UNIT 1

 Ecosystems: Concept, structure and function of an ecosystem.

Producers, consumers and decomposers, Ecological succession;
Energy flow in the ecosystem: Food chains, food web and Ecological
pyramids.
 Biogeochemical cycles: Oxygen, Carbon, Nitrogen and Phosphorus.
ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem is defined as natural functional ecological unit comprising

of living organism and their non-living environment that interact to form
a stable self supporting system.
Ecosystem is a collection of living and non-living entities, all biotic and
abiotic organisms are inter dependent on each other for their survival i.e.
living organisms cannot live isolated from their non-living environment
because the later provides material and energy for the survival of the
former.

TYPES

1. Natural ecosystems or Biomes - operate by themselves under natural

conditions without any interference by man.

a) Terrestrial Biomes: They are often classified by the vegetation type

that dominates the community. The types of vegetation affect the climate
and soil structure and that characterize the particular biome. Terrestrial
vegetation has a rapid exchange of oxygen, water and carbon dioxide.
The carbon dioxide concentration is affected by terrestrial vegetation
seasonally and annually. Terrestrial biomes include tropical rain forests,
grassland, deserts, cultivated land, etc.
b) Aquatic biomes: They fall into two categories, Fresh water and
Marine. Fresh water biomes may be lotic (running water) such as streams,
rivers and springs, or lentic (standing water) such as lakes, ponds and
swamps, whereas, marine biomes include deep Sea and Oceans.

2. Artificial Ecosystem - They are maintained artificially by man. A pond

constructed as a part of a waste water treatment plant is an example of
artificial ecosystem, the management can vary over a wide range of
actions. Agriculture can be thought of as partial management of certain
kind of ecosystem.
STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM

Abiotic components:
The non living factory or the physical environment prevailing in an
ecosystem from the abiotic components. They have a strong influence on
the structure, distribution, behavior and inter-relationship of organisms.
Abiotic components are mainly of two types:
a. Climatic factors - Which include rain, temperature, light, wind,
humidity etc.
b. Edaphic factors - Which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.

Biotic components:
The living organisms including plants animals and microorganisms
(bacteria and fungi) that are present in an ecosystem from the biotic
components. On the basis of their role in the ecosystem the biotic
component can be classified into three main groups

A. Producers: The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which
they trap solar energy and change it into chemical energy of carbohydrate
using simple inorganic compounds using namely water and carbon
dioxide. This process is known as photosynthesis as the green plants
manufactures their own food they are also known as autotrops. (i.e. auto=
self, trophos= feeder).
The chemical energy stored by the producer is utilized partially by the
producer for their own growth and survival and the remaining is stored in
the plants parts for their future use.
B. Consumers: The animal lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesis
their own food. Therefore, they depend on the producers for their food.
They are known as hetrotrops. (i.e. htros= other, trophos= feeder). The
consumers are of four types, namely
i. Primary consumers or first order consumer or herbivores: these are the
animal which feed on plants are the producers, they are called herbivores.
Examples are rabbit, deer, goat etc.
ii. Secondary consumer or second order consumer or primary carnivores:
the animal which feed on the herbivores is called the primary carnivores.
Examples are cats, foxes, snakes etc.
iii. Tertiary consumers or third order consumers: these are large
carnivores which feed on secondary consumers. Examples are wolves etc.
iv. Quartinary consumer or forth order consumer or omnivores: these are
the largest carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not
eaten by the any other animals. Examples are lions, tigers, etc.
C. Decomposers or Reducers: Bacteria and fungi belong to this group.
They break down the dead organic materials of producers (plants) and
consumer (animals). For there food and release to the environment. The
simple organic and inorganic substances produced as by products of their
metabolisms. These simple substances are reused by the producers
resulting in the cyclic exchange of materials b/w the biotic community
and abiotic environment of ecosystem. The decomposers are known as
saprotrophos (i.e. sparos= roftn, trophos= feeder).

FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM

The functional attributes of the ecosystem keep the components running

together. Ecosystem functions are natural processes or exchange of
energy that take place in various plant and animal communities of
different biomes of the world.

The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

 It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems

and renders stability.
 It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and
abiotic components.
 It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the
ecosystem.
 It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
 The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components
that involve the exchange of energy.

(I) PRODUCTIVITY:
 A constant input of solar energy is the basic requirement for any
ecosystem to function and sustain.
 Primary production is defined as the amount of biomass or organic
matter produced per unit area over a time period by plants during
photosynthesis. It is expressed in terms of weight (g –2 ) or energy
(kcal m–2 ).
 The rate of biomass production is called productivity. It is
expressed in terms of g –2 yr –1 or (kcal m–2 )yr –1 to compare
the productivity of different ecosystems.
 It can be divided into gross primary productivity (GPP) and
net primary productivity (NPP).
 Gross primary productivity of an ecosystem is the rate of
production of organic matter during photosynthesis. A
considerable amount of GPP is utilized by plants in respiration.
Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R), is the net
primary productivity (NPP).
GPP – R = NPP
 Net primary productivity is the available biomass for the
consumption to heterotrophs (herbiviores and decomposers).
 Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of formation of new
organic matter by consumers.
 Primary productivity depends on the plant species inhabiting a
particular area. It also depends on a variety of environmental
factors, availability of nutrients and photosynthetic capacity of
plants. Therefore, it varies in different types of ecosystems.
 The annual net primary productivity of the whole biosphere is
approximately 170 billion tons (dry weight) of organic matter. Of
this, despite occupying about 70 per cent of the surface, the
productivity of the oceans are only 55 billion tons.

(II) DECOMPOSITION :
 decomposers break down complex organic matter into
inorganic substances like carbon dioxide, water and nutrients
and the process is called decomposition.
 Dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers and dead
remain of animals, including fecal matter, constitute detritus,
which is the raw material for decomposition.
 The important steps in the process of decomposition are
fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification and
mineralisation. Detritivores (e.g., earthworm) break down
detritus into smaller particles. This process is called
fragmentation.
 Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring process. The rate
of decomposition is controlled by chemical composition of
detritus and climatic factors. In a particular climatic condition,
decomposition rate is slower if detritus is rich in lignin and
chitin, and quicker, if detritus is rich in nitrogen and water-
soluble substances like sugars. Temperature and soil moisture
are the most important climatic factors that regulate
decomposition through their effects on the activities of soil
microbes. Warm and moist environment favour decomposition
whereas low temperature and anaerobiosis inhibit
decomposition resulting in build up of organic materials.

(III) ENERGY FLOW:

 The chemical energy of food is the main source of energy required
by all living organisms. This energy is transmitted to different
trophic levels along the food chain.
 This energy flow is based on two different laws of
thermodynamics: First law of thermodynamics, that states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only change
from one form to another.
 Second law of thermodynamics, that states that as energy is
transferred more and more of it is wasted. The energy flow in the
ecosystem is one of the major factors that support the survival of
such a great number of organisms.
 For almost all organisms on earth, the primary source of energy is
solar energy. It is amusing to find that we receive less than 50 per
cent of the sun’s effective radiation on earth.
 Most of the sun’s radiation that falls on the earth is usually
reflected back into space by the earth’s atmosphere. This effective
radiation is termed as the Photosynthetically Active Radiation
(PAR). Overall we receive about 40 to 50 percent of the energy
having Photosynthetically Active Radiation and only around 2-10
percent of it is used by plants for the process of photosynthesis.
Thus, this percent of PAR supports the entire world as plants are
the producers in the ecosystem and all the other organisms are
either directly or indirectly dependent on them for their survival.
 The energy flow takes place via food chain and food web. During
the process of energy flow in the ecosystem, plants being the
producers absorb sunlight with the help of the chloroplasts and a
part of it is transformed into chemical energy n in the process of
photosynthesis.
 This energy is stored in various organic products in the plants and
passed on to the primary consumers in the food chain when the
herbivores consume (primary consumers) the plants as food and
convert chemical energy accumulated in plant products into
kinetic energy, degradation of energy will occur through its
conversion into heat. Then followed by the secondary consumers.
 When these herbivores are consumed by carnivores of the first
order (secondary consumers) further degradation will occur.
 Finally, when tertiary consumers consume the carnivores, again
energy will be degraded. Thus, the energy flow is unidirectional in
nature.
 Based on the source of their nutrition or food, organisms occupy a
specific place in the food chain that is known as their trophic level.
Producers belong to the first trophic level, herbivores (primary
consumer) to the second and carnivores (secondary consumer) to
the third.
  The amount of energy decreases at successive trophic levels.
When any organism dies it is converted to detritus or dead biomass
that serves as an energy source for decomposers. Organisms at
each trophic level depend on those at the lower trophic level for
their energy demands.
 Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a
particular time called as the standing crop. The standing crop
is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the
number in a unit area. The biomass of a species is expressed in
terms of fresh or dry weight. Moreover, in a food chain, the
energy flow follows the 10 percent law. According to this law,
only 10 percent of energy is transferred from one trophic level
to the other; rest is lost into the atmosphere.

FOOD CHAIN

In an ecosystem the living organisms (biotic community) have a pattern

of feeding. The producers are eaten by the herbivores. Herbivores in turn
are eaten by carnivores. Carnivores may further be eaten by other larger
carnivores. In this process the food energy is transferred from plants to
herbivores to carnivores to larger carnivores who feed on them. The food
chain describes who eats whom in the wild. Every living thing—from
one-celled algae to giant blue whales—needs food to survive. Each food
chain is a possible pathway that energy and nutrients can follow through
the ecosystem.
A food chain is a linear network of links in a food web starting from
producer organics & ending at apex predator species, detritivores, or
decomposer species.

Tertiary consumer Fourth trophic level Man, lion

(Top Carnivores)
Secondary consumer Third trophic level Birds, fishes wolf
(Carnivore)
Primary consumer Second trophic level Zooplankton
(Herbivores) Grasshopper and cow
Producer First trophic level Phytoplankton grass,
trees

Characteristics of food chain:

1. In a food chain, there is a repeated eating in which each group eats
the smaller one and is eaten by the larger are so a food chain
involves a nutritive interaction between biotic components of an
ecosystems.
2. The plants & animal which depend successively on one another
from form the links of a food chain.
3. In a food chain there is a unidirectional flow of energy from sun to
producers and then to a series of consumers of various types.
4. Omnivorous generally occupy more than are trophic level in the
food chain.
5. The respiration cast increases along successive trophic levels of a
food chain on an average, it is about 20% at producers level, about
30% at the level of herbivores, and as high as 60% at the level of
carnivores. So the residual energy decreases at successive trophic
levels.
6. A food chain consists of series of population which are related by
eating & be eaten.
7. The number of trophic levels is 3-6.
8. There is progressive reduction in available biomass energy & no.
of individuals with the rise is trophic level.
9. In each trophic level a lot of biomass is consumed is liberating
energy.
10.A major part of energy made available at each trophic level is lost
as heat.
11.Some organisms like human operate at more than are trophic level.
12.Food chains are sustained by producers & decomposers.

Types of food chain:

There are two basic types of food chain
1- Grazing food chain (GFC):- It is a simple food chain that extends
from producers to herbivores to carnivores.
These types of food chains originate from plants & go to grazing animals
and then on to animal eaters.
e.g.,- Phytoplanktons – Zooplanktons – fish
Grass – rabbit – fox – lion
Producers – Herbivores – Carnivores Other Carnivores
(Primary consumer) (Secondary consumer) (Tertiary consumer)
Characteristics:
(i) There are directly dependent on solar radiation as the primary source
of energy.
(ii) Green plants (or producers) form the first trophic level of the food
chain. These synthesize their plant biomass by the process of photo
synthesis in which kinetic energy of color radiations in tropped in the
presence of Mg++containing green pigment chlorophyll and is converted
into potential energy of organic food (i.e glucose).
(iii) Herbivores or primary consumers eat upon the producers and form
the second trophic level.
(iv) Herbivores are eaten up by carnivores which are of different
categories.
(v) These always end at decomposer level.
e.g.,- Phytoplanktons – zooplanktons – fish
grass – rabbit – fox – lion
2- Detritus food chain:
It begins with dead organisms or dead organic matter and passes through
detritus feeding organisms in soil to organisms feeding on detritus
feeders.
This type of food chain goes from dead organic matter into
microorganisms to organisms feeding on detrivores & their predator. This
system is thus less dependent on solar energy.
e.g.- Detritus – Earthworm – sparrow – Falcon
Characteristics:
(i) Primary energy source of detritus food chain is dead organic matter
called detritus.
(ii) Main source of dead organic matter are fallen leaves or dead animal
bodies.
(iii) Primary consumers are detritivores (detritus eating). These include
protozoan‟s, bacteria, fungi etc. which food upon the detritus
saprophytically.
(iv) The detritivores, in term, are eaten by secondary consumers which
include insect larvae, nematodes etc.
(v) There are generally shorter than grazing food chain.
(vi) In nature, detritus food chain is indispensable as the dead organic
matter of grazing food chains is acted upon by the ditritivores to recycle
the inorganic elements into the ecosystem.

FOOD WEB
Definition: - A food web (or food cycle) is the natural interconnection of
food chains and generally a graphical representation of what – eats – what
in an ecological community. Another same for food web is a consumer
resource system.
e.g.- gram or plants may be eaten by grass hoppers as well as rabbits,
cattle and deers. Each of their herbivores may be eaten up by number at
carnivores like frogs, birds, crakes and tiger depending on their food
habits.
Characteristics:
(i) In an ecosystem, no food chain is independent and the linear
arrangement of food chains hardly occurs.
(ii) It is formed by interlinking of 3 types of food chains. e.g., predatory
chains (proceeds from smaller to larger organisms), parasitic chains
(proceed from larger to smaller organisms) and saprophytic chains
(starting from dead organic matter).
(iii) Food web provides the alternative pathways of food availability. e.g.,
if a particular crop is destroyed due to some disease, the herbivores are
that areas do not perish as they can graze other type of crop or herbs.
Similarly, Dogs (secondary consumers) may feed on rats and mice in the
went of decrease in the number of rabbits on which they also feed.
Greater number of there pathways, more stable is the ecosystem.
(iv) These also help in checking the overpopulation of some species of
plants and animals.
(v) The age and size of the species and availability of food source are
important factors in determining the position of an animal in a food web.
(vi) Normally, a food web operates according to taste and food
preferences of organisms at each trophic level for e.g. Tigers in
Sunderbans eat fish and crab instead of their natural pray.
(vii) Food web also helps in ecosystem developments time allows
increasingly intimate associations and reciprocal adaptations between
plants and animals.
(viii) Food web is more real than food chain.
(ix) It consists of a number of food chains interlinked at various trophic
levels.
(x) Food web is not straight. The component food chains do not run
parallel.
(xi) Food backs checks operate in food webs that keep the population of
different species rarely constant.
(xii) It is essential for stability of ecosystem.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID
An Ecological Pyramid is graphical representation of the trophic structure
and also trophic function.
In ecological pyramid the first all producer level forms the base and
successive level from the tier which make up apex.
The idea of ecological pyramid was developed by Charles Elton (1928).
So the Ecological Pyramid are also called Eltonian Pyramid.
An Ecological pyramid may be
Upright tapering towards the tip) or
Inverted (widen towards the tip) or
Spindle shaped (broader in the middle and narrow above and below an
upright ecological pyramid
On basis of Ecological Parameters there are three types of ecological
pyramid
1. The Pyramid of number
2. The pyramid of biomass
3. The pyramid of Energy

1. Pyramid of number
It is graphic representation showing the arrangement of the number of
individual organization at different level in an ecosystem is depicted.
There are three types of pyramid no.
(a) Upright Pyramid of Number- This type of upright pyramid of
number is found in grassland Ecosystem are band ecosystem the size of
aquarium increase from the carnivore level while their no decrease in
food chain.
(b) Partially Upright pyramid of Number- This type of pyramid is
found in tree dominated Ecosystem single large size tree (T.) Is attacked
by numerous minute plant eating and carnivorous insect (T3) which are
further less by small sized (T4) and (T5).
(c) Inverted Pyramid of Number- In parasitic food chain e.g.:- an oak
tree pyramid Number is an inverted pyramid in which single oak tree
supports large no. of fruit eating birds and large no. of parasites. Hyper
parasite like bacteria, fungi etc are the greatest in no. and occupy the top
of inverted pyramid of number.

2. Pyramid of Biomass
It is a graphic representation of biomass (total amount of living or organic
matters in an ecosystem at any time) present per unit area in different
tropic levels. A typical pyramid of biomass is more fundamental as it
shows the quantitative relationships of the standing crop. Pyramid of
biomass may also be straight or inverted.
In grassland and forest ecosystems, there is a gradual decrease in biomass
of organisms at successive tropic levels from producers onwards to top
carnivores (uprights or straight pyramid).
In pond ecosystem, on the other hand, produces are the smallest
organisms while carnivores are large in size. Consequently, there is a
gradual increase in biomass of organisms at successive tropic levels from
producers onwards to top carnivores resulting in inverted pyramid. There
the biomass of phytoplanktons will be smaller than that of zooplanktons;
the biomass of zooplanktons will be lesser than of primary carnivores
(E.g. Small fishes). In such an inverted pyramid of biomass a small
standing crop of phytoplankton supports a large standing crop of
zooplanktons.

3. Pyramid of Energy
“An energy pyramid is a graphical model of energy flow in community.
The different levels represent different groups of organisms that might
compose a food chain. From the bottom-up, they are as follow: producers
bring energy from nonliving sources into the community”.
When the production of a community is measured in terms of energy. We
find that a pyramid is formed starting from each tropic level. Than that
was put into it. Energy pyramid gives the best information on the nature
of the states of passage of food mass through the food chain.
There is always a gradual decreasing the energy content at successive
levels from the producers to consumers.
Energy pyramid Example-
When Organisms eat other organism, energy is transferred.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecological succession is the process of change in the species structure of
an ecological community over time. The time scale can be decades or
even millions of years after a mass extinction.
The community begins with relatively few pioneering plants and animals
and develops through increasing complexity until it becomes stable or
self perpetuating as a climax community. It is a phenomenon or process
by which an ecological community undergoes more or less orderly and
predictable changes following a disturbance or the initial colonization of
a new habitat. Succession may be initiated either by formation of new
unoccupied habitat such as from lava flow or a severe landslide.
The community which begins the process of the ecological succession is
called the pioneering community.
The community which ends up at the place is called the Climax
community.

Types of Ecological Succession

There are many kind of ecological succession. They are as follows:
A) Primary Succession: In any of the basic environment i.e., fresh
water, marine or terrestrial, there is always a one type of succession
known as primary succession that starts in a given area where life‟s
conditions such are not favorable in the beginning. In the starting of
primary succession, for example on exposed rock surface. Lichens and
mosses are all first to appear and in return they change the physical
environment such that the new species of autotrophs in that area can be
established. Consequently, heterotrophs also arrive in the area. In this
way succession continues leading to stable community.
B) Secondary Succession: It usually starts from previously build-up
substrata with already existing living matters. In this type of succession,
life‟s conditions are favorable due to the fact that these areas were earlier
occupied by a well settled community. These types of succession are
comparatively more rapid.
C) Autotrophic Succession: These types of succession are characterized
by early and continued dominance to autotrophic organisms like green
plants. These types of succession take place in predominant inorganic
environment and their energy flow is maintained indefinitely.
D) Allogeneic Succession: Sometimes existing community is taken over
for work by any other external conditions than by an existing organism.
Such type of succession is referred to as allogeneic succession.
E) Autogenic Succession: In some cases, after a succession has begun,
these are many community itself which as a result of its reactions with
surroundings, they modifies their own environment leading its own
replacement by new community.

Ecological succession based on habitat

3 types:
1. Hydrosere
2. Mesosere
3. Xerosere
HYDROSERE
7 stages
a) Phytoplankton
b) Submerged stage
c) Floating stage
d) Reed swamp stage
e) Sedge meadow stage
f) Woodland stage
g) Climax stage

2. MESOERE
3. Xerosere
crustose lichen, foliose lichen, mosses, small plants, plants, forest.

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
Energy flows directionally through ecosystems, entering as sunlight (or
inorganic molecules for chemoautotrophs) and leaving as heat during
energy transformation between trophic levels. Rather than flowing
through an ecosystem, the matter that makes up organisms is conserved
and recycled. Geologic processes, such as weathering, erosion, water
drainage, and the subduction of the continental plates, all play a role in
the cycling of elements on Earth.
A reservoiur is a pool which is larger slow moving usually abiotc portion
that is full of nutrients. The element cycles are of two kinds based on
the reservoiur types:
Gas cycles - Elements move through the atmosphere. Main reservoirs are
the atmosphere and the ocean. Examples: carbon, oxygen
Sedimentary cycles - Elements move from land to water to sediment.
Main reservoirs are the soil and sedimentary rocks. Examples:
sulfur,phosphorus

OXYGEN CYCLE
 The atmosphere contains about 21% oxygen. The atmospheric oxygen
enters the living organisms, as a gas required in respiration. During
this process carbon dioxide and water are formed.
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 —–> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy
 The metabolic water thus may undergo three possible fates. Some of
it may be excreted and so added to the water content of the
environment. Another part may be used as a building material for the
formation of more living matter. A third possible fate of the water
within organism is its consumption as a fundamental raw material
along with the carbon dioxide in photosynthesis.
 Such free oxygen may now again be used in respiration or it may be
returned to the environment as molecular atmospheric oxygen,
completing the cycle.
 Thus oxygen enters organisms only through respiration and leaves
through photosynthesis. In intervening steps the oxygen is
incorporated in water, and in this form it can interlink with the water
cycle or indirectly with carbon cycle.
 The oxygen is the atmosphere is the source of ozone (O3). The Ozone
layer protects organisms by preventing most of the ultraviolet and X-
ray from reaching the earth’s surface. The ozone layer breaks down
from the UV rays and forms oxygen. The oxygen and ozone are under
reversible reaction keeping in check the formation of the both.
CARBON CYCLE

Carbon is the most important element in the biological system and

constitutes about 50% of all living organisms. Carbon dioxide present in
the atmosphere or dissolved in water is the ultimate source of organic
carbon compounds occurring in nature; The cycle of carbon in nature
comprises of two main processes:

(i) The conversion of oxidized form of carbon into reduced organic form
by photosynthetic organisms, and

(ii) Restoration of original oxidized form through mineralization of the

organic form by the micro-organisms.

1. Conversion of Oxidized form of Carbon (CO2) into Reduced

Organic Form:

CO2 is reduced into organic carbon compounds mainly by the process of

photosynthesis. Photosynthetic algae and higher plants are the most
important agents of carbon dioxide fixation. In the ocean the major plant
forms that fix carbon are the free floating microscopic algae called
phytoplanktons.

Most of the carbon dioxide is said to be fixed by the terrestrial plants by

photosynthesis. Besides bacteria are also capable of synthesizing organic
matter from inorganic carbon.
(i) The carbon dioxide represents the sole source of carbon for
autotrophic bacteria. The latter fix CO2 to carbohydrates by a reduction
reaction.

CO2 + 2H2 → (CH2O)x + H2O

(ii) Heterotrophic bacteria fix carbon dioxide commonly.

2. Restoration of Original Oxidized Form (CO2) through

Mineralization of the Organic Form:

One can consider three different modes through which the organic matter
is mineralizes and the CO2 is released in the atmosphere.

They are:

(i) Process of respiration,

(ii) Accidental (forest fire) and intentional (fuel) burning.

The process of respiration in plants and animals, and the accidental and
intentional burning of plants and their parts result in the breakdown of
organic carbon compounds releasing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

(iii) Decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms.

Decomposition of Organic Matter by Microorganisms:

The organic carbon compounds that eventually are deposited in the soil
are degraded by the activities of microorganisms which are mainly the
bacteria and fungi. The CO2 is released into the air and soil.

(i) Cellulose Decomposition:

Cellulose is the most abundant organic material in plants. It is readily

attacked by many species of fungi and bacteria.

The process of cellulose decomposition to carbon dioxide can be

summarized in the form of following reactions:

The fungi which decompose cellulose in soil are mainly Trichoderma,

Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Chaetomium, Verticillium.
Rhizoctonia, Myrothecium, Merulius, Pleurotus, Fomes, etc.

The bacteria that bring about cellulose decomposition in soil consist

mainly of the species of Clostridium, Cellulomonas, Streptomyces,
Cytophaga, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Nocardia, Micromonospora,
Sporocytophaga, Polyangium, Cellfalcicula, etc.

(ii) Hemicellulose Decomposition:

Hemicelluloses are the polymers of simple sugars such as pentoses,

hexoses and uronic acid. The decomposition of hemicelluloses by
microorganisms takes place through the agency of extracellular enzymes
called hemicellulases.

The fungi that degrade hemicelluloses in soil are examplified by

Chaetomium, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Trichoderma, Fusarium,
Humicola, etc. Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Cytophaga, Vibrio, Erwinia,
Streptomyces, Actinomyces, etc. are the bacteria that degrade
hemicelluloses in soil.

(iii) Lignin Decomposition:

Lignin is the third most abundant constituent of the plants. It is highly

resistant of microbial degradation. However, certain fungi (examplified
by Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Lenzites, Clavaria, Polyporus,
etc.) and bacteria (examplified by Streptomyces, Nocardia,
Flavabacterium, Xanthomonas, Pseudomonas, Micrococcus, etc.) are
known to degrade lignin at slow rates.
 UNIT 2
Introduction, types, characteristic features, structure and function of the
following Ecosystem: Forest, Grassland, Desert ecosystem. Aquatic
ecosystems (Ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, ocean, estuaries)

The ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of ecology where the
living organisms interact with each other and the surrounding
environment. In other words, an ecosystem is a chain of interaction
between organisms and their environment. The term “Ecosystem” was
first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.
 Types of Ecosystem
There are two types of ecosystem:
• Terrestrial Ecosystem
• Aquatic Ecosystem
Terrestrial Ecosystems
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are
different types of terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various
geological zones. They are as follows:
1. Forest Ecosystems
2. Grassland Ecosystems
3. Tundra Ecosystems
4. Desert Ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and
microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the
environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth and
are the major carbon sink.
 A forest ecosystem consists of both forests and resources.
 Forests are naturally renewable resources.
 The trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers, and ground cover that make up a
forest are architecturally distinct from one another.
 Soil, animals, insects, bacteria, and birds are the forest ecosystem’s
most essential interacting components.
 Forests cover around 18-20% of India’s total land area.
Types of Forest Ecosystem
1. Coniferous Forest (Boreal Forest)
 Located in the Northern Hemisphere, south of the tundra, are the
evergreen coniferous forests known as the Boreal.
 They cover 20 million acres and stretch without a break across
Europe, Asia, and North America, making them the world’s
second-largest biome.
 The snow forest, or Taiga, is another name for this forest. Days are
short and the winters are long and brutal.
 Coniferous forests consist mostly of conifers, which are trees that
grow needles instead of leaves and cones instead of flowers.
Conifers tend to be evergreen—they bear needles all year long.
These adaptations help conifers survive in areas that are very cold
or dry. Some of the more common conifers are spruces, pines, and
firs.
 Precipitation in coniferous forests varies from 300 to 900 mm
annually, with some temperate coniferous forests receiving up to
2,000 mm/ year (79 in/year). The amount of precipitation depends
on the forest location. In the northern boreal forests, the winters are
long, cold and dry, while the short summers are moderately warm
and moist. In the lower latitudes, precipitation is more evenly
distributed throughout the year.
2. Temperate Deciduous Forest
 Biomes are grouped together due to their defining characteristics;
temperate deciduous woods are classified as such because they
experience all four seasons and the trees shed their leaves in the
fall and winter.
 Deciduous forests are found in the transition zone between
temperate zones and tropical regions.
 Therefore, the climate of this biome is influenced by air masses
from both biomes.
 Largest deciduous forests may be discovered in the Northern
Hemisphere, which includes much of Asia, Europe, and North
America.
 Although deciduous forests can be found in the Southern
Hemisphere, they are often significantly smaller than their
Northern counterparts. Broadleaf trees (oaks, maples, beeches),
shrubs, perennial herbs, and mosses
 Temperate deciduous forests are most notable because they go
through four seasons: Winter, Spring, Summer, and Fall. Leaves
change color (or senesce) in autumn, fall off in the winter, and
grow back in the spring; this adaptation allows plants to survive
cold winters.
 Example: Madrid, Spain
 Temperate deciduous forests are located in the mid-latitude areas
which means that they are found between the polar regions and the
tropics. The deciduous forest regions are exposed to warm and cold
air masses, which cause this area to have four seasons. The
temperature varies widely from season to season with cold winters
and hot, wet summers. The average yearly temperature is about
10°C. The areas in which deciduous forests are located get about
 750 to 1,500 mm of precipitation spread fairly evenly throughout
the year.
 During the fall, trees change color and then lose their leaves. This
is in preparation for the winter season. Because it gets so cold, the
trees have adapted to the winter by going into a period of
dormancy or sleep. They also have thick bark to protect them from
the cold weather. Trees flower and grow during the spring and
summer growing season.
 Many different kinds of trees, shrubs, and herbs grow in deciduous
forests. Most of the trees are broadleaf trees such as oak, maple,
beech, hickory and chestnut. There are also several different kinds
of plants like mountain laurel, azaleas and mosses that live on the
shady forest floor where only small amounts of sunlight get
through.

3. Temperate evergreen forest:

 During the Cenozoic, temperate evergreen forests first appeared.
There are temperate evergreen forests in both hot and cold
temperature zones.
 The density of evergreen trees prevents sunlight from reaching the
ground.
 They contain an assortment of autotrophs and heterotrophs.
 There are temperate evergreen forests in both the northern and
southern hemispheres.
 Temperate evergreen woods are located in milder, more equatorial
temperatures than temperate deciduous forests.
 Temperate evergreen forests are tracked down in regions with
warm and cold climates. They are overwhelmed by bigger trees
that are evergreen. The vegetation in mild evergreen timberlands
comprises little leaved coniferous trees, little leaved deciduous
trees, and conifers, and the fauna in the backwoods incorporate
moose, reindeers, elk, caribou, raccoons, falcons, and owls. These
 woods are thick to the point that even the daylight doesn’t arrive at
the ground. They get weighty precipitation consistently.
 The dirt in mild evergreen backwoods is poor in supplements. In
this manner, the trees have adjusted to states of hydric pressure and
less supplement accessibility. These woods are more inclined to
woodland flames, dry spells, and cold.
 The coniferous evergreen mild woods are overwhelmed by species
in the families Pinaceae and Cupressaceae.
 They get somewhere in the range of 300 and 900 mm of downpour
each year by and large. Temperature limits range from – 40 to 20
degrees Celsius over time.
4. Boreal Forest Ecosystem
 The boreal forest is also known as Taiga forests are generally
found in Siberia, Northern Asia, Canada, and Scandinavia.
 One of the main characteristics of the boreal forest is that it
experiences short summers and very long winter seasons.
Boreal forests receive approximately 15-40 inches precipitation
every year (mostly receives in the form of snowfall).
 The trees found in boreal forests are the evergreen type, such as
pine, fir, spruce, etc. The boreal forest has a dense canopy that
hardly allows the sun to reach the
 The animals found in the boreal forest ecosystem are usually
covered with thick fur to protect them from a long period of
cold winters.
 Some examples of animals that lived in boreal forests are – elk,
caribou, lynxes, wolverines, deer, snowshoe hare, moose,
wolves, etc.forest surface. This is why the vegetation is quite
less in the forest floor.

 Structural Features of the Forest Ecosystem:

The two main structural features of a forest ecosystem are:
1. Species composition: It refers to the identification and
enumeration of the plant and animal species of a forest
ecosystem.
2. Stratification: It refers to the vertical distribution of
different species which occupy different levels in the forest
ecosystem. Every organism occupies a place in an ecosystem
on the basis of source of nutrition. For example, in a forest
ecosystem, trees occupy the top level, shrubs occupy the
second and the herbs and grasses occupy the bottom level.
 Functions of a Forest Ecosystem :
The components of a forest ecosystem are as follows:
1.Productivity
 The basic requirement for any ecosystem to function and sustain is
the constant input of solar energy. Plants are also the producers in a
forest ecosystem.
There are two types of productivity in a forest ecosystem, primary
and secondary. Primary productivity means the rate of capture of
solar energy or biomass production per unit area over a period of
time by the plants during photosynthesis.
 It is further divided into Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) and Net
Primary Productivity (NPP). GPP of an ecosystem is the rate of
capture of solar energy or the total production of biomass.
However, plants also use a significant amount of GPP in
respiration.
 Thus, NPP is the amount of biomass left after the utilization by
plants or the producers. We can hence say that NPP is the amount
which is available for the consumption to herbivores and
decomposers. Secondary productivity means the rate of absorption
of food energy by the consumers.
2. Decomposition
 Decomposition is an extremely oxygen-requiring process. In the
process of decomposition, decomposers convert the complex
organic compounds of detritus into inorganic substances such as
carbon dioxide, water and nutrients.
 Detritus is the remains of the dead plant such as leaves, bark,
flowers and also the dead remains of the animals including their
faecal matter. The steps involved in the process of
decomposition are fragmentation, leaching, catabolism,
humification and mineralization.
 In the process of fragmentation, detritivores break down the
detritus into smaller particles. In the process of leaching, water-
soluble inorganic nutrients descend down into the soil and settle
as unavailable salts.
 Under the process of catabolism, bacterial and fungal enzymes
reduce detritus into simpler inorganic substances.
 Humification and mineralization processes take place during the
decomposition of soil and not detritus.The process of
humification leads to the accumulation of humus which
undergoes decomposition at a very slow rate. In the process of
mineralization, the humus gets further degraded by microbes
and inorganic nutrients are released.
3. Energy flow
  Energy flows in a single direction. Firstly, plants capture solar
energy and then, transfer the food to decomposers. Organisms
of different trophic levels are connected to each other for food
or energy relationship and thus form a food chain.
 Energy Pyramid is always upright because energy flows from
one trophic level to the next trophic level and in this process,
some energy is always lost as heat at each step.
4. Nutrient Cycling
 Nutrient cycling refers to the storage and movement of nutrient
elements through the various components of the ecosystem.
There are two types of Nutrient cycling, gaseous and
sedimentary.
 For Gaseous cycle (i.e. nitrogen, carbon), atmosphere or
hydrosphere is the reservoir whereas for the sedimentary cycle
(i.e. phosphorus) Earth’s crust is the reservoir.
2. Grassland Ecosystem:
 In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses
and herbs. Temperate grasslands, savanna grasslands are some of
the examples of grassland ecosystems.
 Grassland ecosystem is characterized by a dry climate that allows
very little vegetation mostly dominated by different species of
grasses. The grasses reproduce in grasslands through the
pollination process or in some cases through producing plants from
their roots.
 Grassland ecosystem is known by different names across the globe.
For example – steppes in Europe & Asia, Veldt in South Africa,
Pampas in South America, Downs in Australia, etc. The climatic
conditions of different grasslands vary to some extent, depending
on their locations.
 Grassland ecosystem plays an important role in the animal
kingdom. Various species of animals starting from herbivores,
carnivores, omnivores, insects, etc. live together in grasslands
making it a rich ecosystem in terms of the food chain.
 In general terms, an ecosystem with huge open lands where the
vegetation includes different types of grasses with very few
numbers of trees is known as the grassland ecosystem.
 The plants and animals of the grassland ecosystem find it quite
challenging to live in the harsh climatic conditions. However, those
who have adapted to the adverse climate of this region can survive
in the grassland ecosystem.

Types of Grassland Ecosystem:

 A grassland ecosystem consists of huge fields covered with
grasses, herbs and very few scattered trees. One of the main
reasons for poor vegetation in grassland ecosystem is the irregular
precipitation.
 There are six main types of grasslands—tropical grasslands,
temperate grasslands, flooded grassland ecosystem, tundra
grasslands, montane grassland and Xeric grassland ecosystem.
a. Tropical grassland ecosystem:
 Savanna is an excellent example of the tropical grassland
ecosystem. The climate of the tropical grasslands ecosystem is
known to be warm throughout the year. It receives mainly two
seasons, i.e. rainy and dry.
 The precipitation (rain) during the rainy season in tropical
grassland ecosystem ranges between 50 and 130 cms. The soil of
tropical grasslands is quite poor in terms of fertility due to a lack of
nutrients.
The grasses in the fields of tropical grassland are comparative
shorts that provide a perfect platform for grazing animals and for
hunting animals too. Tropical grasslands are home to various
species of animals.
b. Temperate grassland ecosystem:
 North American Prairies is an excellent example of a temperate
grassland ecosystem. It receives an annual rainfall of up to 25 to 75
cm. Unlike tropical grassland temperate grasslands are quite rich in
nutrient content in the soil.
 The rich nutrient content improves the fertility of the soil that
makes the grasslands perfect for farming; This is why more than
50% of temperate prairies grasslands have been used for farming
purposes. These farming lands fulfill the world’s demands for food
to a large extent.
 The grasses in temperate grasslands are taller as compared to
tropical grasslands. The temperate grassland ecosystem also
provides shelter to a wide variety of wild animals.
c. Flooded grassland ecosystem:
 As the name suggests, flooded grasslands have water throughout
the year. That is why here you can find a huge variety of plants that
grow in water.
 Here you can also find a huge variety of birds migrated from other
regions, whereas some are residents of the flooded grassland
ecosystem. Florida’s Everglades is a perfect example of the
flooded grassland ecosystem.
d. Tundra grasslands ecosystem:
 Tundra grasslands are also known as polar grasslands. It is located
in higher altitudes to subarctic areas. Tundra grassland ecosystem
experience a very short growing season. As far as the vegetation of
tundra grasslands is concerned, it consists of huge grass fields and
shrubs in between.
e. Montane grassland ecosystem:
 In simple terms, montane means higher altitudes. The grassland
found on high altitudes above the tree-line is known as the
montane grassland ecosystem.
 The plants found in montane grasslands are unique in structure
with dish-like formation, full of fur and waxy surface area.
Northern Andes is an excellent example of a montane grassland
ecosystem.
f. Xeric or Desert grassland ecosystem
 Desert grasslands are situated on the outskirts of the desert low
lands. Desert grassland ecosystem is very poor in terms of
precipitation as it receives very low rainfall: This is why the
desert grassland ecosystem is the hottest and driest grassland
ecosystems present on the Earth.
g. Tundra Ecosystem
 Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold
climates or where rainfall is scarce.
 These are covered with snow for most of the year. The
ecosystem in the Arctic or mountain tops is tundra type.
 Characteristics of Grassland Ecosystem:
a. Precipitation in grassland ecosystem-
 Grasslands ecosystem receives quite limited rainfall annually, and
it covers almost 25% of the total land surface of the Earth. Limited
rain causes no forest growth in this region.
 Grassland ecosystem is also prone to drought and uncertain
precipitation. Different grasslands have a different measurement of
annual precipitation. For example – Savanna grassland experiences
yearly rainfall up to 30-40 inches, whereas steppes in South-
Eastern Europe or Siberia the annual rainfall ranges between 10-20
inches.
b. The temperature in the grassland ecosystem-
 The temperature varies a lot throughout the year. In summer season
the temperature of temperate grasslands becomes too hot up to 38
degrees Celsius, whereas in winter seasons it reduces up to -40
degrees Celsius making it too cold.
  On the other hand, the temperature of the savanna grasslands does
not vary a lot. It ranges between 21-26 degrees Celsius. The
climate of Savanna grassland is warm throughout the year.
c. Regular fire in the grassland ecosystem-
 Fires in grasslands are one of the important characteristics. Due
to dry climate and flash lighting, the dry grass catches fire quite
easily. Regular fire in grasslands increases the growth of grasses
in fields, but it restricted the growth of trees, unfortunately; This
is the reason; grassland ecosystem is lacking behind in terms of
trees growth.
d. Poor vegetation in the grassland ecosystem-
 Poor vegetation is also a vital characteristic of the grassland
ecosystem. This ecosystem is named grassland because of its
huge area covered with grass fields. Very few numbers of trees
in acres of grassland areas.
 The dry climate and less rainfall is a major reason for poor
vegetation in a grassland ecosystem. The grasses in the
grassland ecosystem have adopted the climate of this region as
compared to trees. As a result, you will find only grass fields in
the grassland ecosystem.
 The common species of grasses include purple needlegrass,
foxtail, buffalo grass, wild oats, ryegrass, etc. These grasses
have strong underground stems and roots that protect them from
fires. It is excellent for grazing animals.
 Key characteristics of the grassland ecosystem:
 Limited annual rainfall.
 The dry climate throughout the year.
 Lack of nutrients in the soil.
 Grasslands are prone to drought and uncertain precipitation.
 Frequent fire due to semi-arid climate and flash lighting.
 Poor vegetation growth dominated by grasses.
 Grasslands are home for a huge variety of animal species.
3. Desert Ecosystem
 Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with
very little rainfall. The days are hot and the nights are cold.
 Deserts are areas that receive very little precipitation. Although
some deserts are very hot, with daytime temperatures as high as
54°C (130°F), other deserts have cold winters or are cold year-
round.
 And most deserts, far from being empty and lifeless, are home to a
variety of plants, animals, and other organisms.
 One thing all deserts have in common is that they are arid, or dry.
Most experts agree that a desert is an area of land that receives no
more than 25 centimeters (10 inches) of precipitation a year. The
amount of evaporation in a desert often greatly exceeds the annual
rainfall. In all deserts, there is little water available for plants and
other organisms.
 Deserts are found on every continent and cover about one-fifth of
Earth’s land area. They are home to around 1 billion people—one-
sixth of the Earth’s population.
 Although the word “desert” may bring to mind a sea of shifting
sand, dunes cover only about 10 percent of the world’s deserts.
Some deserts are mountainous. Others are dry expanses of rock,
sand, or salt flats.

 Kinds of Deserts
 The world’s deserts can be divided into five types—subtropical,
coastal, rain shadow, interior, and polar. Deserts are divided into
these types according to the causes of their dryness.
1. Subtropical Deserts:
 Subtropical deserts are caused by the circulation patterns of air
masses. They are found along the Tropic of Cancer, between 15
and 30 degrees north of the Equator, or along the Tropic of
Capricorn, between 15 and 30 degrees south of the Equator.
 Hot, moist air rises into the atmosphere near the Equator. As the air
rises, it cools and drops its moisture as heavy tropical rains. The
resulting cooler, drier air mass moves away from the Equator. As it
approaches the tropics, the air descends and warms up again. The
descending air hinders the formation of clouds, so very little rain
falls on the land below.
 The world’s largest hot desert, the Sahara, is a subtropical desert in
northern Africa. The Sahara Desert is almost the size of the entire
continental United States. Other subtropical deserts include the
Kalahari Desert in southern Africa and the Tanami Desert in
northern Australia.
2. Coastal Deserts:
 Cold ocean currents contribute to the formation of coastal deserts.
Air blowing toward shore, chilled by contact with cold water,
produces a layer of fog. This heavy fog drifts onto land. Although
humidity is high, the atmospheric changes that normally cause
rainfall are not present. A coastal desert may be almost totally
rainless, yet damp with fog.
 The Atacama Desert, on the Pacific shores of Chile, is a coastal
desert. Some areas of the Atacama are often covered by fog. But
the region can go decades without rainfall. In fact, the Atacama
Desert is the driest place on Earth. Some weather stations in the
Atacama have never recorded a drop of rain.

3. Rain Shadow Deserts:

 Rain shadow deserts exist near the leeward slopes of some
mountain ranges. Leeward slopes face away from prevailing winds.
 When moisture-laden air hits a mountain range, it is forced to rise.
The air then cools and forms clouds that drop moisture on the
windward (wind-facing) slopes. When the air moves over the
mountaintop and begins to descend the leeward slopes, there is
little moisture left. The descending air warms up, making it
difficult for clouds to form.
 Death Valley, in the U.S. states of California and Nevada, is a rain
shadow desert. Death Valley, the lowest and driest place in North
America, is in the rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada mountains.

4. Interior Deserts:
 Interior deserts, which are found in the heart of continents, exist
because no moisture-laden winds reach them. By the time air
 masses from coastal areas reach the interior, they have lost all their
moisture. Interior deserts are sometimes called inland deserts.
 The Gobi Desert, in China and Mongolia, lies hundreds of
kilometers from the ocean. Winds that reach the Gobi have long
since lost their moisture. The Gobi is also in the rain shadow of the
Himalaya mountains to the south.

5. Polar Deserts:
 Parts of the Arctic and the Antarctic are classified as deserts. These
polar deserts contain great quantities of water, but most of it is
locked in glaciers and ice sheets year-round. So, despite the
presence of millions of liters of water, there is actually little
available for plants and animals.
 The largest desert in the world is also the coldest. Almost the entire
continent of Antarctica is a polar desert, experiencing little
precipitation. Few organisms can withstand the freezing, dry
climate of Antarctica.
6. Changing Deserts:
 The regions that are deserts today were not always so dry. Between
8000 and 3000 BCE, for example, the Sahara had a much milder,
moister climate. Climatologists identify this period as the “Green
Sahara.”

 Characteristics of Desert Ecosystem

1. Less Rainfall or Precipitation: Less precipitation is a key
desert characteristic and the primary cause of its dryness.
Deserts receive seasonal precipitation that lasts only briefly
(just around 25 to 30 centimeters).
2. Aridity: Aridity is characterized by a lack of dry moisture.
As it receives less precipitation, it becomes arid.
3. Wind Velocity: The wind velocity in this ecosystem is high.
This is why deserts endure more intense dust storms and
sandstorms, which generate sand dunes.
4. Tremendous temperature: This sort of habitat suffers
extreme nighttime and daytime temperatures! The days are
extremely warm, and the nights are extremely cold.
 5. Humidity: During the day, the humidity level is modest,
however at night, it rises to high levels.
6. Population Density: The deserts have a low population
density. Additionally, there is a lack of food and water, and
the climate is harsh, neither of which are conducive to life.
7. Scarcity of water: There is a water shortage due to the
insignificant rainfall. This lack of water causes more than six
months of drought in deserts!
8. Biodiversity: It is difficult to survive in a desert setting
without biodiversity. Despite this, deserts are home to a
variety of creatures and flora. They have developed the
survival abilities necessary to survive in such extreme and
harsh desert circumstances.
9. Soil Quality: Desert soils are rocky, arid, sandy, and thin.
Thus, it has a limited rate of plant growth. The soil has no
organic components, such as phosphate and nitrogen, and is
grey in appearance.

Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can
be further divided
into two types, namely:
1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes,
ponds, rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt content in
contrast with the marine ecosystem. Only 3.5% is freshwater, and the rest
96.5% is saltwater in the form of oceans. The Freshwater is found in the
form of ponds, lakes, streams, frozen water, etc. other than oceans and
seas. The freshwater ecosystem plays an important role in biodiversity.
However, it is less extensive as compared to the saltwater ecosystem.
Freshwater resources also differ from each other in terms of their
movement. Some freshwater bodies are moving continuously like rivers,
whereas some others are stagnant like ponds.
Types of Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is mainly divided into three types based on its
region – Lotic, lentic, and wetland freshwater ecosystem.
1. Lotic Freshwater Ecosystem
In simple terms, the water bodies moving in one direction is known as a
lotic freshwater ecosystem. Rivers and streams are common examples of
lotic ecosystems.
There are many rivers and stream that flows from their origin and
ultimately meets with other water channels or oceans at its mouth. Lotic
freshwater travel through different locations from its source to mouth.
The lotic freshwater ecosystem is divided into three zones such as –
Source Zone
The source zone commonly known as the headwaters zone refers to the
narrow and fast-moving zone of a lotic freshwater. The temperature is
very cold in the source zone.
It contains much amount of dissolve oxygen but is not very productive
like a transition zone. However, some freshwater fishes are found in
source zone such as trout.
Transition Zone
The transition zone is the middle part of the stream or river, where it
becomes deeper and flows gently. The temperature of the transition zone
is a little warmer, and it also contains less oxygen as compared to the
source zone.
This is the productive zone of a lotic ecosystem with more nutrients
where various species of aquatic plants and algae are found.
Floodplain Zone
The floodplain zone is also known as the mouth of a stream or river; This
zone of a lotic ecosystem is characterized by a very low dissolved oxygen
level, warm temperature, and with the slower flow.I
n this zone, the water becomes murky due to sediments picked up all way
in its journey from its source.
The Floodplain zone is quite poor in terms of diversity of flora and fauna.
2. Lentic Freshwater Ecosystem
An aquatic ecosystem within stagnant or still water like ponds and lakes
is known as Lentic Freshwater Ecosystem. Lentic ecosystem found in
various sizes ranging from a few square meters to thousands of square
km.
Some ponds last just for a few months as these are seasonal like sessile
pools. On the other hand, lakes may exist for many years. Lentic
ecosystem, i.e. Ponds and lakes, support a very limited number of species.
lentic ecosystem is divided into three zones based on their depth and
distance from the shoreline.
Littoral Zone:
This is the topmost zone in the area near the shoreline of a pond or lake.
The Littoral zone is characterized by a shallow and warm zone of a lentic
ecosystem.
This zone provides shelter to various species of algae, few species of
aquatic plants, clams, crustaceans, amphibians, snails, and various
insects, etc.
Flora and fauna found in the littoral zone generally serve as food for other
creatures like ducks, turtles, etc.
Limnetic Zone or Photic Zone
The open water zone where sunlight supports the photosynthesis process
is known as the photic zone. The photic zone is also termed as a limnetic
zone.
It is the zone of a lentic ecosystem that is generally dominated by
planktons (both phytoplankton and zooplankton). As planktons are the
primary producers, hence the limnetic zone plays an essential role in the
food chain of a freshwater ecosystem.
Profundal Zone or Aphotic Zone
The deep water zone where sunlight hardly penetrates is known as a
profundal or aphotic zone. Photosynthesis is not possible in this zone due
to the scarcity of sunlight. The aphotic zone is cold as compared to the
other two zones.
The aquatic animals found in the profundal zone are heterotrophs in
nature as they consume dead organisms.
 3. Wetland Freshwater Ecosystem
Wetlands are still water bodies that support vascular plants. Marshes,
swamps, and bogs are commonly known as wetland ecosystems.
Wetlands are quite productive due to the proximity of water and soil.
The plant species found in the wetlands are known as hydrophytes as they
have adapted the moist and humid environment of the region. The
common hydrophyte plants found in the wetland ecosystem include
cattails, tamarack, pond lilies, sedges, black spruce, etc.
As far as animal species are a concern, wetlands provide shelter to
various amphibians, reptiles, birds, shrimp, shellfish, etc.

Freshwater Ecosystem Characteristics

 The freshwater ecosystem is a habitat for various plant and animal
species. One of the major reasons is that it is quite rich in terms of
nutrition and minerals.
 The freshwater ecosystem is less saline, unlike the marine
ecosystem.
  The temperature in this ecosystem varies depending on some
factors like location, season, and depth from the water surface.
 During summers, the temperature of the freshwater ecosystem
generally ranges from 30-71 degrees Fahrenheit. Whereas during
winters, the temperature ranges from 35-45 degrees Fahrenheit.
 The size and shape of freshwater ecosystems vary depending on
location, an area covered, and depth of water bodies.
 The freshwater ecosystem contains sediments at the bottom. In
gentle flowing freshwater bodies or still water bodies, the
sediments remain in place.
 The freshwater ecosystem provides a suitable environment for
various species of flora and fauna.
Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more
substantial salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the
freshwater ecosystem.
Marine means saltwater bodies i.e., oceans and seas of the Earth’s
surface. The interaction between the living (plants and animals) and non-
living things within the marine culture are commonly known as the
marine ecosystem.
Characteristics of marine ecosystem:
a. Temperature:
The average temperature of oceanic water is 30 degrees Fahrenheit.
However, this temperature may vary (maybe colder or warmer)
depending on its location on the Earth’s surface.
The marine ecosystem near the equator experience comparative warm
water temperature, whereas the one which is close to the poles, have cold
water temperature. The temperature of the marine ecosystem plays an
essential role in the lives of living creatures underwater.
b. Water :
Approximately 90% is covered by marine water bodies like seas and
oceans. Marine water contains approximately 96.5% pure water, and the
rest 3.5% are the dissolved compounds such as chlorine, sodium,
magnesium, sulfur, calcium, potassium, etc.
However, the salinity of the marine ecosystem not only depends on these
dissolved compounds but on other factors as well, like the latitude,
erosion, atmospheric activity, depth, volcanic activity, biological activity,
etc.
c. Sunlight:
Sunlight acts as a primary component to maintain proper balance in the
marine ecosystem food chain.
More importantly, the availability of sunlight very much depends on the
depth of the marine water. There is the aphotic zone (with a water depth
up to 100 meters) in the marine ecosystem where sunlight can reach to
help the photosynthesis process. On the other hand, the aphotic zone
(with a water depth more than 100 meters) where sunlight cannot reach,
and thus photosynthesis process gets affected.
d. Biodiversity
The marine ecosystem supports great biodiversity as compared to other
ecosystems of the planet. The species of the marine ecosystem have
adapted the aquatic culture for its survival. For example – the fishes have
gills that help them to breathe in water.
Many plant and animal species live together in the marine ecosystem.
Some of the common aquatic species are-
1. Plants like kelp, phytoplankton, seaweeds, seagrasses, mangroves,
etc.
2. Fishes like sharks, tuna, grouper, eels, seahorse, gars, swordfish,
clownfish, stingray, flatfish, rockfish, sunfish mola, etc.
3. Mammals like seals, dolphins, blue whales, walruses, manatees,
otters, etc.
Types of Marine Ecosystem
Marine ecosystems types include open deep sea, salt water wet-land,
coral reefs, estuary, mangroves, sandy beach, kelp forest, polar marine
and rocky marine ecosystem.
1. Open Marine Ecosystem
The open water surface is known as the marine ecosystem. This is the
upper layer of the ocean where sun rays reach quite easily.
The open marine ecosystem extends up to 150 meters from the ocean
surface. The open marine ecosystem provides habitat to various sea
creatures such as plankton, algae, whales, jellyfish, etc.
2. Deep-Sea Marine Ecosystem
The ecosystem deep inside the oceans at its floor is known as the deep
sea marine ecosystem. Deep-sea marine ecosystem inhabiting various
animal species in the seabed up to 1000 meters depth underwater.
Sunlight is one of the big challenges to penetrate at the seafloor;
however, the species have adapted the marine environment of this
region.
3. Coral Reef Marine Ecosystem
Coral reefs are special type of marine ecosystem found in the seafloor.
This ecosystem is mostly found in tropical waters and is quite a
productive ecosystem found on the Earth. The coral reefs are the
skeleton made up of limestone i.e., calcium carbonate.
The coral reef ecosystem provides food and shelter to almost ¼ of
marine water species. Coral reefs attract exotic color fishes like
sponges, snails, seahorses, sometimes large animals like sh arks &
dolphins, etc.

4. Saltwater Wetland Marine Ecosystem

The coastal areas of oceans and seas are known as the saltwater
wetland ecosystem. The saltwater wetland marine ecosystem is
again classified into two types – saltwater swamps and salt marshes.
Saltwater swamps are regions dominated with trees, whereas salt
marshes are covered with grasses. Commonly found water species of
saltwater wetland ecosystem are amphibians, reptiles, some migratory
birds, shellfishes, few fishes, etc.
5. Estuary Marine Ecosystem
The area around the river mouth where it merges with marine water is
usually termed as an estuary marine ecosystem. The salinity in this
ecosystem varies with the tides. The estuary ecosystem does not
support a variety of species.
Mostly the species of the neighboring ecosystem are found in the
Estuary marine ecosystem.
6. Mangrove Marine Ecosystem
In some tropical and sub-tropical coastal regions, a special type of
saltwater swamp is found, which is known as mangroves. Mangrove
swamps are home for special types of trees that can survive in the
saline ecosystem.
These mangroves are characterized by a special kind of roots to absorb
oxygen to survive. The roots are extended above the water surface.
Mangrove ecosystem provides shelter to various species such as
shrimps, jellyfish, birds, sponges, crabs, fish, crocodiles, etc.
7. Kelp Forest Marine Ecosystem
The kelp forest ecosystem is found in comparative cooler water. The
average temperature of this ecosystem ranges from 42-72 degrees
Fahrenheit with depth up to 60-90 feet.
Kelp forest ecosystem supports various animal species such as
seabirds, shorebirds, invertebrates (like crabs, sea stars, snails, etc.),
fishes, mammals (like sea lions, seals, whales, sea otter, etc.
8. Polar Marine Ecosystem
As the climate of Polar Regions is extremely cold; thus, the
temperature of this type of marine ecosystem is also too cold. The
species found in the polar marine ecosystem have adapted to the
adverse climatic conditions of this region.
The most common species found in the polar marine ecosystem
includes planktons, algae, birds like penguins, polar bears, seals,
walruses, etc.
9. Rocky Marine Ecosystem
The rock shores, rock cliffs, boulders, tide pools, etc. combine to make
rocky marine ecosystems. The biodiversity of rocky marine ecosystem
generally have species like lichens, invertebrate (lobsters, urchins,
barnacles, sea stars, sea squirts, seal, etc.
The marine ecosystem is a unique ecosystem that supports various plant
and animal lives. All these species set an excellent example of a great
food chain as compared to other ecosystems.

Unit III
Biodiversity and its conservation: Introduction, definition, genetic,
species, and Ecosystem diversity.
Biogeographical classification of India; Value of biodiversity,
consumption and productive use; Social, ethical and aesthetic values.

Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability among all groups of

living organisms and the ecosystem complexes in which they occur. It
refers to the richness in variety and variability of species of all living
organism in a given habitat.
In the Convention of Biological diversity (1992) biodiversity has been
defined as the variability among living organisms from all sources
including inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and
the ecological complexes of which they are a part.
Levels of Biodiversity
Units of biodiversity may range from the genetic level within a species to
the biota in a specific region and may extend up to the great diversity
found in different biomes.

GENETIC DIVERSITY
It is the basic source of biodiversity. Genes are the basic units of
hereditary information transmitted from one generation to other. When
the genes within the same species show different versions due to new
combinations, it is called genetic variability. For example, all rice
varieties belong to the species Oryza sativa, but there are thousands of
wild and cultivated varieties of rice which show variations at the genetic
level and differ in their color, size, shape, aroma and nutrient content of
the grain. This is the genetic diversity of rice.
SPECIES DIVERSITY
This is the variability found within the population of a species or between
different species of a community. It represents broadly the species
richness and their abundance in a community. It is measured by species
richness. The richness in species differs widely from one area to another.
These areas that are rich in species diversity are called hotspots of
diversity. India is among the world’s 15 nations which have rich species
diversity.
ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY
This is the diversity of ecological complexity showing variations in
ecological niches, trophic structure, food-webs, nutrient cycling etc. The
ecosystems also show variations with respect to physical parameters like
moisture, temperature, altitude, precipitation etc. Thus, there occurs
tremendous diversity within the ecosystems, along these gradients.

BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES OF INDIA

India is one of the most diverse regions of the world and is among the 12
mega – biodiversity countries of the world. The bio –geographic
classification of India was carried out by Rodgers and Panwar (1988).
The diverse and varied conditions across the country led to classification
into 10 bio – geographic zones, which are as follows :
1. Trans – Himalayan Region → This region covers around L.S
million km2 of area within and outside of India. It is a vast stretch of
cold, mountainous snow – covered region covering the entire Tibetan
plateau, Ladakh and Lahul – Spiti district of Himachal Pradesh (India).
Vegetation is sparse in this area. The mountains here have the richest
habitat of wild sheep and goats. The region has a herbivore community
(rabbits) consisting of Tibetan antelope, gazelle, wild yak and blue sheep.
Other characteristic animals found are snow leopard, Tibetan wolf, ibex,
marbled pole cat, Himalayan marmot etc.
2. The Himalayan Rangers → This region extends from Jammu and
Kashmir covering Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, WB, Arunachal Pradesh,
Mizoram and Assam to Manipur. They represent the world’s youngest
and highest mountain chains. The western Himalayas stretch from central
region of Kumaon to North West region of Kashmir. On the other hand,
the Eastern Himalayas extend from Sikkim to NEFA. Rainfall is higher
and conditions are warmer in the eastern part of Himalayas. Species
diversity is also higher in the eastern part. Thus, there is a lot of variation
in geology and climatic conditions in this zone. Flora present in this
region consists of Coniferous – pine forests, birch forests, oaks,
magnolias, rhododendrons, chestnut, fir, junipers etc. Alpine pastures are
predominant in the western Himalayas. Fauna present in this region
include Red panda, ibex, Hangul stag, snow leopard, serow, Goral,
Himalayan Tapir, badgers, tapir, shrew etc. A large and rich diversity of
animals are found in the Himalayas However, they are endangered as a
result of habitat destruction.
3. Western Ghats This region is one of the hotspots of India and
stretches from southern tip of Indian peninsula to Tapti river in the
north. The average altitude of mountains in this region is around 1,200m.
The Western Ghats cover the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka,
Kerala and Tamil Nadu. This zone has highly rich biodiversity. The
rainfall is heavy and exhibits mostly moist evergreen forests. Apart from
evergreen forests, deciduous forests and mangrove forests are also
present. Many major rivers originate from Western Ghats such as
Godavari, Kaveri, Krishna and Tungabhadra. These rivers are the source
of hydro – electricity generation and irrigation projects. The Western
Ghats are characterized by many endemic species. Significant species
present in this region are Malabar Civet, Nilgiri Languor, Lion – tailed
macaque, Niligiri tahr, Malabar grey hornbill, gaur etc. The hill ranges
also form an important part of Project Elephant and Project Tiger
reserves.
4. The Desert Regions : This region consists of parts of Rajasthan,
Kutch and parts of Gujrat. The Climate is characterized by extremely
hot and dry summers and cold winters. Rainfall is less than 70 cm. Kutch,
Thar, Ladakh and parts of Delhi comprises the desert gone. Xerophytic
plants are found in this region such as Acacia nelotica, Tecomella spp.
Salvadora oleoides, prosopis cineraria, Babul, Kikar and wild palms.
Fauna present are Great Indian Bust and (endangered) blackbuck, camels,
desert fones, Chinkara, nilgai, Indian desert Cat, Lizards etc. Flamingoes
are extensively found in Rann of Kutch.
5. The Deccan Plateaus : The Deccan plateau cauets the largest area in
the country among all biogeographic zones. It comprises Deccan plateau
(south), Central plateau, East plateau, Chota Nagpur and Central
Highland. It consists of dry deciduous forests and produces many forest
products. Evergreen forests are very rare in this area. Trees like Sal, teak,
Acacia are found here mainly. Fauna present here consists of Tigers, sloth
bear, nilgai, sambar, chital, eleplhant, wild buffaloes, barasingha and
gaur. It is the catchment area for rivers like Narmada, Tapti, Mahanadi
and Godavari.
6. The Gangetic Plain : The Gangetic Plains are the most fertile region
and comprises the regions of uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Bengal. The
plains are fertile due to alluvium sediments deposited across the region by
rivers. The region has high population density and agriculture is an
important occupation. Ganga is the main river system here alongside
Brahmaputra. Rainfall is varied across the region. Important trees found
in this region includes sal, mahua, arjun, teak, shishan, neem, khair, tendu
etc. Animals found are elephant, black buck, buffalo, gazelle, chinkara,
freshwater turtle, Bengal florican etc.
7. North – East India : This is one of the hotspots of India and is
richest in terms of vegetation and species. It is distributed in the states of
Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura. The
region is actually a transition zone between the Indian, Indo – Burma and
Indo – Chinese region. Rainfall is high and presence of evergreen and
semi – evergreen forests are abundant. Animals found here are
rhinoceros, buffalo, elephant, swamp deer, pygmy hog, elephants,
hornbill and many more. Floral species include orchids, bamboos, ferns,
banana, diverse fruits etc.
8. Islands : This zone comprises the islands of Lakshadweep and
Andaman and Nicobar. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are situated
in Bay of Bengal. It is one of the hotspots of India. They have a wide
variety of mangroves, evergreen, and deciduous forests. Species richness
is the characteristic of the island with distinct faunal species. Animals
residing in this region include Andaman water monitor, Nicobar
macaque, Narcondam hornbill, Nicobar parakeet etc. Lakshadweep
Islands are located in the Arabian Sea and exhibits evergreen forests.
They form a distinct botanical region and contain many coral reefs.
Faunal species include sea turtles, pygmy blue, orca, crabs, lobsters and
pelagic birds.
9. The Semi – arid area : This zone comprises the states of Rajasthan,
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Floral components include
grasses, shrubs, thorny scrubs and bamboo trees. Trees include Tectonia
grandis, Acacia, Anogeisus, Capparis, and Caltrops etc. Herbivores like
blackbuck, nilgai gazelle etc. are present. Other animals include jackals,
leopards, fones, snakes, lions etc. The Asiatic lion is the endemic species
found in the air national reserve.
10. Coasts : India has a vast and elaborate coastline of approximately
7,500 km along the Arabian Sea in the west and the Bay of Bengal in the
west. The western coast is much narrower than the East coast. They have
an average width of about 65 km. It extends from Gulf of Cambay in the
north to Cape Comorin (Kanya kumari). It is characterised by the
presence of estuaries, lagoons and backwaters. The largest lake present
have is Vembanad lake. The eastern coastal plains extent from
Subarnarekha river to Kanyakumari. It is formed by alluvial fillings of
rivers like Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri. They are wider and
extensive than the western coats with an average width of 120 km. The
Coastal plains are covered by fertile soils on which a variety of crops are
cultivated. Rice is the main crop of these areas. Coconut trees grew along
the coast. This region has high tiger population along with the presence of
animals like Dugong, dolphins, salt-water crocodile, marine turtles,
tortoises, hump – back dolphin etc.

Threats to Biodiversity:
(1) Habitat loss → The primary cause of loss of biodiversity is habitat
destruction, resulting from expansion of human population. Loss of
habitat, habitat degradation and fragmentation represents significant
causes of known extinctions – continuous increase of deforestation in the
tropical forests has become the chief cause of mass extinctions.
Fragmentation of landscape by construction of roads, infrastructure also
results in biodiversity loss. Environmental fluctuations, disease outbreak
leads to extinction of small isolated habitats.
(2) Poaching of Wildlife → Wildlife is being continuously hunted and
poached for food, profit and other needs. This illegal trade in projected
species operates as one of the most profitable illicit markets in the world.
Specific invests to certain animals are related to large economic benefits.
The skin and bones of tigers, ivory of elephants, horns of rhinos and
perfume of the musk deer are extensively used and in high demand.
Corals and shells are collected for export on beaches of Chennai,
Kanyakumari and Nicobar Islands. A variety of wild plants with
medicinal values are being over-harvested eg : Nux Vomica, Datura.
(3) Man – Wildlife Conflicts: The loss of species occur due to the
destruction of natural ecosystems, either for conversion to agriculture or
industry by humans. Human – wildlife conflict is defined by the world
wide Fund for Nature (WWF) as ‘any interaction between humans and
wildlife that result in negative impacts on human, social, economic or
cultural life, on the conservation of wildlife populations, or on the
environment. As human populations expand into wild animal habitats,
natural wildlife territory is displaced.
(4) Biological invasions: The introduction of exotic or invasive species is
a significant reason of extinction. Great majority of invasive species do
not become established in the new environment. Alien species become
‘invasive’ when they displace the native species and upset the ecological
balance. Same successful exotic species may kill or eat native species to
the point of extinction; or may 80 after the habitat that many natives are
no longer able to persist. Non – native invasive species are particularly
destructive on islands. eg : Introduction of Nile Perch in Lake Victoria
has made way for extinction of most of the indigenous species. Ship Rat
(Rattus rattus) has caused declines of native birds on islands in the Indian
subcontinent. African apple snail (Achatina fulica) us the most invasive
among all alien fauna in India.
Conservation of Biodiversity:
In – sites and Ex – sites conservation of biodiversity.
In – Sites Conservation → It refers to the protection and maintenance of
organisms in their natural habitats. In this type of conservation isolation
of organisms is not required but it requires elimination of harmful factors
in the ecosystem. In-sites Conservation is practised in the form of
sanctuaries, National Parks and Biosphere Reserves.
Ex – Sites Conservation of components of biodiversity outside their
national habitats. Species are conserved outside their natural habitats in a
carefully controlled situation such as botanical garden for plants, a
zoological park for animals. It is beneficial for species which are on the
verge of extinction and must be immediately projected. 

Examples of Wildlife Sanctuaries →

(1) Dachigam Sanctuary (Hangul/Kashmiri Stag)
(2) Keoladeo Ghana Bird Sanctuary (Bharatpur) → Most famous water –
bird sanctuaries in the world.
(3) Manas Wildlife Sanctuary in Assam : Rare golden langur, Rare
pygmy hog.
(4) Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala. 

Examples of National Parks →

(1) Corbett National Park (Uttrakhand) [1936]
(2) Kaziranga National Park (Assam) [1974]
(3) Bandhavgarh National Park (M.P) [1968]
(4) Sunderbans National Park (Rajasthan) [1981] 

Examples of Biosphere Reserves :

(1) Nilgiri Biosphere Reserves: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala. [1986]
(2) Great Rann of Kutch : Gujarat [2008]
(3) Nandadevi : Uttrakhand [1988]
(4) Nokrek : Meghalaya [1988]
(5) Panna : Madhya Pradesh [2011]
(6) Sunderban: West Bengal, 1989.

Ecosystem and Biodiversity Services: 

Ecological Value :
(a) Safeguarding water resources through maintenance of water cycle.
(b) Recycling of nutrients and storing.
(c) Degradation of Pollutants and its incorporation.
(d) Restoring Climate and preserving ecosystem.
(e) Protection of Soil.
(f) Resilience from unpredictable events like Tsunami, earthquakes and
wildfires. 

Economic Value :
(a) Direct utilization of timber, food, fuel wood and fodder by local
communities.
(b) Biodiversity contained in the ecosystem provides forest dwellers with
their daily needs food, material, medicines and other products.
(c) Dried biomass and the petrified products of coal, petroleum and
natural gas that serve as fuel are all derived from biodiversity.
(d) Different varieties of creeds, pulses, vegetables, spices etc. comes
directly from the diverse forms of wildlife.
(e) Wildlife trade, farming and extraction of medicinal products are other
benefits. 

Social Value :
(a) Biodiversity has been presented by traditional societies till today. For
example, many of the plants like banyan, peepal, tulsi etc. and animals
like cow, snake etc. are regarded as holy and served.
(b) Policy measures and resources utilization should be implemented in
the aspect of social value.
(c) Indian lifestyle, songs, dance, scriptures and customs are closely
related with wildlife. 

Ethical Value :
(a) Ethical values related to biodiversity are based on importance of
protecting all forms of life.
(b) All species were created equal and have the moral right to live,
procreate and grow. However, being at the top of the food chain, humans
have played havoc with the fragile ecosystems.
(c) Humans should take a holistic view of the consequences of their
actions and do things that are sustainable, inclusive and honour the rights
of every living organism. 

Aesthetic Value :
(a) The appreciation of the presence of biodiversity for its inherent value
and beauty.
(b) Biodiversity is instrumental in promoting the tourism industry.
Tourists from all parts of the world spend a lot of money to visit the
wilderness. They enjoy the tranquility, the natural and the aesthetic
beauty of the forests and wildlife.
(c) Plants and animals are often used as symbols in paintings, flags,
sculptures, stamps etc.
(d) Species like Asiatic lion, panda are chosen as flagship species for
their attractiveness and distinctiveness to represent an environmental
cause.

Unit IV
Biodiversity at global. national and local levels; India as a mega-diversity
nation; Hot spots of biodiversity; Threats to biodiversity: habitat loss,
poaching of wildlife, man wildlife conflicts.
Endangered and endemic species of India; Conservation of biodiversity:
In situ and ex situ conservation of biodiversity

Biodiversity in India
 In India biodiversity is rich due to favourable climate and natural
environmental conditions. India has 8.1% of the world’s total
biodiversity in contrast to her 2.4% of the world area. India occupies
seventh position of plant rich nations( megadiversity countries). The
first position is occupied by Mexico.
 There is enormous loss of biodiversity and one of the root causes
identified for the loss is the wrong model of development we have
followed so far.
 The development has centered on the following:
o Commercial and monocultural agricultural practices.
O Large scale industrial expansion
o Increasing the consumption of goods and benefits through
exploiting natural resources without giving importance of
sustainability.
 The man-made communities have replaced the natural communities in
order to protect life on earth. Man must learn to control and adjust the
balance in nature that are altered by his activities.

Biodiversity in MP
 The central Indian State of Madhya Pradesh in one of the richest
repositories of biological diversity. The State houses a diversity of
ecosystems including plateaus, ravines, ridges, valleys, riparian areas
and flat plains. With four major forest types, 10 National Park and 25
Wildlife Sanctuaries, the Tiger State houses one of the richest faunal
 and floral diversity. With about 5000 plant species, these forests are
habitat to as many as 500 birds species and 180 fish species.
Thousands of rice cultivars, a rich diversity of minor millets,
indigenous cattle and poultry land races like Kadaknath boasts of the
agro-biodiversity. Home to six tribes with distinct customs, practices
and diverse cultures, the biological diversity sustains livelihoods and
ensures food security to two fifth of the State population. Indigenous
health systems nurtured by rich traditional knowledge woven arbour
over 1000 medicinal plants contributed significantly to health security
in rural areas.
 Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the variety of life found on earth which includes
plants, animals and microorganisms as well. India is one of the 17
mega bio-diverse countries of the World. With 2.5% land area of the
World, India accounts for 7.5% of World's biodiversity.
 Historical Backdrop
The rising concerns over loss of biodiversity at global level
culminated in Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992 at
Rio-de-Janeiro, Brazil. India being a party to CBD enacted Biological
Diversity Act in 2002. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 has three
objectives viz Conservation, Sustainable use of biological resource
and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of use of biological
resources.
A three tier structure has been established with National Biodiversity
Authority (NBA) at the apex, State Biodiversity Board (SBB) at
provincial level and Biodiversity Management Committee (BMC) at
the local bodies level for achieving these objectives.
 M. P. State Biodiversity
Madhya Pradesh State Biodiversity Board has been constituted by the
State Government as per the provisions of Biological Diversity Act,
2002 notified by the Government of India. Madhya Pradesh
Biological Diversity Rules, 2004 were notified by the State
Government on 17.12.2004 under the provision of Section 63 (1) of
Biological Diversity Act, 2002. The notification regarding the
constitution of Board was issued on 11th April. 2005.head quarter is
in Bhopal (M.P.)

India as a Mega Diversity Nation

India is known for its rich heritage of Biological diversity, having already
documented over 91,000 species of animals and 45,500 species of plants
in its 10 bio geographic regions. Nearly 6,500 native plants are still used
prominently in indigenous healthcare systems. Thousands of locally
adapted crop varieties grown traditionally since ancient times, and nearly
140 native breeds of farm livestock, continue to thrive in its diversified
farming systems. The country is recognized as one of the eight
Vavilovian centres of origin and diversity of crop plants, having more
than 300 wild ancestors and close relatives of cultivated plants still
growing and evolving under natural conditions. Biodiversity is not
distributed evenly across the globe. Certain countries, lying mostly in the
tropics, are characterised by high species richness and more number of
endemic speciescalled Mega diversity nations About 19 countries/Nations
belongs to this category as on today.India is one of them. India a mega
diversity country with only 2.4% of the land area of the world, but
accounts for 7.8% of the recorded species of the world.

ENDEMIC AND ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA

ENDEMIC SPECIES
Species are said to be endemic when they are exclusive to a single
location and cannot be found anywhere else on the planet.
The Asiatic Lion and the Gir Forest
The Asiatic Lion, commonly known as the Indian Lion, is endemic to
only the Gir Forest National Park in Gujarat and the areas immediately
around it. These animals are considered to be on the verge of extinction.
These are two of India’s five big cats; the others are the Indian Leopard
and the Bengal Tiger. India is home to a total of five large cats.
Kashmir Stag, Kashmir Valley
The Dachigam National Park in the Kashmir Valley and the Chamba
district in Himachal Pradesh are home to the Hangul, another name for
the Kashmir Stag. Both of these areas are located in Himachal Pradesh.
The Western Ghats, and the Lion-Tailed Macaque
Only the Western Ghats of Southern India are known to be home to this
one-of-a-kind primate species, making it the world’s rarest, most
endangered primate.
Purple Frog, Western Ghats
The only place on Earth where you can find the purple frog, also called
the Pignose frog, is in the rainforests of India’s western ghats. It burrows
underground for most of its existence.
Sangai Deer, Loktak Lake
In addition to its other name, the Brow Antlered Deer, this species can
only be found in Manipur’s Keibul Lamjao National Park. This park is a
marshy wetland and it is situated in the southern portions of Loktak lake.
Nilgiri Tahr, Nilgiri Hills
It is an endangered species of wild sheep that can only be found in the
unique Nilgiri Hills of the Western Ghats.
Other species that can only be found in India include the following:
Pygmy Hog, Assam
Bronzeback Vine Snake, Western Ghats
Nilgiri Blue Robin, Nilgiri Hills
Malabar Civet, Western Ghats
Anaimalai Gliding Frog, Anaimalai Hills
Namdapha Flying Squirrel, Arunachal Pradesh
Indian Giant Squirrel
Bonnet Macaque

Endangered species
According to the IUCN RED List 2021, a total of 199 species in India are
considered to be in the severely endangered category. There were a total
of twenty species from India that were added to the IUCN Red List of
Critically Endangered Species in the year 2021. There were fourteen
animal species and six plant species. The IUCN RED LIST is updated in
two rounds: the first round saw the addition of five species, and the
second set of updates will be published on September 4, 2021. The IUCN
Red List of Critically Endangered Species now includes fifteen additional
species that are found in India. The names of these 20 Indian species have
been categorized as “Critically Endangered” on the IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species.
Species in India that are on the verge of extinction;
Kolar Leaf-nosed Large bat-like rock rat
Namdapha The Squirrel That Can Fly
Nicobar Hangul, also known as the Chinese Pangolin and Jenkin’s Shrew
Andaman White-toothed Shrew
Sumatran Rhinoceros
Javan Rhinoceros
Pygmy Hog
Malabar Civet

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY: HABITAT LOSS, POACHING

OF WILDLIFE, MAN-WILDLIF CONFLICTS
Though the rate of loss of species has been a slow process in the past, the
process of extinction has become fast in recent years. It has been reported
that approximately 10,000 species become extinct every year. This raises
an alarm regarding the threat to biodiversity. IF this trend continues 1/3
or 2/3 of our current biodiversity would become extinct by the middle of
the 21st century.
Loss of Habitat
o Destruction of habitats due to clearing of forests and grasslands for
agricultural lands, pastures, settlement areas or project development lead
to loss of habitat. These factors are responsible for the disappearance of
thousands of species. According to the world Health Organisation (WHO)
estimates, about 80% of the population of developing countries relies on
traditional medicines, mostly drugs from plants. In order to meet the
demand, about 86% of plant collection involves destructive harvesting.
Many plants become endangered, besides loss and degradation of natural
habitats take place due to overharvesting.
o The wetlands, mangroves and estuaries with rich biodiversity are under
threat. They are destroyed, as if they have no value. For example
estuarine ecosystem in Adyar, Chennai has disappeared posing a major
treat to nearly 170 species of birds, many of which nest and breed there.
Tropical forests disappear at the rate of 0.6% per year in our country.
Marine biodiversity is also threatened by human intervention.
o The wetlands in India are distributed in different geographical regions.
Most of the wetlands in India are linked with major river systems. India
has 27403 wetlands covering 4.1 million . Of these , 2,175 are natural and
the rest are manmade. Wetlands occupy 18.4 of the area of our country of
which 70% are under rice cultivation. In India, out of an estimated 4.1
million ha of wetlands, 1.5 mha are natural and 2.6 mha are man-made.
Wetlands provide food and shelter for mammals and birds.
Poaching of wild life
o The illegal commercial hunting is called poaching. There are two types
of hunting subsistence hunting (killing animals for food) and sport
hunting (killing animals to sell their meat, fur, horns, tusks etc.)
Man-Animal conflicts
o Sometimes, wild animals threaten human beings. This leads to conflict
between wild life and man. For example elephant in Sambalpur, Orissa
killed 195 humans in 5 years. The villagers killed 98 elephants in
retaliation and injured 30 elephants.

Conservation of biodiversity
The enormous value of biodiversity emphasizes the need to conserve
biodiversity. Biodiversity is a natural reservoir with tremendous
economic potential.
World wide fund for Nature (WWF 1994) works to conserve biological
diversity as follows.
O Creating and maintaining systems of effective and sustainable
protected areas.
O Promoting practices of sustainable development
o Conserving certain species of special concern.
O Promoting environmental education to enable people to manage the
natural resources sustainablely.
In India, Biological Diversity Act 2002, regulates access to biological
resources of the country with the purpose of securing equitable share in
benefits arising out of the biological resources and knowledge relating to
biological resources.
• National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) which was set up under the
Biological Diversity Act 2002, deals with requests for access to genetic
resources by foreigners. It protects resources and ensures economic
benefits to local communities.

Methods of Conservation
There are two methods of conservation of biodiversity.
1. In-situ conservation (within habitat)
2. Ex-situ conservation (outside habitats)

• In-situ Conservation
 In-situ conservation of biodiversity is the conservation of species
within their natural habitat.
 In this method, the natural ecosystem is maintained and protected.
The in-situ conservation has several advantages.
 Following are the important advantages of insitu conservation:
1. It is a cost-effective and convenient method of conserving
biodiversity.
2. A large number of living organisms can be conserved
simultaneously. 3. Since the organisms are in a natural ecosystem,
 they can evolve better and can easily adjust to different environmental
conditions.
 Certain protected areas where in-situ conservation takes place include
national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves. National
Parks
These are small reserves maintained by the government. Its
boundaries are well demarcated and human activities such as grazing,
forestry, habitat and cultivation are prohibited. For eg., Kanha
National Park, Bandipur National Park.
Wildlife Sanctuaries
These are the regions where only wild animals are found. Human
activities such as timber harvesting, cultivation, collection of woods and
other forest products are allowed here as long as they do not interfere
with the conservation project. Also, tourists visit these places for
recreation.
Biosphere Reserves
Biosphere reserves are multi-purpose protected areas where the wildlife,
traditional lifestyle of the inhabitants, and domesticated plants and
animals are protected. Tourist and research activities are permitted here.
Also Read: National Parks And Sanctuaries
Ex-situ Conservation
 Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity involves the breeding and
maintenance of endangered species in artificial ecosystems such as
zoos, nurseries, botanical gardens, gene banks, etc.
 There is less competition for food, water and space among the
organisms.
 Ex-situ conservation has the following advantages:
1. The animals are provided with a longer time and breeding activity.
2. The species bred in captivity can be reintroduced in the wild.
3. Genetic techniques can be used for the preservation of endangered
species.