3. Waves

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YOUR NOTES
IGCSE Physics Edexcel 
3. Waves
CONTENTS
3.1 Waves & The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3.1.1 Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
3.1.2 Describing Wave Motion
3.1.3 The Wave Equation
3.1.4 The Doppler Effect
3.1.5 Electromagnetic (EM) Waves
3.1.6 Applications of EM Waves
3.1.7 Dangers of EM Waves
3.2 Reflection & Refraction
3.2.1 Light & Sound Waves
3.2.2 Reflection & Refraction
3.2.3 Core Practical: Investigating Refraction
3.2.4 Snell's Law
3.2.5 Core Practical: Investigating Snell's law
3.2.6 Total Internal Reflection
3.3 Sound
3.3.1 Core Practical: Investigating the Speed of Sound
3.3.2 Sound & Oscilloscopes
3.3.3 Core Practical: Using an Oscilloscope
3.3.4 Pitch & Loudness
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3.1 Waves & The Electromagnetic Spectrum YOUR NOTES


3.1.1 Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
Transverse & Longitudinal Waves

Waves can exist as one of two types:
Transverse
Longitudinal
Transverse Waves
Transverse waves are defined as:
Waves that vibrate or oscillate perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer
For a transverse wave:
The energy transfer is in the same direction as the wave motion
They transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium
Transverse waves can move in a liquid or solid, but not a gas
Some transverse waves (electromagnetic waves) can move in a vacuum
The point on the wave that is:
The highest above the rest position is called the peak, or crest
The lowest below the rest position is called the trough
Transverse waves can be seen in a rope when it is moved quickly up and down
Examples of transverse waves are:
Ripples on the surface of water
Vibrations in a guitar string
S-waves (a type of seismic wave)
Electromagnetic waves (such as radio, light, X-rays etc)
Longitudinal Waves
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Longitudinal waves are defined as: YOUR NOTES

Waves where the points along its length vibrate parallel to the direction of energy 
transfer
For a longitudinal wave:
The energy transfer is in the same direction as the wave motion
They transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium
They can move in solids, liquids and gases
They can not move in a vacuum (since there are no particles)
The key features of a longitudinal wave are where the points are:
Close together, called compressions
Spaced apart, called rarefactions
Longitudinal waves can be seen in a slinky spring when it is moved quickly backwards and
forwards
Examples of longitudinal waves are:
Sound waves
P-waves (a type of seismic wave)
Pressure waves caused by repeated movements in a liquid or gas
Longitudinal waves are usually drawn as several lines to show that the wave is moving
parallel to the direction of energy transfer
Drawing the lines closer together represents the compressions
Drawing the lines further apart represents the rarefactions
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YOUR NOTES

Longitudinal waves are represented as sets of lines with rarefactions and compressions
Comparing Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
Wave vibrations can be shown on ropes (transverse) and springs (longitudinal)
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YOUR NOTES

Waves can be shown through vibrations in ropes or springs

The different properties of transverse and longitudinal waves are shown in the table:
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Transverse Waves v Longitudinal Waves Table YOUR NOTES


 Worked Example
The diagram below shows a loudspeaker generating sound waves, which travel to
the right as indicated. Sound waves are longitudinal.A dust mote floats in the air just
next to the loudspeaker, labelled D.
Draw arrows on the diagram to indicate how the dust mote D would vibrate as
sound waves pass it.
Step 1: Recall the definition of longitudinal waves

Points along longitudinal waves vibrate parallel to the direction of energy transfer
This means the dust mote vibrates in a line parallel to the direction of the sound waves
drawn
Step 2: Draw arrows at the point labelled D to show it vibrating in parallel to the
direction of the sound waves
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YOUR NOTES

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Waves & Energy YOUR NOTES

Waves transfer energy and information 
Waves are described as oscillations or vibrations about a fixed point
For example, ripples cause particles of water to oscillate up and down
Sound waves cause particles of air to vibrate back and forth
In all cases, waves transfer energy without transferring matter
Objects floating on water provide evidence that waves only transfer energy and
information and not matter
Waves transfer energy and information, but not matter. This toy duck bobs up and down as
water waves pass underneath
The type of wave on the surface of a body of water is a transverse wave
This is because the duck is moving perpendicular to the direction of the wave
The plastic duck moves up and down but does not travel with the wave
All waves transfer energy, but they do not transfer the particles of the medium
This means when a wave travels between two points, no matter actually travels with it,
the points on the wave just vibrate back and forth about fixed positions
Objects floating on water, like the toy duck, simply bob up and down when waves pass
under them, demonstrating that there is no movement of matter in the direction of the
wave, only energy
 Exam Tip
Exam questions may ask you to describe waves and this is most easily done by
drawing a diagram of the wave and then describing the parts of the wave - a good,
clearly labelled diagram can earn you full marks!You may also be asked to give
further examples of transverse or longitudinal waves - so memorise the lists given
here!
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3.1.2 Describing Wave Motion YOUR NOTES


Describing Wave Motion
When describing wave motion, there are several terms which are important to know,
including:
Amplitude
Wavelength
Frequency
Time Period
Wavefront
Amplitude
Amplitude is defined as:
The distance from the undisturbed position to the peak or trough of a wave
It is given the symbol A and is measured in metres (m)
Amplitude is the maximum or minimum displacement from the undisturbed position
Wavelength
Wavelength is defined as
The distance from one point on the wave to the same point on the next wave.
In a transverse wave:
The wavelength can be measured from one peak to the next peak
In a longitudinal wave
The wavelength can be measured from the centre of one compression to the centre of
the next
The wavelength is given the symbol λ (lambda) and is measured in metres (m)
The distance along a wave is typically put on the x-axis of a wave diagram
Diagram showing the amplitude and wavelength of a wave

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Frequency YOUR NOTES

Frequency is defined as: 
The number of waves passing a point in a second
Frequency is given the symbol f and is measured in Hertz (Hz)
Time Period
The time period (or sometimes just 'period') of a wave is defined as:
The time taken for a single wave to pass a point
The time period is given the symbol T and is measured in seconds (s)
Wavefront
Wavefronts are a useful way of picturing waves from above: each wavefront is used to
represent a single wave
The image below illustrates how wavefronts are visualised:
The arrow shows the direction the wave is moving and is sometimes called a ray
The space between each wavefront represents the wavelength
When the wavefronts are close together, this represents a wave with a short
wavelength
When the wavefronts are far apart, this represents a wave with a long wavelength
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YOUR NOTES

Diagram showing a wave moving to the right, drawn as a series of wavefronts
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3.1.3 The Wave Equation YOUR NOTES


The Wave Equation
All waves obey the wave equation, which is used to calculate the wave speed:
Where:
v = wave speed in metres per second (m/s)
f = frequency in Hertz (Hz)
λ = wavelength in metres (m)
The wave speed equation may need to be rearranged, which can be done using this formula
triangle:
Page 12 of 69
Frequency & Time Period YOUR NOTES

The equation which relates the frequency of a wave to its time period is: 
Where:
T = time period, measured in seconds (s)
f = frequency, measured in Hertz (Hz)
 Worked Example
Visible light has a frequency of about 6 × 1014 Hz.How long does it take for one
complete cycle of visible light to enter our eyes?
Step 1: List the known values

Frequency, f = 6 × 1014 Hz
Step 2: State the relationship between frequency and time period
This question involves quantities of time and frequency, so the equation which relates
time period and frequency of a wave is:
Step 3: Substitute the known values in to the equation and calculate the time period
T = 1 ÷ (6 × 1014) = 1.67 × 10-15 s
Therefore, it takes 1.67 × 10-15 s (to 2 decimal places) for one wave of visible light to
pass our eyes
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Calculations in Different Contexts YOUR NOTES

The wave equation can be applied and rearranged to calculate properties of waves, such 
as:
wave speed
frequency
time period
The wave equation applies to all types of wave, including sound waves and
electromagnetic waves
 Worked Example
A certain sound wave moves at about 330 m/s and has a time period of 0.0001
seconds.Calculate:
a) The frequency of the sound wave
b) The wavelength of the sound wave
Part (a)
Step 1: List the known quantities
Time period, T = 0.0001 s
Step 2: Write out the equation relating time period and frequency
Step 3: Rearrange for frequency, f, and calculate the answer

f = 1 ÷ T = 1 ÷ 0.0001
Frequency, f = 10 000 Hz = 1 × 104 Hz
Part (b)
Wave speed, v = 330 m/s
Frequency, f = 1 × 104 Hz
Step 2: Write out the wave speed equation
v=f×λ
Step 3: Rearrange the equation to calculate the wavelength
λ=v÷f
Step 4: Use the frequency you calculated in part (a) and put the values into the equation
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λ = 330 ÷ 1 × 104 YOUR NOTES

Wavelength, λ = 0.033 m 
 Worked Example
A local radio station broadcasts at a frequency of 200 kHz.The wavelength of
these radio waves is 1500 m.Calculate the speed of these radio waves and state
an appropriate unit.

Frequency, f = 200 kHz = 200 000 Hz
Wavelength, λ = 1500 m
Step 2: Write out the wave speed equation
This question requires wave speed, so state the equation linking wave speed,
wavelength and frequency:
v=f×λ
Step 3: Substitute the known values to calculate the wave speed
v = 200 000 × 1500 = 300 000 000 = 3 × 108
Step 4: State the unit with the answer
The units for speed are m/s
Therefore, the speed of these radio waves is 3 × 108 m/s
 Exam Tip
When stating equations make sure you use the right letters:
For example, use λ for wavelength, not L or W
If you can’t remember the correct letters, then just state the word equations
Be careful with units: wavelength is usually measured in metres and speed in m/s,
but if the wavelength is given in cm you might have to give the speed in cm/s
Likewise, watch out for frequency given in kHz: 1 kHz = 1000 Hz
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3.1.4 The Doppler Effect YOUR NOTES


The Doppler Effect
The Doppler Effect is defined as:
The apparent change in wavelength and frequency of a wave emitted by a moving
source
This effect can be observed in a variety of scenarios whenever sources of waves move:
The frequency of the sound waves emitted by ambulance or police sirens goes from a
high pitch to a low pitch as the vehicle whizzes past
Galaxies in outer space emit electromagnetic radiation - light waves - which appear to
be redder than normal because because the stars are moving away from us
Explaining the Doppler Effect
Usually, when a stationary object emits waves, the waves spread out symmetrically
This stationary police car emits sound from the siren and the waves spread out
symmetrically
If the object emitting waves begins to move, the waves can get squashed together at one
end of the object, and stretched at the other end
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YOUR NOTES

To an observer in front of the moving car, the wavelength appears to be smaller because
they squash together. To an observer behind the moving car, the waves appear to stretch
out
The waves at the front of the moving vehicle appear to be squashed together:
This means the wavelength decreases (and the frequency of the waves increases)
The waves behind the moving vehicle appear to be stretched out:
This means the wavelength increases (and the frequency of the waves decreases)
 Exam Tip
Remember that the Doppler Effect is an apparent change in wavelength and
frequency and that this only happens because a wave emitter is moving away from
or towards an observer.Because the speed of the waves emitted stays constant, if
the wavelength of the wave appears to decrease, this must mean the frequency
appears to increase, and vice versa.
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3.1.5 Electromagnetic (EM) Waves YOUR NOTES


Properties of EM Waves
Electromagnetic waves are defined as:
Transverse waves that transfer energy from the source of the waves to an absorber
All electromagnetic waves share the following properties:
They are all transverse
They can all travel through a vacuum
They all travel at the same speed in a vacuum
There are 7 types of electromagnetic waves, which all together form a continuous
spectrum
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The EM Spectrum YOUR NOTES

The electromagnetic spectrum is arranged in a specific order based on the wavelengths or 
frequencies
This order is shown in the diagram below from longest wavelength (lowest frequency) to
shortest wavelength (highest frequency)
Visible light is just one small part of a much bigger spectrum: The electromagnetic spectrum
The higher the frequency, the higher the energy of the radiation
Radiation with higher energy is:
Highly ionising
Harmful to cells and tissues causing cancer (e.g. UV, X-rays, Gamma rays)
Radiation with lower energy is:
Useful for communications
Less harmful to humans
Visible Light
Visible light is defined as the range of wavelengths which are visible to humans
Visible light is the only part of the spectrum detectable by the human eye
However, it only takes up 0.0035% of the whole electromagnetic spectrum
In the natural world, many animals, such as birds, bees and certain fish, are able to
perceive beyond visible light and can see infra-red and UV wavelengths of light
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Each colour within the visible light spectrum corresponds to a narrow band of wavelength YOUR NOTES
and frequency 
The different colours of waves correspond to different wavelengths:
Red has the longest wavelength (and the lowest frequency and energy)
Violet has the shortest wavelength (and the highest frequency and energy)
The colours of the visible spectrum: red has the longest wavelength; violet has the shortest
Wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional, this means that:
An increase in wavelength is a decrease in frequency (towards the red end of the
spectrum)
A decrease in wavelength is an increase in frequency (towards the violet end of the
spectrum)
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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 See if you can make up a mnemonic to help you remember the EM spectrum!One

possibility is:
Raging Martians Invaded Venus Using X-ray Guns
To remember the colours of the visible spectrum you could remember either:
The name “Roy G. Biv”
Or the saying “Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain”
You could even combine both to have a mega mnemonic:

Raging Martians Invaded Roy G. Biv Using X-ray Guns!
The electromagnetic spectrum is usually given in order of decreasing wavelength
and increasing frequency i.e. from radio waves to gamma waves
Remember:
Radios are big (long wavelength)
Gamma rays are emitted from atoms which are very small (short wavelength)
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3.1.6 Applications of EM Waves YOUR NOTES


Applications of EM Waves
Electromagnetic waves have a variety of uses and applications
The main ones are summarised in the table below:
Applications of EM Waves Table
A summary of the uses and dangers of different EM waves are summarised in the diagram
below:
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YOUR NOTES

Uses and dangers of the electromagnetic spectrum

Radio Waves & Microwaves
These two parts of the spectrum share a lot of similarities and uses
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Their main uses concern wireless communication – in fact many things that people YOUR NOTES
often assume use radio waves actually use microwaves (e.g. WiFi, radar, mobile 
phones, satellite communications…)
At very high intensities microwaves can also be used to heat things
This is what happens in a microwave oven
Infrared
Infrared is emitted by warm objects and can be detected using special cameras (thermal
imaging cameras). These can be used in industry, in research and also in medicine
Many security cameras are capable of seeing slightly into the infrared part of the spectrum
and this can be used to allow them to see in the dark: Infrared lights are used to illuminate an
area without being seen, which is then detected using the camera
Remote controls also have small infrared LEDs that can send invisible signals to an infrared
receiver on a device such as a TV
Infrared travels down fibre optic cables more efficiently than visible light, and so most fibre
optic communication systems use infrared
Visible
Visible light is the only part of the electromagnetic spectrum that the human eye can see
The human eye can detect wavelengths from 750 nanometres (red light) up to 380
nanometres (violet light)
Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet is responsible for giving you a sun tan, which is your body’s way of protecting
itself against the ultraviolet
When certain substances are exposed to ultraviolet, they absorb it and re-emit it as visible
light (making them glow)
This process is known as fluorescence. Fluorescence can be used to secretly mark
things using special ink – in fact most bank notes have invisible fluorescent markings
on them
Fluorescent light bulbs also use this principle to emit visible light
X-rays
The most obvious use of x-rays is in medicine
X-rays are able to pass through most body tissues, but are absorbed by the denser parts of
the body, such as bones
When exposed to x-rays the bones can a shadow which can be seen using a special x-
ray detector or using photographic film
Gamma Rays
Gamma rays are very dangerous and can be used to kill cells and living tissue
If these gamma rays are carefully aimed at cancerous tissue they can be very effective
at killing it
Gamma rays can also be used to sterilise things by killing off the bacteria
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3.1.7 Dangers of EM Waves YOUR NOTES


Dangers of EM Waves
As the frequency of electromagnetic (EM) waves increases, so does the energy
Beyond the visible part of the spectrum, the energy becomes large enough to ionise atoms
As a result of this, the danger associated with EM waves increases along with the frequency
The shorter the wavelength, the more ionising the radiation
Although the intensity of a wave also plays a very important role
Ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays can all ionise atoms

In general, electromagnetic waves become more dangerous the shorter their wavelength
For example, radio waves have no known harmful effects whilst gamma rays can
cause cancer and are regarded as extremely dangerous
Because of ionisation, ultraviolet waves, X-rays and gamma rays can have hazardous
effects on human body tissue
The effects depend on the type of radiation and the size of the dose
They can damage cells and cause mutations, making them cancerous
The main risks associated with electromagnetic waves are summarised in the table below:
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Dangers of EM Waves Table YOUR NOTES


Microwaves
Certain frequencies of microwaves are absorbed by water molecules
Since humans contain a lot of water, there is a risk of internal heating from microwaves
This might worry some people, but microwaves used in everyday circumstances are proven
to be safe
Microwaves used for communications (including mobile phones) emit very small
amounts of energy which are not known to cause any harm
Microwave ovens, on the other hand, emit very large amounts of energy, however, that
energy is prevented from escaping the oven by the metal walls and metal grid in the
glass door
Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet is similar to visible light, except it is invisible to the human eye and carries a much
higher energy
If eyes are exposed to high levels of UV it can cause severe eye damage
Good quality sunglasses will absorb ultraviolet, preventing it from entering the eyes
Ultraviolet is ionising meaning it can kill cells or cause them to malfunction, resulting in
premature ageing, and diseases such as skin cancer
Sunscreen absorbs ultraviolet light, preventing it from damaging the skin
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X-rays & Gamma Rays YOUR NOTES

X-rays and gamma rays are the most ionising types of EM waves 
They are able to penetrate the body and cause internal damage
They can cause the mutation of genes and cause cancer
Fortunately, the level of X-rays used in medicine is kept to minimum levels at which the risk
is very low
Doctors, however, will leave the room when taking X-rays in order to avoid
unnecessary exposure to them
People working with gamma rays have to take several precautions to minimise their
exposure and are routinely tested to check their radiation dose levels
For example, radiation badges are worn by medical professionals such as radiographers to
measure the amount of radiation exposure in their body
Radiation badges are used by people working closely with radiation to monitor exposure
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3.2 Reflection & Refraction YOUR NOTES


3.2.1 Light & Sound Waves
Light
Visible light is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum which means it is a transverse wave
This means the direction the light particles vibrate is perpendicular to the direction of
the energy transfer
Light waves are transverse: the particles vibrate in a perpendicular direction to the energy
transfer
Light can undergo:
Reflection
Refraction
All waves in the electromagnetic spectrum can be reflected and refracted
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Sound YOUR NOTES

Sound waves are vibrations of air molecules 
When a sound wave comes into contact with a solid those vibrations can be transferred to
the solid
For example, sound waves can cause a drinking glass to vibrate
If the glass vibrates too much the movement causes the glass to shatter
Sound waves are longitudinal waves
This means the direction the light particles vibrate is parallel to the direction of the
energy transfer
Hence, it consists of:
Compressions - regions of higher density
Rarefactions - regions of lower density
Sound waves are longitudinal: the particles vibrate in the same direction as the energy
transfer
Sound can also undergo:
Reflection
Refraction
The reflection of a sound wave is called an echo
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3.2.2 Reflection & Refraction YOUR NOTES


Reflection & Refraction
All waves, whether transverse or longitudinal, can be reflected and refracted
Reflection occurs when:
A wave hits a boundary between two media and does not pass through, but
instead stays in the original medium
An identical image of the tree is seen in the water due to reflection

Refraction occurs when:
A wave passes a boundary between two different transparent media and
undergoes a change in direction
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YOUR NOTES

Waves can change direction when moving between materials with different densities
The Law of Reflection

Angles are measured between the wave direction (ray) and a line at 90 degrees to the
boundary
The angle of the wave approaching the boundary is called the angle of incidence (i)
The angle of the wave leaving the boundary is called the angle of reflection (r)
The angles are the same, so the law of reflection can be written:
Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of reflection (r)
Angle of incidence and angle of reflection
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Ray Diagrams YOUR NOTES

Reflection Ray Diagrams 
Angles are measured between the wave direction (ray) and a line at 90 degrees to the
boundary
The angle of the wave approaching the boundary is called the angle of incidence (i)
The angle of the wave leaving the boundary is called the angle of reflection (r)
The law of reflection states that these angles are the same
Ray diagram of reflection of a wave at a mirror

When drawing a ray diagram an arrow is used to show the direction the wave is travelling
An incident ray has an arrow pointing towards the boundary
A reflected ray has an arrow pointing away from the boundary
The angles of incidence and reflection are usually labelled i and r respectively and
measured from the normal
Refraction Ray Diagrams
Refraction occurs when light passes a boundary between two different transparent media
At the boundary, the rays of light undergo a change in direction
The direction is taken as the angle from a hypothetical line called the normal
This line is perpendicular to the surface of the boundaries and is usually represented by
a straight dashed or dotted line
The change in direction depends on the difference in density between the two media:
From less dense to more dense (e.g air to glass), light bends towards the normal
From more dense to less dense (e.g. glass to air), light bends away from the normal
When passing along the normal (perpendicular) the light does not bend at all
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YOUR NOTES

How to construct a ray diagram showing the refraction of light as it passes through a
rectangular block
The change in direction occurs due to the change in speed when travelling in different
substances
When light passes into a denser substance the rays will slow down, hence they bend
towards the normal
The only properties that change during refraction are speed and wavelength – the
frequency of waves does not change
Different frequencies account for different colours of light (red has a low frequency,
whilst blue has a high frequency)
When light refracts, it does not change colour (think of a pencil in a glass of water),
therefore, the frequency does not change
 Worked Example
Two parallel rays of light entering and passing through prism A and prism C.
Draw a third parallel ray entering and passing through prism B.
Step 1: Draw a parallel ray on the left
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YOUR NOTES

Step 2: Draw the refracted ray at the first surface
As the ray enters the block it bends towards the normal since it is going into a denser
material
In this case, the angle of refraction is smaller than the angle of incidence
Step 3: Draw the refracted ray at the second surface
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As the ray leaves the block it bends away from the normal YOUR NOTES
In this case, the angle of refraction is larger than the angle of incidence 
 Exam Tip
When drawing ray diagrams for reflection:
1. A simple straight line with an arrow is enough to represent the wave
You do not need to draw the wavefronts unless asked to do so!
2. Take care to draw the angle correctly
If it is slightly out it won’t be a problem, but if there is an obvious difference
between the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection then you will
probably lose a mark!
Practice drawing refraction diagrams as much as you can! It's very important to
remember which way the light bends when it crosses a boundary:
As the light enters the block it bends towards the normal line
Remember: Enters Towards
When it leaves the block it bends away from the normal line
Remember: Leaves Away
Don't forget to draw the arrows for the direction of the light rays and make sure they
are drawn with a ruler and a sharp pointed pencil
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3.2.3 Core Practical: Investigating Refraction YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 4: Investigating Refraction
Aim of the Experiment
To investigate the refraction of light using rectangular blocks, semi-circular blocks and
triangular prisms
Variables
Independent variable = shape of the block
Dependent variable = direction of refraction
Control variables:
Width of the light beam
Same frequency / wavelength of the light
Equipment List
Resolution of measuring equipment:

Protractor = 1°
Ruler = 1 mm
Method
Page 36 of 69
YOUR NOTES

Apparatus to investigate refraction

1. Place the glass block on a sheet of paper, and carefully draw around the rectangular
perspex block using a pencil
2. Switch on the ray box and direct a beam of light at the side face of the block
3. Mark on the paper:
A point on the ray close to the ray box
The point where the ray enters the block
The point where the ray exits the block
A point on the exit light ray which is a distance of about 5 cm away from the block
4. Draw a dashed line normal (at right angles) to the outline of the block where the points are
5. Remove the block and join the points marked with three straight lines
6. Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for a ray striking the block
at a different angle
7. Repeat the procedure for each shape of perspex block (prism and semi-circular)
Analysis of Results
Compare the different refraction patterns for each block
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YOUR NOTES

Summary of the refraction patterns seen in different shaped blocks

i and r are always measured from the normal
For light rays entering perspex block, the light ray refracts towards the central line:
i>r
For light rays exiting the perspex block, the light ray refracts away from the central line:
i<r
When the angle of incidence is 90° to the perspex block, the light ray does not refract, it
passes straight through the block:
i=r
If the experiment was carried out correctly, the angles should follow the pattern, as shown
below:
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YOUR NOTES

How to measure the angle of incidence and angle of refraction

Evaluating the Experiment
Systematic Errors:
An error could occur if the 90° lines are drawn incorrectly
Use a set square to draw perpendicular lines
Random Errors:
The points for the incoming and reflected beam may be inaccurately marked
Use a sharpened pencil and mark in the middle of the beam
The protractor resolution may make it difficult to read the angles accurately
Use a protractor with a higher resolution
Safety Considerations
The ray box light could cause burns if touched
Run burns under cold running water for at least five minute
Looking directly into the light may damage the eyes
Avoid looking directly at the light
Stand behind the ray box during the experiment
Keep all liquids away from the electrical equipment and paper
Page 39 of 69
3.2.4 Snell's Law YOUR NOTES


Snell's Law
When light enters a denser medium (such as glass) it slows down and bends towards the
normal
How much the light bends depends on the density of the material
Angle of incidence i and angle of refraction r through a glass block

If light travels from a less dense to a more dense medium (e.g. air to glass), r < i (bends
towards the normal)
If light travels from a more dense to a less dense medium (e.g. glass to air), r > i (bends away
from the normal)
The angles of incidence and refraction are related by an equation known as Snell's Law:
Where:
n = the refractive index of the material
i = angle of incidence of the light (°)
r = angle of refraction of the light (°)
'Sin' is the trigonometric function 'sine' which is on a scientific calculator
This equation can be rearranged with the help of the formula triangle:
Page 40 of 69
YOUR NOTES

Snell's law formula triangle

The refractive index is a number which is related to the speed of light in the material (which is
always less than the speed of light in a vacuum):
The refractive index is a number that is always larger than 1 and is different for different
materials
Objects which are more optically dense have a higher refractive index, eg. n is about
2.4 for diamond
Objects which are less optically dense have a lower refractive index, eg. n is about 1.5
for glass
Since refractive index is a ratio, it has no units
Page 41 of 69
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A ray of light enters a glass block of refractive index 1.53 making an angle of 15° with
the normal before entering the block.Calculate the angle it makes with the normal
after it enters the glass block.

Refractive index of glass, n = 1.53
Angle of incidence, i = 15°
Step 2: Write the equation for Snell's Law
Step 3: Rearrange the equation and calculate sin (r)
Step 4: Find the angle of refraction (r) by using the inverse sin function
r = sin–1 (0.1692) = 9.7 = 10°
 Exam Tip
Important: (sin i / sin r) is not the same as (i / r). Incorrectly cancelling the sin terms is
a very common mistake!When calculating the value of i or r start by calculating the
value of sin i or sin r.You can then use the inverse sin function (sin–1 on most
calculators by pressing 'shift' then 'sine') to find the angle.One way to remember
which way around i and r are in the fraction is remembering that 'i' comes before 'r' in
the alphabet, and therefore is on the top of the fraction (whilst r is on the bottom).
Page 42 of 69
3.2.5 Core Practical: Investigating Snell's law YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 5: Investigating Snell's Law
To investigate the refractive index of glass, using a glass block
Variables
Independent variable = angle of incidence, i
Dependent variable = angle of refraction , r
Control variables:
Use of the same perspex block
Width of the light beam
Same frequency / wavelength of the light
Equipment List

Protractor = 1°
Ruler = 1 mm
Method
Page 43 of 69
YOUR NOTES

Apparatus set-up to investigate Snell's Law

1. Place the glass block on a sheet of paper, and carefully draw around the block using a
pencil
2. Draw a dashed line normal (at right angles) to the outline of the block
3. Use a protractor to measure the angles of incidence to be studied and mark these lines on
the paper
4. Switch on the ray box and direct a beam of light at the side face of the block at the first
angle to be investigated
5. Mark on the paper:
A point on the ray close to the ray box
The point where the ray enters the block
The point where the ray exits the block
A point on the exit light ray which is a distance of about 5 cm away from the block
6. Remove the block and join the points marked with three straight lines
7. Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for a rays striking the
block at the next angle
An example table of results might look like this:
Page 44 of 69
Analysis of Results YOUR NOTES

If the angles have been measured correctly, the paper should end up looking like this: 
The angles of incidence and refraction are related by Snell's Law:
Where:
n = refractive index of the material
i = angle of incidence of the light (°)
r = angle of refraction of the light (°)
Plot a graph of sin i on the y-axis against sin r on the x-axis
The refractive index is equal to the gradient of the graph
An example graph might look like this:
Page 45 of 69
YOUR NOTES

Evaluating the Experiment

Systematic Errors:
An error could occur if the 90° lines are drawn incorrectly
Use a set square to draw perpendicular lines
[popover id="QzmzrDGuwfpwthVl" label="Random Errors:]
The points for the incoming and reflected beam may be inaccurately marked
Use a sharpened pencil and mark in the middle of the beam
The protractor resolution may make it difficult to read the angles accurately
Use a protractor with a higher resolution
Safety Considerations
The ray box light could cause burns if touched
Run burns under cold running water for at least five minute
Looking directly into the light may damage the eyes
Avoid looking directly at the light
Stand behind the ray box during the experiment
Keep all liquids away from the electrical equipment and paper
Page 46 of 69
3.2.6 Total Internal Reflection YOUR NOTES


Total Internal Reflection
Sometimes, when light is moving from a denser medium towards a less dense one, instead
of being refracted, all of the light is reflected
This phenomenon is called total internal reflection
Total internal reflection (TIR) occurs when:
The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle and the incident material is
denser than the second material
Therefore, the two conditions for total internal reflection are:
The angle of incidence > the critical angle
The incident material is denser than the second material
Critical angle and total internal reflection

Total internal reflection is utilised in:
Optical fibres eg. endoscopes
Prisms eg. periscopes
Optical Fibres
Total internal reflection is used to reflect light along optical fibres, meaning they can be
used for
Communications
Endoscopes
Decorative lamps
Safety reflectors on bicycles, cars and roads
Light travelling down an optical fibre is totally internally reflected each time it hits the edge
of the fibre
Page 47 of 69
YOUR NOTES

Optical fibres utilise total internal reflection for communications

Optical fibres are also used in medicine in order to see within the human body
Page 48 of 69
YOUR NOTES

Page 49 of 69
Endoscopes utilise total internal reflection to see inside a patient's body YOUR NOTES
Prisms 
Prisms are used in a variety of optical instruments, including:
Periscopes
Binoculars
Telescopes
Cameras
A periscope is a device that can be used to see over tall objects
It consists of two right-angled prisms
Reflection of light through a periscope

The light totally internally reflects in both prisms
Page 50 of 69
Single and double reflection through right-angled prisms YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
If asked to name the phenomena make sure you give the whole name – total
internal reflectionRemember: total internal reflection occurs when going from a
denser material to less dense material and ALL of the light is reflectedIf asked to give
an example of a use of total internal reflection, first state the name of the object that
causes the reflection (e.g. a right-angled prism) and then name the device in which it
is used (e.g. a periscope)
Page 51 of 69
Critical Angle YOUR NOTES

As the angle of incidence is increased, the angle of refraction also increases until it gets 
closer to 90°
When the angle of refraction is exactly 90° the light is refracted along the boundary
At this point, the angle of incidence is known as the critical angle c
As the angle of incidence increases it will eventually surplus the critical angle and lead to
total internal reflection of the light
When the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle, the refracted ray is now
reflected
This is total internal reflection
Page 52 of 69
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A glass cube is held in contact with a liquid and a light ray is directed at a vertical
face of the cube.The angle of incidence at the vertical face is 39° and the angle of
refraction is 25° as shown in the diagram.The light ray is totally internally reflected
for the first time at X.
Complete the diagram to show the path of the ray beyond X to the air and calculate
the critical angle for the glass-liquid boundary.
Step 1: Draw the reflected angle at the glass-liquid boundary

When a light ray is reflected, the angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Therefore, the angle of incidence (or reflection) is 90° – 25° = 65°
Step 2: Draw the refracted angle at the glass-air boundary
At the glass-air boundary, the light ray refracts away from the normal
Due to the reflection, the light rays are symmetrical to the other side
Step 3: Calculate the critical angle
Page 53 of 69
The question states the ray is “totally internally reflected for the first time” meaning YOUR NOTES
that this is the lowest angle at which TIR occurs 
Therefore, 65° is the critical angle
 Exam Tip
If you are asked to explain what is meant by the critical angle in an exam, you can be
sure to gain full marks by drawing and labelling the same diagram above (showing
the three semi-circular blocks)
Page 54 of 69
Calculating Critical Angle YOUR NOTES

The critical angle, c, of a material is related to its refractive index, n 
The relationship between the two quantities is given by the equation:
This can also be rearranged to calculate the refractive index, n:
This equation shows that:

The larger the refractive index of a material, the smaller the critical angle
Light rays inside a material with a high refractive index are more likely to be totally
internally reflected
 Worked Example
Opals and diamonds are transparent stones used in jewellery. Jewellers shape the
stones so that light is reflected inside.Compare the critical angles of opal and
diamond and explain which stone would appear to sparkle more.
The refractive index of opal is about 1.5
The refractive index of diamond is about 2.4

Refractive index of opal, no = 1.5
Refractive index of diamond, nd = 2.4
Step 2: Write out the equation relating critical angle and refractive index
Step 3: Calculate the critical angle of opal (co)

sin(co) = 1 ÷ 1.5 = 0.6667
co = sin–1 (0.6667) = 41.8 = 42°
Step 4: Calculate the critical angle of diamond (cd)
Page 55 of 69
sin(cd) = 1 ÷ 2.4 = 0.4167 YOUR NOTES

cd = sin–1 (0.4167) = 24.6 = 25° 
Step 5: Compare the two values and write a conclusion

Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence of light is larger than the
critical angle (i>c)
In opal, total internal reflection will occur for angles of incidence between 42° and 90°
The critical angle of diamond is lower than the critical angle of opal (co>cd)
This means light rays will be totally internally reflected in diamond over a larger range of
angles (25° to 90°)
Therefore, more total internal reflection will occur in diamond hence it will appear to
sparkle more than the opal
 Exam Tip
When calculating the value of the critical angle using the above equation:
First use the refractive index, n, to find sin(c)
Then use the inverse sin function (sin–1) to find the value of c
Page 56 of 69
3.3 Sound YOUR NOTES


3.3.1 Core Practical: Investigating the Speed of Sound
Core Practical 6: Investigating the Speed of Sound

Equipment List

Trundle wheel = 0.01 m
Tape measure = 0.1 cm
Stopwatch = 0.01 s
Experiment 1: Measuring the Speed of Sound Between Two Points
The aim of this experiment is to measure the speed of sound in air between two points
Variables
Independent variable = Distance
Dependent variable = Time
Control variables:
Same location to carry out the experiment
Method
Page 57 of 69
YOUR NOTES

Measuring the speed of sound directly between two points

1. Use the trundle wheel to measure a distance of 100 m between two people
2. One of the people should have two wooden blocks, which they will bang together above
their head to generate sound waves
3. The second person should have a stopwatch which they start when they see the first
person banging the blocks together and stop when they hear the sound
4. This should be repeated several times and an average taken for the time travelled by the
sound waves
5. Repeat this experiment for various distances, e.g. 120 m, 140 m, 160 m, 180 m
A possible results table might look like this:
Analysis of Results
The speed of sound can be calculated using the equation:
Page 58 of 69
YOUR NOTES

The speed of sound in air should work out to be about 340 m/s
Experiment 2: Measuring the Speed of Sound with Oscilloscopes
The aim of this experiment is to measure the speed of sound in air between two points using
an oscilloscope
Variables
Independent variable = Distance
Dependent variable = Time
Control variables:
Same location to carry out the experiment
Same set of microphones for each trial
Method
Measuring the speed of sound using an oscilloscope

1. Connect two microphones to an oscilloscope
2. Place them about 2 m apart using a tape measure to measure the distance between them
3. Set up the oscilloscope so that it triggers when the first microphone detects a sound, and
adjust the time base so that the sound arriving at both microphones can be seen on the
screen
4. Make a large clap using the two wooden blocks next to the first microphone
5. Use the oscilloscope to determine the time at which the clap reaches each microphone
and the time difference between them
6. Repeat this experiment for several distances, e.g. 2 m, 2.5 m, 3 m, 3.5 m
Page 59 of 69
YOUR NOTES

Analysis of Results
The speed of sound can be calculated using the equation:
The speed of sound in air should work out to be about 340 m/s
Evaluating the Experiments
Systematic Errors:
In Experiment 2, ensure the scale of the time base is accounted for correctly
The scale is likely to be small (e.g. milliseconds) so ensure this is taken into account
when calculating speed
Random errors:
A main cause of error in Experiment 1 is the measurement of time
Ensure to take repeat readings when timing intervals and calculate an average to keep
this error to a minimum
Maximise the distance between the two people where possible. This will reduce the
error in measurements of time because the time taken by the sound waves to travel will
be greater
Page 60 of 69
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 When you are answering questions about methods to measure waves, the question

could ask you to comment on the accuracy of the measurementsIn the case of
measuring the speed of sound:
Experiment 2 is the most accurate because the timing is done automatically
Experiment 1 is the least accurate because the time interval is very short
Whilst this may not be too important when giving a method, you should be able to
explain why each method is accurate or inaccurate and suggest ways of making
them better (use bigger distances)
For example, if a manual stopwatch is being used there could be variation in the
time measured which can be up to 0.2 seconds due to a person's reaction time
The time interval could be as little as 0.3 seconds for sound travelling in air
This means that the variation due to the stopwatch readings has a big influence
on the results and they may not be reliable
Page 61 of 69
3.3.2 Sound & Oscilloscopes YOUR NOTES


Sound & Oscilloscopes
An oscilloscope is a device that can be used to study a rapidly changing signal, such as:
A sound wave
An alternating current
Oscilloscopes have lots of dials and buttons, but their main purpose is to display and
measure changing signals like sound waves and alternating current
When a microphone is connected to an oscilloscope, the (longitudinal) sound wave is
displayed as though it were a transverse wave on the screen
The time base (like the 'x-axis') is used to measure the time period of the wave
Page 62 of 69
YOUR NOTES

A sound wave is displayed as though it were a transverse wave on the screen of the
oscilloscope. The time base can be used to measure a full time period of the wave cycle
The height of the wave (measured from the centre of the screen) is related to the amplitude
of the sound
The number of entire waves that appear on the screen is related to the frequency of the
wave
If the frequency of the sound wave increases, more waves are displayed on screen
Page 63 of 69
3.3.3 Core Practical: Using an Oscilloscope YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 7: Using an Oscilloscope
The aim of this experiment is to investigate the frequency of a sound wave using an
oscilloscope
Variables
Independent variable = Tuning forks of different frequencies
Dependent variable = Time period
Equipment List
Method
Measuring the frequency of a sound wave using an oscilloscope

1. Connect the microphone to the oscilloscope as shown in the image above
2. Test the microphone displays a signal by humming
3. Adjust the time base of the oscilloscope until the signal fits on the screen - ensure that
multiple complete waves can be seen
Page 64 of 69
4. Strike the tuning fork on the edge of a hard surface to generate sound waves of a pure YOUR NOTES
frequency 
5. Hold the tuning fork near to the microphone and observe the sound wave on the
oscilloscope screen
6. Freeze the image on the oscilloscope screen, or take a picture of it
7. Measure and record the time period of the wave signal on the screen by counting the
number of divisions for one complete wave cycle
8. Repeat steps 4-6 for a variety of tuning forks
Analysis of Results
To convert the time period of the wave from the number of divisions into seconds, use the
scale of the time base. For example:
The time base is usually measured in units of ms/cm (milliseconds per centimetre)
This would mean a wave with a time base of 4 cm has a time period of 4 ms
To calculate the frequency of the sound waves produced by the tuning forks, use the
equation:
Where:
f = Frequency, measured in hertz (Hz)
Page 65 of 69
T = Time period, measured in seconds (s) YOUR NOTES

Evaluating the Experiment 
Systematic Errors:
Ensure the scale of the time base is accounted for correctly
The scale is likely to be small (e.g. milliseconds) so ensure this is taken into account
when calculating the time period
Random Errors:
A cause of random error in this experiment is noise in the environment, so ensure it is carried
out in a quiet location
Page 66 of 69
3.3.4 Pitch & Loudness YOUR NOTES


Pitch
The pitch of a sound is related to the frequency of the vibrating source of sound waves
If the frequency of vibration is high, the sound wave has a high pitch
If the frequency of vibration is low, the sound wave has a low pitch
The pitch of the sound is related to the frequency of the sound waves
Page 67 of 69
This image shows two sound waves displayed on an oscilloscope. The red wave has smaller YOUR NOTES
wavelength than the blue wave hence it has higher frequency and higher pitch 
Loudness
The loudness of a sound is related to the amplitude of the vibrating source of sound waves
If the sound is loud, the sound wave has a large amplitude
This image shows two sound waves displayed on an oscilloscope. The blue wave has twice
the amplitude of the green wave because the blue wave is louder
Page 68 of 69
Range of Human Hearing YOUR NOTES

The human ear responds to the vibrations caused by sound waves 
The frequency range for human hearing is 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz
The range of human hearing is between 20 – 20 000 Hz. Below 20 Hz is known as infrasound.
Above 20 000 Hz is known as ultrasound
Page 69 of 69

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3.1 Waves & The Electromagnetic Spectrum YOUR NOTES

Transverse & Longitudinal Waves

Longitudinal waves are defined as: YOUR NOTES

Waves can be shown through vibrations in ropes or springs

Transverse Waves v Longitudinal Waves Table YOUR NOTES

Step 1: Recall the definition of longitudinal waves

Waves & Energy YOUR NOTES

3.1.2 Describing Wave Motion YOUR NOTES

Diagram showing the amplitude and wavelength of a wave

Frequency YOUR NOTES

Diagram showing a wave moving to the right, drawn as a series of wavefronts

3.1.3 The Wave Equation YOUR NOTES

Frequency & Time Period YOUR NOTES

Step 1: List the known values

Calculations in Different Contexts YOUR NOTES

Step 3: Rearrange for frequency, f, and calculate the answer

λ = 330 ÷ 1 × 104 YOUR NOTES

Step 1: List the known quantities

3.1.4 The Doppler Effect YOUR NOTES

3.1.5 Electromagnetic (EM) Waves YOUR NOTES

The EM Spectrum YOUR NOTES

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

You could even combine both to have a mega mnemonic:

3.1.6 Applications of EM Waves YOUR NOTES

Uses and dangers of the electromagnetic spectrum

3.1.7 Dangers of EM Waves YOUR NOTES

Ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays can all ionise atoms

Dangers of EM Waves Table YOUR NOTES

X-rays & Gamma Rays YOUR NOTES

3.2 Reflection & Refraction YOUR NOTES

Sound YOUR NOTES

3.2.2 Reflection & Refraction YOUR NOTES

An identical image of the tree is seen in the water due to reflection

The Law of Reflection

Angle of incidence and angle of reflection

Ray Diagrams YOUR NOTES

Ray diagram of reflection of a wave at a mirror

Draw a third parallel ray entering and passing through prism B.

Step 1: Draw a parallel ray on the left

Step 2: Draw the refracted ray at the first surface

3.2.3 Core Practical: Investigating Refraction YOUR NOTES

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Apparatus to investigate refraction

Summary of the refraction patterns seen in different shaped blocks

How to measure the angle of incidence and angle of refraction

3.2.4 Snell's Law YOUR NOTES

Angle of incidence i and angle of refraction r through a glass block

Snell's law formula triangle

Step 1: List the known quantities

Step 3: Rearrange the equation and calculate sin (r)

3.2.5 Core Practical: Investigating Snell's law YOUR NOTES

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Apparatus set-up to investigate Snell's Law

Analysis of Results YOUR NOTES

The angles of incidence and refraction are related by Snell's Law:

Evaluating the Experiment

3.2.6 Total Internal Reflection YOUR NOTES

Critical angle and total internal reflection

Optical fibres utilise total internal reflection for communications

Reflection of light through a periscope

Single and double reflection through right-angled prisms YOUR NOTES

Critical Angle YOUR NOTES