analyzing Qual itative Research Data 568 Qualitative Research (in General) 613
Reading/Memoing 569 Evaluating Validity and Reliability in
Describing 570 Qualitative Studies 613
Classifying 570 Narrative Research 614
Data Analysis Strategies 570 Ethnographic Research 614
Identifying Themes 570 Case Study Research 614
Coding Surveys, Interviews, and Questionnaires 571 Mixed Methods Research 614
Asking Key Questions 573 Action Research 614
Doing an Organizational Review 574 Summary 615
Developing a Concept Map 574 Performance Crite ria Task 12 616
Analyzing Antecedents and Consequences 574 Task 12 Example 617
Displaying findings 575
Stating What Is Missing 575 Appendix A Statistical References 631
Qualitative Data Analysis: An Example 575
Data Interpretation Strategies 578 Appendix B Suggested Responses 657
Ensuring Credibility in Your Study 579
Summary 580 Glossary 663

Name Index 673

PART IV REPORTI NG AND CRITIQUING RESEARCH
Subject Index 681
CHAPTER 22 PREPARING A RESEARCH
REPORT 582
Task 11 583
Guidelines for Writing a Research Report 583
This page intentionally left blank
Research Articles

CHAPTER 1
Can Instructional and Emotional Support in the First-Grade Classroom Make a Difference for Children
at Risk of School Failure? 24

Developing Teacher Ep istemological Sophistication About M ulticultural Curriculum:

A Case Study? 48

CHAPTER 8
To What Extent A re Literacy Initiatives Being Supp orted: Important Questions
for Administrators? 216

CHAPTER 9
Parental Involvement and Its Influence on the Reading Achievement of 6th Grade Students? 239

CHAPTER 10
Comp aring Longitudinal Academic Ach ievement of Full -Day and Half-Day
Kindergarten Students? 258

CHAPTER 11
Effects o f Mathematical Word Problem-Solving Instruction on M iddle School Students with
Learning Problems? 304

CHAPTER 12
Effects o f Functional Mobility Skills Train ing for Young Students with Physical Disabilities? 338

CHAPTER 13
For Whom the School Bell Tolls: Conflicting Voices Inside an A lternative High School? 362

CHAPTER 14
Preparing Preservice Teachers in a Diverse World? 392

CHAPTER 15
Using Community as a Resou rce for Teacher Education: A Case Study? 414

CHAPTER 16
How Should Middle-School Students with LD Approach On line Note Taking? A M ixed
M ethods Study? 442

CHAPTER 17
"Let's Talk": Discussions in a Biology Classroom: An Action Research Project? 463

CHAPTER 23
Gend er and Race as Variables in Psychosocial Adjustment to Mid dle and High School? 61 7

xix
This page intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER ONE

Introduction to
Educational Research

Little Heroes 3, 2002

"Despite a popular stereotype that depicts researchers as

spectacled, stoop-shouldered, e lderly gentlemen ...who endlessly
add chemicals to test tubes, every day thousands of men and
women of all ages and postures conduct educationa l research in a
wide variety of settings." (p. 3)
 CHAPTER 1 • INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading Chapter 1, you should be able to do
the follo\ving:
1 . 1 Briefly describe the reasoning involved in the
scientific method.
1 .2 Explain why researchers \vould use
quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods, or
action research designs to address a specific
research problem.
l .~ Briefly define and state the major
characteristics of these research designs:
survey, correlational, causal-comparative,
experimental, single-subject, narrative,
ethnographic, case study, mixed methods,
and action research.
1.4 Explain the purposes of basic research,
applied research, evaluation research,
research and development (R&D), and
action research.
WELCOME!
If you are taking a research course because it is
required in your program of studies, raise your right
hand. If you are taking a research course because it
seems like it \vill be a really fun elective, raise your
left hand. \~e thought you may not be here of your
o\vn free will. Although you may be required to
take this course, you are not the innocent victim of
one or more sadists. Your professors have several
legitimate reasons for believing this research course
is an essential component of your education.
First, educational research findings contribute
significantly to both educational theory and educa-
tional practice. As a professional, you need to kno\v
how to find, understand, and evaluate these find-
ings. And when you encounter research findings
in professional publications or in the media, you
have a responsibility, as a professional, to distin-
guish between legitimate and ill-founded research
claims. Second, although many of you \viii be pri-
marily critical consumers of research, some of you
will decide to become educational researchers. A
career in research opens the door to a variety of
employment opportunities in universities, research
centers, and business and industry.
3
Completing Chapter 1 should enable you to per-
form the follo\ving tasks:
TASKS 1A, 1 B
Identify and briefly state the follo\ving for both
research studies at the end of this chapter:
1 . The research design
2 . The rationale for the choice of the research
design
~ - The major characteristics of the research
design, including research procedures, method
of analysis, and major conclusions (See
Performance Criteria, p. 23.)
TASK 1C
Classify given research studies based on their
characteristics and purposes. (See Performance
Criteria, p. 23.)
Despite a popular stereotype that depicts
researchers as spectacled, stoo~shouldered, elderly
gentlemen (a stereotype I am rapidly approaching!)
who endlessly add chemicals to test tubes, every day
thousands of men and \vomen of all ages and pos-
tures conduct educational research in a \vide variety
of settings. Every year many millions of dollars are
spent in the quest for knowledge related to teach-
ing and learning. For example, in 2017 the U.S.
Department of Education budget was $69.4 bil-
lion, \vhich included an allocation of $180 million
for "[e)ducation innovation and research" (\VW\v2.
ed.gov/ about/ overview/budget/ budgetl 7/budget-
factsheet.pdf). Educational research has contributed
many findings concerning principles of behavior,
learning, and retention of kno\vledge-many of
which can also be applied to curriculum, instruc-
tion, instructional materials, and assessment tech-
niques. Both the quantity and the quality of research
are increasing, partly because researchers are better
trained. Educational research classes have become
core components of preservice teacher education
programs, as well as the cornerstone of advanced
degree programs.
We recognize that educational research is a rel-
atively unfamiliar discipline for many of you. Our
4 CHAPTER 1 • INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
first goals, then, are to help you acquire a general
understanding of research processes and to help
you develop the perspective of a researcher. \Y/e
begin by examining the scientific method.
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
\Y/hat is knowledge? And ho\v do we come to
"know" something? Experience is certainly one of
the fundamental \vays we come to know about and
understand our world. For example, a child who
touches something hot learns that high heat hurts.
\Y/e know other things because a trusted authority,
such as a parent or a teacher, told us about them.
1\1ost likely, much of your knowledge of current
world events comes secondhand, from things you
have read o r heard from a source you trust.
Another way we come to kno\v something is
through thinking, through reasoning. Reasoning
refers to the process of using logical thought to
reach a conclusion. We can reason inductively or
deductively. Ind uctive reasoning involves develop-
ing generalizations based on observation of a limited
nLunber of related events or experiences. Consider
the follo\ving example of ind uctive reasoning:
Observation: An instructor examines five research
textbooks. Each contains a chapter about
sampling.
Generalization: The instructor concludes that all
research textbooks contain a chapter about
sampling.
Ded uctive reasonin g involves essentially the
reverse process-arriving at specific conclusions
based on general principles, observations, or expe-
riences (i.e., generalizations)-as shown in the
next example.
Observations: All research textbooks contain a
chapter on sampling. The book you are reading
is a research text.
Generalization: This book must contain a chapter
on sampling. (Does it?)
Although people commonly use experience,
authority, inductive reasoning, and deductive reason-
ing to learn new things and dra\v new conclusions
from that kno\vledge, each of these approaches to
understanding has limitations when used in isola-
tion. Some problems associated \vith experience and
authority as sources of knowledge are graphically
illustrated in a story told about Aristotle. According to
the story, one day Aristotle caught a fly and carefully
counted and recounted the legs. He then announced
that flies have five legs. No one questioned the word
of Aristotle. For years his finding was accepted uncrit-
ically. Unfortunately, the fly that Aristotle caught just
happened to be missing a leg! Whether or not you
believe the story, it illustrates the limitations of rely-
ing on personal experience and authority as sources
of knowledge.
The story also points out a potential problem
with inductive reasoning: Generalizing from a small
sample, especially one that is atypical, can lead to
errors. Deductive reasoning, too, is limited by the evi-
dence in the original observations. If every research
text really does have a chapter on sampling, and if
this book really is a research text, then it follo\vs that
this book must have a chapter on sampling. How-
ever, if one or more of the premises is false (perhaps
some research texts do not have a chapter on sam-
pling), your conclusion may also be \vrong.
When we rely exclusively on these common
approaches to kno\ving, the resulting knowledge is
susceptible to error and may be of limited value to
understanding the world beyond our immediate expe-
rience. Ho\vever, experience, authority, and induc-
tive and deductive reasoning are very effective \vhen
used together as integral components of the scientific
method. The scie ntific method is an orderly process
entailing a nLunber of steps: recognition and definition
of a problem, formulation of hypotheses, collection of
data, analysis of data, and statement of conclusions
regarding confirmation or disconfirmation of the
hypotheses (i.e., a researcher forms a hypothesis-an
explanation for the occurrence of certain behaviors,
phenomena, or events-as a way of predicting the
results of a research study and then collects data to
test that prediction). These steps can be applied infor-
mally to solve everyday problems such as the most
efficient route to take from home to work or school,
the best time to go to the bank, or the best kind of
computer to purchase. The more formal application
of the scientific method is standard in research; it is
more efficient and more reliable than relying solely
on ex-perience, authority, inductive reasoning, and
deductive reasoning as sources of kno\vledge.
Limitations of the Scientific Method
The steps in the scientific method guide researchers
in planning, conducting, and interpreting research
studies. However, it is important to recognize some
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through Chief Inspector, Assistant-Superintendent, or
Superintendent. These tactics gave me much trouble at first, but they
worked out well in the end. In trying to serve four or five superior
officers, I had failed to give satisfaction to any one. In fact they
seemed to have conspired to belittle me with the Deputy, possibly in
the fear that I might get preferment. Over all my superior officers was
the High Chief Pot Hole Expert; a small, hook-nosed individual, who,
although of an unpleasant and hard disposition, was honest, just and
far-seeing. He did not take to me very kindly at first, but by a smiling
and ever-ready willingness on my part, and with much patience and
perseverance, I forced him at last to take consideration of me and
my work.
My Third Minister, having been indiscreet in several directions,
was forced to retire to private life. Exactly what was his indiscretion
no one seemed to know. Of course, all kinds of tales, most of them
quite untrue, were told about the matter. The fact remains that he
retired suddenly and my Fourth Minister took his place.
The Fourth Minister was full of guile; smooth and wily in all his
ways. A quiet man of few words, biding his time like a fat spider, with
a good retentive web in which he had perfect confidence. You have
no doubt observed such spiders. They are never in a wild rush when
a fly gets into their meshes. They know that any fly that falls into their
web is surely caught, so they proceed very quietly and leisurely,
without excitement, towards the business of tying up Mr. Fly, and
extracting his vital fluid.
My Fourth Minister was the instrument of Providence in my
release from pot holes.
He and I had never met, but of course I knew him by sight. One
Government holiday, when the buildings were deserted, I came to
my office for one purpose or another. Mr. “The Fourth” was by Fate
moved similarly. We met in the hall.
“Good morning, Mr. Minister,” I said, touching my hat respectfully.
“Oh, good morning, Mr. Ah——, Mr. Ah——” He stumbled over my
name, of which he had no idea. “Coming to see me, I suppose?
Well, I’m sorry, but I’m very busy this morning. If you will write me a
letter in your matter, I will give it my attention.”
I appreciated in a second the mistake he had made. Never
dreaming that I was only one of his employees, he had jumped to the
conclusion that I was some one wanting something, who had lain in
wait for him. I thanked him profusely, shook his hand once more, and
left him promising to write the letter about the matter, which was
unknown to both of us.
Four congratulated himself that he had put off some one, who was
about to ask for something. I thought little of the incident at the time,
but it turned out important, as will be seen. Several weeks passed
by, and I had nearly forgotten the occurrence when Mr. Clay of
Montreal walked into my office. Mr. Clay had been one of my old
acquaintances. He had been in many business ventures, and had
made much money. He really did not need any more money than he
had, but he liked the business game for itself. It was the only game
he could play. After we had greeted each other, and he was seated
by my desk, he explained the reason of his call.
“I am here,” he said, “to see you in the first place.”
“Indeed.”
“Yes. I believe you can be of some use to me. As you know, I am
in many things. One of the most important is our Blank factory. Now
for reasons which I need not explain just now, I need your Minister. I
am going to see him this morning, but before going to him I thought it
might be wise to call on you and discover what manner of man he is.
I want you to warn me against any peculiarities he may have; tell me
when and how to see him; and how best to approach him.”
At once I saw an opportunity for a little mild amusement. “You
have come to the right man,” I assured him. “I know my Minister like
a book. Now listen to me. He is not difficult to see. Any one can see
him, but to get anything out of him is quite another matter. He is
smooth, very smooth. He will listen to you with patience; he will smile
knowingly and be deeply interested in your affairs. When you are run
down, he will turn quietly and blandly to you and say, ‘Well, Mr. Clay,
I quite understand you. Write me a letter in the matter, and it will
have my earnest attention. I am busy this morning, so will bid you
good-bye.’ If you leave him then you are done. You will never see
him again, and your letters will all be filed. I give you this information
in confidence, for what it is worth; govern yourself accordingly.”
“That,” said Mr. Clay, “is just the kind of information I want. I
assure you I am very glad to get it. Now I know what to do.” And he
left me to visit the Minister.
Three days afterwards I met Clay on Sparks Street. When he
caught sight of me his face was wreathed in smiles. He grasped me
warmly by the hand and said, “Wesblock, you are certainly a
prophet.”
“How?” I asked.
“Why, my boy, it was really funny. I was coming to see you this
morning to tell you all about it. I saw your Minister and everything
happened just as you said it would. When he said, ‘Write me a letter
in the matter,’ I nearly laughed in his face; but being forewarned I
was ready for him. I said, ‘No, Mr. Minister, I will not write any letter. I
will come again as often as you like, but I want this matter settled,
and your decision to act or not to act given to me personally.’ Well,
sir, he was taken back. He hummed and hawed, and I followed him
up and landed him just like a fish. I leave for Montreal to-day. You will
hear something from me soon.”
I had lunch with Clay that day, and told him how I had come to be
informed of the Minister’s method. Clay left for Montreal in the
afternoon. Within thirty days he once more sat in my office. He had
momentous things to say to me. He was so pleased with himself,
with my Minister, with his business, and with me, that he offered me
a very good position in one of his large manufacturing companies,
which I refused on the spot without much consideration.
“What!” said Clay in astonishment, when he heard my decision,
“you refuse to come out of the rut? I fully expected you to fall upon
my neck and shed tears of joy.”
 “Yes,” I replied, “I have to refuse. In fifteen years my roots have
gone down too far. Your offer comes too late. There was a time when
I would have fallen upon your neck and wept tears of gratitude. Now,
I can only refuse with thanks. If you desire to be of assistance to me
you may do so while leaving me to my Civil Service fate.”
“Tell me how,” said Clay, “and I will be very happy to do anything I
can do.”
“Well,” I said, “I believe I am above pot holes. You are a powerful
person in the business world. You move among people of influence.
Bring me into the favourable notice of my Minister.”
“My dear Wesblock,” said Clay, “it is a sad sight to see a man of
your type with ambition dead.”
“My ambition is not dead,” I said, “it is only subdued and is more
modest than formerly. I have ambition still, but my desires are
towards things that I believe are best for a man of my kind.”
“You always were an odd fish,” he said. “I cannot understand you.
Are you the same Wesblock whom I remember? The gambler and
sport who began with a shoe string, and ended with a hundred
thousand dollars?”
The sum he mentioned made me smile. “Not as much as that,
Clay,” I said, “that is more than four times as much as I ever was
worth.”
“Well, anyhow,” he said, “you made a great deal of money in a
very short time, and then threw up the game.”
“Yes, I did,” said I, “but I am happier now than I was then.”
“Happy!” he exclaimed, “happy? Are you really happy?”
“Comparatively, yes,” I answered. “I am as close to happiness as
any one I know.”
“Then you are indeed to be congratulated,” said Clay. “I will see
what can be done towards making you more so, for I like you. You
have always amused me, and sometimes instructed me, and you
have been useful to me once at least.”
 This closed the argument, and he left me with smiles, promises
and compliments; he was a genial soul for a mere business man with
one idea.
I was sorry in many ways to refuse Clay’s offer, but I had four
young Wesblocks to be thought of who were no longer children. I
believed that it would have been very unwise to transplant them
when they had so benefited by the Ottawa soil. The social and
mental atmosphere of Ottawa is a very different thing from that of
modern Montreal, who, as she grows in size and wealth becomes
contaminated with all the social diseases of the great American
cities.
 CHAPTER XXII

Time passed, and I had nearly forgotten Clay and his promises,
when one day a messenger came to me to inform me that my
presence was desired in the Minister’s office. Although this was an
unusual occurrence, I was not much surprised. I had been called by
ministers before for causes of the slightest. A minister is a little tin
god who calls whom he likes, when he likes. Even men of Great
Business hasten to appear when he says “Come.” I was not
prepared, therefore, for any new move, nor did I expect to be
reprimanded by such a mighty personage. I thought I might be asked
to answer some simple questions or be instructed to attend to some
petty office such as replacing some favoured one who had been
given leave of absence. Ministers condescend to interest themselves
in small things sometimes. Judge, then, of my astonishment on
entering the minister’s office, when he received me in his very
smoothest manner. I was positively frightened.
“Ah! good morning, Mr. Wesblock,” he said, rising and offering me
his plump but firm hand. “Sit down.”
I sat. My face, no doubt, showed my astonishment, for he laughed
softly.
“Mr. Wesblock,” said my Minister, still smiling, “we have met
before, I think, eh?”
“We have, sir,” I said, “but I hardly think you remember it.”
“I remember it very well,” he said. “You see our meeting was an
incident too good to be kept, so your friend Mr. Clay has told it to
several of my friends, through whom it comes to me.” And he again
laughed softly at my evident embarrassment. I was thunderstruck.
“I am very sorry, Mr. Minister,” I stammered; “Mr. Clay has been
very unkind in repeating what I told him. I assure you there was no
malicious intention on my part.”
 “Tut, tut,” said the Minister, “don’t apologise. You acted wisely, and
Clay was not unkind. The mistake was mine.”
“I am very sorry;” I began again lamely.
“No necessity to be sorry,” said he. “I have a sense of humour, and
quite understand how the whole thing came about. Clay has told me
everything.”
“I am obliged to Mr. Clay,” I said, rising from my chair with as much
dignity as I could command. I was very uncomfortable, and hoped
the roasting was over.
“Pray sit down,” said the Minister. “I wish to talk to you.”
Again I sat.
“I understand,” he said, “that you do not like pot holes.”
“Not particularly,” I replied, wondering what was coming next.
“You consider yourself above pot holes?” he asked.
“I admit the charge,” I said.
“Very good,” said the Minister. “You do not desire to leave the
Service, Mr. Clay tells me.”
“Mr. Clay has also told you why, I suppose,” I replied, beginning to
have a hazy idea that all was well.
“Yes,” replied he, “and I have looked into your case. You have a
good record for fifteen years.”
“Thank you,” I said.
“I will not prolong your discomfort,” said he. “I propose to increase
your responsibilities and your salary. You may thank our accidental
meeting and Mr. Clay for this.”
I expressed my gratefulness as well as I could and left the
minister’s office the most dazed Civil servant that ever existed. My
exit amused the Minister greatly. He shook me by the hand once
more and wished me well, and as the door closed behind me I could
hear his soft laugh. His promise was promptly carried out, and I left
pot holes for ever shortly after my memorable visit to his office. It
was well for me that he was prompt in this, for before many months
had passed a measure which seemed good to the Government
seemed bad to the people, and my Minister went down in the
overthrow.

Here I close my tale; my further doings would be an entirely

different story. I was anchored for life with a future before me of
comparative comfort as well assured as can be expected in the
affairs of humanity. I close my memoirs at the age of fifty, because I
was a boy till then, but no longer. I matured so late in life that my
boyhood lingered beyond its time. I have said comparatively little
about the Civil Service. I would have said more had I been able to
use names and recent incidents bringing my history up to date. But
being forced to generalise and use fictitious names, I have had to be
content with giving a mere sketch of my experience.
No one can understand the Civil Service unless he has lived in it
for a long period of years and can look backward. I see it now as a
clumsy, powerful machine guided by unskilled hands; or a great
foolish, good-natured, long-suffering giant allowing himself to be
bullied by pygmies—short-sighted, self-seeking, ignorant and
stubborn pygmies; or, let us say, little strutting bantams whose lives
are only a few days long. But in that brief tenure, they never tire of
harrying and baiting the great giant who will surely walk on all their
little graves.
The Civil Service suffers and will suffer, for many years to come,
from the dead weight of the human culls and misfits dumped into it
by the official and professional politician. It is really a great deal
better than might be expected, considering the handicap under
which it does a great work. To say that it is corrupt or inefficient, as if
it were the actual cause of its own failings and shortcomings, is
foolish. It is exactly what politicians have made it, and the politician
in his turn is the exact logical product of his time. A virtuous and
honest people produces virtuous and upright politicians; upright
politicians make a clean and efficient Civil Service. The failings of the
Civil Service are the failings of the people for whom it works. In
short, a country has the government it deserves to have, and what
the government is the Civil Service is.
Now, to end the chronicle, if I have any readers, I am quite aware
that the large majority of them will declare my tale to be the story of a
failure. But it is not so. What is success? I reply that I do not know. It
is one thing to one man and another to another. And even if the
world consider me as a failure, it must recognise that I failed in more
things than most men because I tried more things. And if the output
of energy is the measure of a man, these failures were only episodes
of a struggle toward a more human ideal of life.
I had a many-sided character to satisfy. I desired all things which
seemed good to me: a happy home, love, beautiful children, music,
literature, and the stage. I have been great in nothing; yet have I
tasted all things and partly satisfied all my cravings. This book is one
of my failures, but one, I persist, that makes for human experience.
Since the days of which I tell dire things have happened to me. I
have seen my poor old father, who loved me well, fall into premature
senile decay and die leaving my dear mother to make the short end
of the road alone. I have seen beguiling, attractive depravity take
away from me the little girl who was born at the mill, marry her, break
her heart, and kill her. On the other hand, I have seen my son grow
up and make a man of himself, marry the right woman (who is so
rarely found), and prosper. I have seen my Third Beloved grow in
beauty and character and mate with a man of heart and mind. All
these things have I seen; and my grand-children and I have kept
One Beloved at our side; and last, but by no means least, life has
spared me Muriel; and the world seems good. Therefore, write me
not down a failure.

THE TEMPLE PRESS, PRINTERS, LETCHWORTH

 Transcriber’s Notes

pg 15 Changed: cruelly on the slighest pretext

to: cruelly on the slightest pretext
pg 29 Changed: playlet with an entirely male caste
to: playlet with an entirely male cast
pg 51 Changed: which happened one moonlight night
to: which happened one moonlit night
pg 61 Changed: But with perseverence, patience and time
to: But with perseverance, patience and time
pg 82 Changed: with much love to aid the deliverence
to: with much love to aid the deliverance
pg 100 Changed: no knowledge of its pecularities
to: no knowledge of its peculiarities
pg 111 Changed: glad to possess, except perhaps perseverence
to: glad to possess, except perhaps perseverance
pg 115 Changed: appeared to be kneeding something
to: appeared to be kneading something
pg 119 Changed: promotors would get a great deal
to: promoters would get a great deal
pg 162 Changed: and with much patience and peseverence
to: and with much patience and perseverance
New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public
domain.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WESBLOCK,
THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN AUTOMATON ***

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