5. Solids, Liquids and Gases

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YOUR NOTES
IGCSE Physics Edexcel 
5. Solids, Liquids & Gases
CONTENTS
5.1 Density & Pressure
5.1.1 Density
5.1.2 Core Practical: Determining Density
5.1.3 Pressure
5.1.4 Pressure in Liquids
5.2 Changes of State
5.2.1 Solids, Liquids & Gases
5.2.2 Changes of State
5.2.3 Core Practical: Investigating Changes of State
5.2.4 Specific Heat Capacity
5.2.5 Core Practical: Investigating Specific Heat Capacity
5.3 Ideal Gases
5.3.1 Kinetic Theory
5.3.2 Absolute Zero
5.3.3 Temperature
5.3.4 The Gas Laws
5.3.5 The Pressure Law
5.3.6 Boyle's Law
Page 1 of 54
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5.1 Density & Pressure YOUR NOTES


5.1.1 Density
Density
Density is defined as:
The mass per unit volume of a material
Objects made from low density materials typically have a low mass
Similarly sized objects made from high density materials have a high mass
For example, a bag full of feathers is far lighter compared to a similar bag full of metal
Or another example, a balloon is less dense than a small bar of lead despite occupying
a larger volume
Density is related to mass and volume by the following equation:
Gases, for examples, are less dense than solids because the molecules are more spread
out (same mass, over a larger volume)
Gases are less dense than solids

This equation can be rearranged with the help of the formula triangle:
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YOUR NOTES

Density, mass, volume formula triangle

The units of density depend on what units are used for mass and volume:
If the mass is measured in g and volume in cm3, then the density will be in g/cm3
If the mass is measured in kg and volume in m3, then the density will be in kg/m3
This table gives some examples of densities on common materials
If a material is more dense than water (1000 kg/m3), then it will sink
Approximate Densities of Materials Table
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YOUR NOTES

The volume of an object may not always be given directly, but can be calculated with the
appropriate equation depending on the object’s shape
Volumes of common 3D shapes
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A paving slab has a mass of 73 kg and dimensions 0.04 m × 0.5 m × 0.85 m.
Calculate the density, in kg/m3, of the material from which the paving slab is made.
Step 1: List the known quantities

Mass of slab, m = 73 kg
Volume of slab, V = 0.04 m × 0.5 m × 0.85 m = 0.017 m3
Step 2: Write out the equation for density
Step 3: Substitute in values

ρ = 73 ÷ 0.017 = 4294 kg/m3
Step 4: Round the answer to two significant figures

ρ = 4300 kg/m3
 Exam Tip
Make sure you are comfortable converting between units such as metres (m) and
centimetres (cm) or grams (g) and kilograms (kg).
When converting a larger unit to a smaller one, you multiply (×)
E.g. 125 m = 125 × 100 = 12 500 cm
When you convert a smaller unit to a larger one, you divide (÷)
E.g. 5 g = 5 ÷ 1000 = 0.005 or 5 × 10-3 kg
Page 5 of 54
5.1.2 Core Practical: Determining Density YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 9: Determining Density
Equipment List
Resolution of measuring equipment:

30 cm ruler = 1 mm
Vernier calipers = 0.01 mm
Micrometer = 0.001 mm
Digital balance = 0.01 g
Experiment 1: Measuring the Density of Regularly Shaped Objects
The aim of this experiment is to determine the densities of regular objects by using
measurements of their dimensions
Variables:
Independent variable = Type of shape / volume
Dependent variable = Mass of the object
Method
Page 6 of 54
YOUR NOTES

1. Place the object on a digital balance and note down its mass
2. Use either the ruler, Vernier calipers or micrometer to measure the object’s dimensions
(width, height, length, radius) – the apparatus will depend on the size of the object
3. Repeat these measurements and take an average of these readings before calculating the
density
An example of a results table might look like this:
Analysis of Results
Page 7 of 54
Calculate the volume of the object depending on whether it is a cube, sphere, cylinder (or YOUR NOTES
other regular shape) 
Calculating the volume of an object depends on its shape

Remember to convert from centimetres (cm) to metres (m) by dividing by 100
1 cm = 0.01 m
50 cm = 0.5 m
Using the mass and volume, the density of each can be calculated using the equation:
Where:
ρ = density in kilogram per metres cubed (kg/m3)
m = mass in kilograms (kg)
V = volume in metres cubed (m3)
Experiment 2: Measuring the Density of Irregularly Shaped Objects
The aim of this experiment is to determine the densities of irregular objects using a
displacement technique
Variables:
Independent variable = Different irregular shapes / mass
Dependent variable = Volume of displaced water
Page 8 of 54
Method YOUR NOTES


Apparatus for measuring the density of irregular objects

1. Place the object on a digital balance and note down its mass
2. Fill the eureka can with water up to a point just below the spout
3. Place an empty measuring cylinder below its spout
4. Carefully lower the object into the eureka can
5. Measure the volume of the displaced water in the measuring cylinder
6. Repeat these measurements and take an average before calculating the density
Analysis of Results
The volume of the water displaced is equal to the volume of the object
Once the mass and volume of the shape are known, the density can be calculated using:
Page 9 of 54
Experiment 3: Measuring Density of Liquids YOUR NOTES

The aim of this experiment is to determine the density of a liquid by finding a difference in its 
mass
Variables:
Independent variable = Volume of water added
Dependent variable = Mass of cylinder
Method
Apparatus for determining the density of a liquid

1. Place an empty measuring cylinder on a digital balance and note down the mass
2. Fill the cylinder with the liquid and note down the volume
3. Note down the new reading on the digital balance
4. Repeat these measurements and take an average before calculating the density
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YOUR NOTES

Analysis of Results
Find the mass of the liquid by subtracting the final reading from the original reading
Mass of liquid = Mass of cylinder with water – mass of cylinder
Remember to convert between grams (g) and kilograms (kg) by dividing by 1000
1 g = 0.001 kg
78 g = 0.078 kg
Once the mass and volume of the liquid are known, the density can be calculated using the
equation:
Evaluating the Experiments

Systematic Errors:
Ensure the digital balance is set to zero before taking measurements of mass
This includes when measuring the density of the liquid – remove the measuring cylinder
and zero the balance before adding the liquid
Random Errors:
A main cause of error in this experiment is in the measurements of length
Ensure to take repeat readings and calculate an average to keep this error to a
minimum
Place the irregular object in the displacement can carefully, as dropping it from a height
might cause water to splash which will lead to an incorrect volume reading
Safety Considerations
There is a lot of glassware in this experiment, ensure this is handled carefully
Water should not be poured into the measuring cylinder when it is on the electric balance
This could lead to electric shock
Make sure to stand up during the whole experiment, to react quickly to any spills
Page 11 of 54
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 There is a lot of information to take in here! When writing about experiments, a good

sequence is as follows:
If you need to use an equation to calculate something, start off by giving it as
this will give you some hints about what you need to mention later
List the apparatus that you need
State what measurements you need to make (your equation will give you some
hints) and how you will measure them
Finally, state that you will repeat each measurement several times and take
averages
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5.1.3 Pressure YOUR NOTES


Pressure
Pressure is defined as
The concentration of a force or the force per unit area
For example, when a drawing pin is pushed downwards:
It is pushed into the surface, rather than up towards the finger
This is because the sharp point is more concentrated (a small area) creating a larger
pressure
When you push a drawing pin, it goes into the surface (rather than your finger)
Example 1: Tractors
Tractors have large tyres
This spreads the weight (force) of the tractor over a large area
This reduces the pressure which prevents the heavy tractor from sinking into the mud
Example 2: Nails
Nails have sharp pointed ends with a very small area
This concentrates the force, creating a large pressure over a small area
This allows the nail to be hammered into a wall
The pressure at the surface of a fluid can be calculated using the equation:
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YOUR NOTES

Pressure is measured in the units Pascals (Pa)

The area should always be the cross-sectional area of the object
This means the area where the force is at right angles to it
This equation can be rearranged with the help of a formula triangle:
Pressure, force, area formula triangle

This equation tells us that:
If a force is spread over a large area it will result in a small pressure
If it is spread over a small area it will result in a large pressure
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YOUR NOTES

High heels produce a higher pressure on the ground because of their smaller area, compared
to flat shoes
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

The diagram below shows the parts of the lifting machine used to move the
platform up and down.
The pump creates pressure in the liquid of 5.28 × 105 Pa to move the platform
upwards. Calculate the force that the liquid applies to the piston.
Step 1: List the known quantities

Cross-sectional area = 2.73 × 10-2 m2
Pressure = 5.28 × 105 Pa
Step 2: Write down the relevant equation
Step 3: Rearrange for the force, F

F=p×A
Step 4: Substitute the values into the equation
F = (5.28 × 105) × (2.73 × 10-2) = 14 414.4
Step 5: Round to the appropriate number of significant figures and quote the correct
unit
F = 14 400 N = 14.4 kN (3 s.f)
Page 16 of 54
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Look out for the units for the force!Large pressures produce large forces - this is

sometimes in kN! (1 kN = 1000 N)
Page 17 of 54
5.1.4 Pressure in Liquids YOUR NOTES


Pressure in Liquids
A fluid is either a liquid or a gas
When an object is immersed in a fluid, the fluid will exert pressure, squeezing the object
This pressure is exerted evenly across the whole surface of the fluid and in all
directions
The pressure exerted on objects in fluids creates forces against surfaces
These forces act at 90 degrees (at right angles) to the surface
The pressure of a fluid on an object creates a force normal (at right angles) to the surface
Page 18 of 54
Calculating Pressure in a Liquid YOUR NOTES

The pressure due to a column of liquid can be calculated using the equation 
p=h×ρ×g
Where:
p = pressure in pascals (Pa)
h = height of the column in metres (m)
ρ = density of the liquid in kilograms per metre cubed (kg/m3)
g = gravitational field strength on Earth in newtons per kilogram (N/kg)
The force from the pressure is exerted evenly across the whole surface of an object in a
liquid, and in all directions
The force from the pressure of objects in a liquid is exerted evenly across its whole surface
The pressure is more accurately the difference in pressure at different depths h in a liquid,
since the pressure changes with the depth
 Worked Example
Calculate the depth of water in a swimming pool where a pressure of 20 kPa is
exerted. The density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and the gravitational field strength on
Earth is 9.8 N/kg.
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YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
This pressure equation will be given on your formula sheet, however, make sure you
are comfortable with rearranging it for the variable required in the question!
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5.2 Changes of State YOUR NOTES


5.2.1 Solids, Liquids & Gases
Solids, Liquids & Gases

Matter can exist in one of three different states: solid, liquid, or gas
Solids
In a solid:
The particles are closely packed
The particles vibrate about fixed positions
Solids have:
A definite shape (they are rigid)
A definite volume
Liquids
In a liquid:
The particles are closely packed
The particles can flow over one another
Liquids have:
No definite shape – they are able to flow and will take the shape of a container
A definite volume
Gases
In a gas:
The particles are far apart
The particles move randomly
Gases have:
No definite shape – they will take the shape of their container
No fixed volume – if placed in an evacuated container they will expand to fill the
container
Gases are highly compressible, this is because:
There are large gaps between the particles
It is easier to push the particles closer together than in solids or liquids
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YOUR NOTES

Diagram showing the three states of matter in terms of shape and volume
Solid, Liquid, Gas Summary Table
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5.2.2 Changes of State YOUR NOTES


Changes of State
When a substance changes state, the number of molecules in that substance doesn’t
change and so neither does its mass
The only thing that changes is its energy
Unlike chemical changes, changes of state (a type of physical change) are reversible
In a solid:
The molecules are very close together and arranged in a regular pattern
The molecules vibrate about fixed positions
In a liquid:
The molecules are still close together (no gaps) but are no longer arranged in a regular
pattern
The molecules are able to slide past each other
In a gas:
The molecules are widely separated - about 10 times further apart in each direction
The molecules move about randomly at high speeds
There are six changes of state that can occur between solids, liquids and gases:
Melting - When a solid turns into a liquid (e.g. ice to water)
Boiling - When a liquid turns into a gas (evaporating)
Condensing - When a gas turns into a liquid
Freezing - When a liquid turns into a solid
Subliming -When a solid turns into a gas
Diagram showing the arrangement and motion of different states of matter
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Heat & Temperature YOUR NOTES

Heating a system will change the energy stored in a system by increasing the kinetic 
energy of its particles
The temperature of the material, therefore, is related to the average kinetic energy of
the molecules
This increase in kinetic energy (and therefore energy stored in the system) can:
Cause the temperature of the system to increase
Or, produce a change of state (solid to liquid or liquid to gas)
The higher the temperature, the higher the average kinetic energy of the molecules and vice
versa
This means they move around faster
As the container is heated up, the gas molecules move faster with higher kinetic energy. The
energy stored within the system - the internal energy - therefore increases
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A student measures the mass of a beaker of water twice, leaving 24 hours between
the readings. The temperature in the room remained constant between readings,
however, they notice a decrease in the mass of the beaker of water.
Which of the following is not a correct conclusion that can be drawn from the
experiment?
A The difference in mass is equal to the mass of the water that evaporated
B The total energy within the beaker decreased
C The density of water in the air increased
D The total number of water molecules in the air and water decreased
ANSWER: D
A is true because the mass lost from the beaker is due to those water molecules
evaporating
B is true because evaporation causes the most energetic particles to leave the beaker
The total number of particles in the beaker decreased
C is true because additional water molecules were added to the air, without a
significant change in the volume of the air
D is not true because no mass is lost during evaporation - it is only changed from a
liquid to gas state
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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Heating a system will always increase the energy stored within the system.You

should remember that this increase in 'internal energy' can have two effects: either
the temperature of the system will increase, or the system will change state (e.g.
from a solid to a liquid, or a liquid to a gas)
Page 26 of 54
5.2.3 Core Practical: Investigating Changes of State YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 10: Investigating Changes of State
Aim of the Experiment
The aim of this experiment is to investigate how the temperature of ice varies when it
changes state from a solid to a liquid
Equipment List

Thermometer = 0.1 °C
Stopwatch = 0.1 s
Method
Page 27 of 54
YOUR NOTES

Apparatus used to heat ice and measure its temperature as it melts

1. Place the ice cubes in the beaker (it should be about half full)
2. Place the thermometer in the beaker
3. Place the beaker on the tripod and gauze and slowly start to heat it using the bunsen burner
4. As the beaker is heated, take regular temperature measurements (e.g. at one minute
intervals)
5. Continue this whilst the substance changes state (from solid to liquid)
An example results table is shown below:
Analysis of Results
Plot a graph of the temperature (y-axis) against time (x-axis)
The graph will show regions where:
The temperature of the ice cubes increases
There is no temperature change (even though the ice cubes continue to be heated)
This should occur at 0 °C, where the ice is melting from solid to liquid
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YOUR NOTES

A graph of temperature against time will show a flat region where the ice is melting
Evaluating the Experiment
Systematic Errors:
Measurements of temperature from the thermometer keeping it at eye level, to avoid
parallax errors
Ensure the thermometer is held vertically in the beaker
Random Errors:
Ensure there are enough ice cubes to surround the thermometer in the beaker, and only
begin the experiment when the temperature is below 0 °C
This is to ensure readings of temperature are as accurate as possible
Wear goggles while heating water
Place the bunsen burner, with the beaker and tripod, on a heatproof mat to avoid surface
damage
 Exam Tip
You might be pleasantly surprised that heat can be transferred to a substance
without changing its temperature. This is a very cool effect during changes of state:
the thermal energy supplied does not contribute to the average kinetic energy of
the particles in the ice - rather, it is used to weaken the bonds between the particles
so they become freer to slide around each other (i.e. a liquid!)Once the ice is fully
melted, the temperature of the liquid water begins rising again. Make sure you are
familiar with the graph of temperature against time and you can associate the flat
region with changing state
Page 29 of 54
5.2.4 Specific Heat Capacity YOUR NOTES


Specific Heat Capacity
How much the temperature of a system increases depends on:
The mass of the substance heated
The type of material
The amount of energy put in to the system
The energy put in is in the form of thermal energy
The specific heat capacity, c of a substance is defined as:
The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of the substance by
1 °C
Different substances have different specific heat capacities
If a substance has a low specific heat capacity, it heats up and cools down quickly (ie.
it takes less energy to change its temperature)
If a substance has a high specific heat capacity, it heats up and cools down slowly (ie.
it takes more energy to change its temperature)
Low vs high specific heat capacity
Page 30 of 54
Calculating Specific Heat Capacity YOUR NOTES

The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of a given mass by a given amount 
can be calculated using the equation:
Change in thermal energy = Mass × Specific heat capacity × Change in temperature
ΔQ = mcΔT
Where:
ΔQ = change in thermal energy, in joules (J)
m = mass, in kilograms (kg)
c = specific heat capacity, in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg °C)
ΔT = change in temperature, in degrees Celsius (°C)
 Worked Example
Water of mass 0.48 kg is increased in temperature by 0.7 °C. The specific heat
capacity of water is 4200 J / kg °C.Calculate the amount of thermal energy
transferred to the water.
Step 1: Write down the known quantities

Mass, m = 0.48 kg
Change in temperature, ΔT = 0.7 °C
Specific heat capacity, c = 4200 J/kg °C
Step 2: Write down the relevant equation
ΔQ = mcΔT
Step 3: Calculate the thermal energy transferred by substituting in the values
ΔQ = (0.48) × (4200) × (0.7) = 1411.2
Step 4: Round the answer to 2 significant figures
ΔQ = 1400 J
 Exam Tip
This equation will be given on your equation sheet, so don't worry if you cannot
remember it, but it is important that you understand how to use it. You will always be
given the specific heat capacity of a substance, so you do not need to memorise
any values.
Page 31 of 54
5.2.5 Core Practical: Investigating Specific Heat Capacity YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 11: Investigating Specific Heat Capacity
Aim of the Experiment
The aim of this experiment is to determine the specific heat capacity of a solid and of water
by measuring the energy required to increase the temperature of a known amount by one
degree
Equipment List

Thermometer = 0.1 °C
Voltmeter = 0.1 V
Page 32 of 54
Ammeter = 0.1 A YOUR NOTES

Stopwatch = 0.01 s 
Digital balance = 0.1 g
Method
Apparatus for heating water and measuring energy supplied

1. Place the beaker on the digital balance and press 'tare'
2. Add approximately 250 ml of water and record the mass of the water using the digital
balance
3. Place the immersion heater and thermometer in the water
4. Connect up the circuit as shown in the diagram, with the ammeter in series with the power
supply and immersion heater, and the voltmeter in parallel with the immersion heater
5. Record the initial temperature of the water at time 0 s
6. Turn on the power supply, set it at approximately 10 V, and start the stopwatch
7. Record the voltage from the voltmeter and the current from the ammeter
8. Continue to record the temperature, voltage and current every 60 seconds for 10 minutes
9. Repeat steps 2-8, replacing the beaker of water for the solid block of aluminium and
starting with recording its mass using the digital balance
Page 33 of 54
YOUR NOTES

Analysis of Results
Calculate the energy supplied every 60 seconds using the formula:
Electrical energy = voltage × current × time
Where:
Electrical energy is measured in Joules (J)
Voltage is measured in volts (V)
Current is measured in amps (A)
Time is measured in seconds (s)
Calculate the temperature change by subtracting the temperature at time 0 s from the
temperature recorded each minute
The equation for specific heat capacity is:
ΔQ = m × c × ΔT
Where:
ΔQ = change in thermal energy, in joules (J)
m = mass of substance, in kilograms (kg)
c = specific heat capacity, in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg °C)
ΔT = change in temperature, in degrees Celsius (°C)
Plot a graph of the energy supplied (y-axis) against the temperature change multiplied by
the average mass (x-axis)
Calculate the gradient of this graph in the straight line region in order to obtain the specific
heat capacity of the water or solid block
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YOUR NOTES

The gradient of the graph is equal to the specific heat capacity of the substance, assuming
a perfectly efficient immersion heater
Evaluating the Experiment
Systematic Errors:
Ensure the digital balance is set to zero before taking measurements of mass
Some water may be lost to the surroundings by evaporation. Calculate an average mass of
water (using the mass before the experiment and the mass after) to account for this
Remember to only take gradients on the straight-line region
Before this point the energy supplied is being used to heat the immersion heater itself
Random Errors:
Stir the water constantly whilst heating it to ensure the temperature measured is the
temperature throughout the fluid
When the current or voltage values appear to be changing between two values next to one
another then be consistent in choosing the higher value
The immersion heater will get very hot
Make sure not to touch it, and have a heatproof mat ready to place it on
Make sure that the immersion heater is connected to a Direct Current supply
The beaker may become unstable with an immersion heater and thermometer resting in it
If you feel this is the case then use a clamp stand to hold both
Wear goggles while heating water
Page 35 of 54
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Although there is a lot of detail here, if you can begin any questions about this

experiment by writing down the equation for specific heat capacity then you will
have given yourself some clues about how best to proceedTaking a gradient is a
more reliable way of determining an answer than just using a single value, so take
time to understand the process of plotting graphs and using their gradients to make
conclusions
Page 36 of 54
5.3 Ideal Gases YOUR NOTES


5.3.1 Kinetic Theory
Kinetic Theory of Gases

Molecules in a gas are in constant random motion at high speeds
Random motion means that the molecules are travelling in no specific path and undergo
sudden changes in their motion if they collide:
With the walls of its container
With other molecules
The random motion of tiny particles in a fluid is known as Brownian motion
Random motion of gas molecules in a container

Brownian motion provides evidence that air is made of small particles
This is because when larger particles, such as smoke particles or pollen, are observed
floating in the air:
The larger particles move with random motion
This is a result of the larger particles colliding with smaller particles that are invisible to
the naked eye
Pressure
A feature of gases is that they fill their container
The pressure is defined as the force per unit area
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YOUR NOTES

As the gas particles move about randomly they collide with the walls of their containers
These collisions produce a net force at right angles to the wall of the gas container (or any
surface)
Therefore, a gas at high pressure has more frequent collisions with the container walls and
a greater force
Hence the higher the pressure, the higher the force exerted per unit area
Gas molecules bouncing off the walls of a container
Page 38 of 54
It is possible for someone to experience this force by closing their mouth and forcing air into YOUR NOTES
their cheeks 
The strain on the cheeks is due to the force of the gas particles pushing at right angles to
the cheeks
Page 39 of 54
5.3.2 Absolute Zero YOUR NOTES


Absolute Zero
The amount of pressure that a gas exerts on its container is dependent on the temperature
of the gas
This is because particles move with more energy as their temperature increases
As the temperature of the gas decreases, the pressure on the container also decreases
In 1848, Mathematician and Physicist, Lord Kelvin, recognised that there must be a
temperature at which the particles in a gas exert no pressure
At this temperature they must no longer be moving, and hence not colliding with their
container
This temperature is called absolute zero and is equal to -273 °C
At absolute zero, or -273 °C, particles will have no net movement. It is therefore not
possible to have a lower temperature
Absolute zero is defined as:
The temperature at which the molecules in a substance have zero kinetic energy
This means for a system at absolute zero, it is not possible to remove any more energy from
it
Even in space, the temperature is roughly 2.7 K above absolute zero
Page 40 of 54
The Kelvin Scale YOUR NOTES

The Kelvin temperature scale begins at absolute zero 
0 K is equal to -273 °C
An increase of 1 K is the same change as an increase of 1 °C
It is not possible to have a temperature lower than 0 K
This means a temperature in Kelvin will never be a negative value
To convert between temperatures θ in the Celsius scale, and T in the Kelvin scale, use the
following conversion:
θ / °C = T / K − 273
T / K = θ / °C + 273
Conversion chart relating the temperature on the Kelvin and Celsius scales
The divisions on both scales are equal. This means:
A change in a temperature of 1 K is equal to a change in temperature of 1 °C
 Worked Example
The temperature in a room is 300 K.
What is this temperature in Celsius?
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Step 1: Kelvin to Celsius equation YOUR NOTES

θ / °C = T / K − 273 
Step 2: Substitute in value of 300 K

300 K − 273 = 27 °C
 Exam Tip
If you forget in the exam whether it’s +273 or −273, just remember that 0 °C = 273 K.
This way, when you know that you need to +273 to a temperature in degrees to get a
temperature in Kelvin. For example: 0 °C + 273 = 273 K.
Page 42 of 54
5.3.3 Temperature YOUR NOTES


Temperature & Speed
Imagine molecules of gas that are free to move around in a box
The molecules in the gas move around randomly at high speeds, colliding with surfaces and
exerting pressure upon them
The temperature of a gas is related to the average speed of the molecules:
The hotter the gas, the faster the molecules move and vice versa
Hence, the molecules collide with the surface of the walls more frequently
Gas molecules move about randomly at high speeds

This is because their kinetic energy increases
Page 43 of 54
Temperature & Kinetic Energy YOUR NOTES

Heating a system will change the energy stored in a system by increasing the kinetic 
energy of its particles
The Kelvin temperature of the gas is related to the average kinetic energy of the
molecules
This increase in kinetic energy (and therefore energy stored in the system) can:
Cause the temperature of the system to increase
Or, produce a change of state (solid to liquid or liquid to gas)
The internal energy of a gas is the sum of the kinetic energy of all the molecules
The higher the temperature, the higher the average kinetic energy of the molecules and vice
versa
This means they move around faster
As the container is heated up, the gas molecules move faster with higher kinetic energy. The
energy stored within the system - the internal energy - therefore increases
If the temperature of a gas is increased, the particles move faster and gain kinetic energy
Therefore, they will collide more with each other and the container leading to an
increase in pressure
The temperature (in Kelvin) is proportional to the average kinetic energy of the molecules
T ∝ KE
Page 44 of 54
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

When a liquid evaporates, molecules escape from the surface of the liquid. What
happens to the temperature of the liquid and the average kinetic energy of the
molecules within it?
ANSWER: B
When evaporation takes place, the more energetic molecules are leaving the surface
of the liquid
Since the more energetic molecules have left, the average kinetic energy per
molecule must decrease
Therefore, A, C & D are not correct
Temperature is proportional to the average kinetic energy per molecule, therefore the
temperature also decreases
Page 45 of 54
5.3.4 The Gas Laws YOUR NOTES


The Gas Laws
Gas laws provide explanations for the relationships between:
Pressure and volume at a constant temperature
Pressure and (Kelvin) temperature at a constant volume
Pressure & Volume
If the temperature of a gas remains constant, the pressure of the gas changes when it is:
Compressed – decreases the volume which increases the pressure
Expanded – increases the volume which decreases the pressure
Pressure increases when a gas is compressed

Similarly, a change in pressure can cause a change in volume
A vacuum pump can be used to remove the air from a sealed container
The diagram below shows the change in volume to a tied up balloon when the pressure of
the air around it decreases:
Page 46 of 54
YOUR NOTES

Therefore, if the gas is compressed, the molecules will hit the walls of the container more
frequently
This creates a larger overall net force on the walls which increases the pressure
Pressure & Temperature
The motion of molecules in a gas changes according to the temperature
As the temperature of a gas increases, the average speed of the molecules also increases
Since the average kinetic energy depends on their speed, the kinetic energy of the
molecules also increases if its volume remains constant
The hotter the gas, the higher the average kinetic energy
The cooler the gas, the lower the average kinetic energy
If the gas is heated up, the molecules will travel at a higher speed
This means they will collide with the walls more often
This creates an increase in pressure
Therefore, at a constant volume, an increase in temperature increases the pressure of a
gas and vice versa
Diagram A shows molecules in the same volume collide with the walls of the container more
with an increase in temperature
Diagram B shows that since the temperature is proportional to the pressure, the graph
against each is a straight line
Page 47 of 54
YOUR NOTES

At constant volume, an increase in the temperature of the gas increases the pressure due to
more collisions on the container walls
 Exam Tip
You are required to be able to describe the links between pressure & volume and
pressure & temperature qualitatively. This means that the correct use of terms such
as 'collision', 'kinetic energy' and 'frequency', will be really important.
Page 48 of 54
5.3.5 The Pressure Law YOUR NOTES


The Pressure Law
If the volume V of an ideal gas is constant, the pressure law is given by:
P∝T
This means the pressure is proportional to the temperature
The relationship between the pressure and (Kelvin) temperature for a fixed mass of gas at
constant volume can also be written as:
Where:
P1 = initial pressure (Pa)
P2 = final pressure (Pa)
T1 = initial temperature (K)
T2 = final temperature (K)
Page 49 of 54
YOUR NOTES

Pressure law graph representing temperature (in °C) directly proportional to the volume
 Worked Example
The pressure inside a bicycle tyre is 5.10 × 105 Pa when the temperature is 279 K.
After the bicycle has been ridden, the temperature of the air in the tyre is 299
K.Calculate the new pressure in the tyre, assuming the volume is unchanged.
Page 50 of 54
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Remember when using gas law the temperature T must always be in kelvin (K)!

Page 51 of 54
5.3.6 Boyle's Law YOUR NOTES


Boyle's Law
For a fixed mass of a gas held at a constant temperature:
pV = constant
Where:
p = pressure in pascals (Pa)
V = volume in metres cubed (m3)
This means that the pressure and volume are inversely proportional to each other
When the volume decreases (compression), the pressure increases
When the volume increases (expansion), the pressure decreases
This is because when the volume decreases, the same number of particles collide with the
walls of a container but more frequently as there is less space
However, the particles still collide with the same amount of force meaning greater
force per unit area (pressure)
The key assumption is that the temperature and the mass (and number) of the particles
remains the same
Increasing the volume of a gas decreases its pressure

This equation can also be rewritten for comparing the pressure and volume before and after
a change in a gas:
P1V1 = P2V2
Where:
P1 = initial pressure in pascals (Pa)
V1 = initial volume in metres cubed (m3)
P2 = final pressure in pascals (Pa)
Page 52 of 54
V2 = final volume in metres cubed (m3) YOUR NOTES

This equation is sometimes referred to as Boyle's Law 
Initial pressure and volume, P1 and V1, and final pressure and volume, P2 and V2
 Worked Example
A gas occupies a volume of 0.70 m3 at a pressure of 200 Pa. Calculate the
pressure exerted by the gas if it is compressed to a volume of 0.15 m3.Assume that
the temperature and mass of the gas stay the same.
Page 53 of 54
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
Always check whether your final answer makes sense. If the gas has been
compressed, the final pressure is expected to be more than the initial pressure (like
in the worked example).If this is not the case, double-check the rearranging of any
formulae and the values put into your calculator.
Page 54 of 54

5. Solids, Liquids and Gases

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5. Solids, Liquids & Gases

5.1 Density & Pressure YOUR NOTES

Gases are less dense than solids

Density, mass, volume formula triangle

Volumes of common 3D shapes

Step 1: List the known quantities

Step 3: Substitute in values

Step 4: Round the answer to two significant figures

5.1.2 Core Practical: Determining Density YOUR NOTES

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Calculating the volume of an object depends on its shape

Method YOUR NOTES

Apparatus for measuring the density of irregular objects

Experiment 3: Measuring Density of Liquids YOUR NOTES

Apparatus for determining the density of a liquid

Evaluating the Experiments

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

5.1.3 Pressure YOUR NOTES

Pressure is measured in the units Pascals (Pa)

Pressure, force, area formula triangle

Step 1: List the known quantities

Step 3: Rearrange for the force, F

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

5.1.4 Pressure in Liquids YOUR NOTES

Calculating Pressure in a Liquid YOUR NOTES

5.2 Changes of State YOUR NOTES

Solids, Liquids & Gases

5.2.2 Changes of State YOUR NOTES

Diagram showing the arrangement and motion of different states of matter

Heat & Temperature YOUR NOTES

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

5.2.3 Core Practical: Investigating Changes of State YOUR NOTES

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Apparatus used to heat ice and measure its temperature as it melts

5.2.4 Specific Heat Capacity YOUR NOTES

Low vs high specific heat capacity

Calculating Specific Heat Capacity YOUR NOTES

Step 1: Write down the known quantities

5.2.5 Core Practical: Investigating Specific Heat Capacity YOUR NOTES

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Ammeter = 0.1 A YOUR NOTES

Apparatus for heating water and measuring energy supplied

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

5.3 Ideal Gases YOUR NOTES

Kinetic Theory of Gases

Random motion of gas molecules in a container

Gas molecules bouncing off the walls of a container

5.3.2 Absolute Zero YOUR NOTES

The Kelvin Scale YOUR NOTES

Step 1: Kelvin to Celsius equation YOUR NOTES

Step 2: Substitute in value of 300 K

5.3.3 Temperature YOUR NOTES

Gas molecules move about randomly at high speeds

Temperature & Kinetic Energy YOUR NOTES

5.3.4 The Gas Laws YOUR NOTES

Pressure increases when a gas is compressed

5.3.5 The Pressure Law YOUR NOTES

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

5.3.6 Boyle's Law YOUR NOTES

Increasing the volume of a gas decreases its pressure

V2 = final volume in metres cubed (m3) YOUR NOTES

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