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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 5-6 Collaborating in Virtual Teams 94
5-6a Channels of Virtual Collaboration 94 8 Delivering Persuasive
5-6b Virtual Team Collaboration Tools 95 Messages 138
8-1 Persuasion Strategies 139

6 Delivering Good- and 8-1a Plan Before You Write 139

8-1b Use the Inductive Approach 140
Neutral-News Messages 98 8-1c Apply Sound Writing Principles 140
6-1 Deductive Organizational Pattern 99 8-2 Sales Messages 141
6-2 Good-News Messages 99 8-2a Gain Attention 142
6-2a Positive News 99 8-2b Focus on a Central Selling Feature 142
6-2b Thank-You and Appreciation Messages 100 8-2c Use an Original Approach 143
8-2d Generate Interest by Introducing the Product,
6-3 Routine Claims 102 Service, or Idea 143
6-3a Claim Message 103 8-2e Create Desire by Providing Convincing Evidence 144
6-3b Favorable Response to a Claim Message 104 8-2f Motivate Action 147
6-4 Routine Requests 106 8-3 Persuasive Requests 148
6-4a Requests for Information 106 8-3a Making a Claim 148
6-4b Favorable Response to a Routine Request 107 8-3b Asking a Favor 151
6-4c Positive Response to a Favor Request 107 8-3c Requesting Information 151
6-4d Form Messages for Routine Responses 108 8-3d Persuading Within an Organization 152
6-5 Routine Messages about Orders and Credit 109
6-5a Acknowledging Customer Orders 109
6-5b Providing Credit Information 109
6-5c Extending Credit 111
6-6 Procedural Messages 113 Part 4
Communication through
7 Delivering Bad-News Reports and Business
Messages 116
7-1 Choosing an Appropriate Channel and
Presentations 156
Organizational Pattern 117
7-1a Channel Choice and Commitment to Tact 117
7-1b Use of the Inductive Approach to Build
Goodwill 117
7-1c Exceptions to the Inductive Approach 118
Andrey_Popov/Shutterstock.com

7-2 Developing a Bad-News Message 119

7-2a Writing the Introductory Paragraph 119
7-2b Presenting the Facts, Analysis, and Reasons 120
7-2c Writing the Bad-News Statement 120
7-2d Offering a Counterproposal or “Silver Lining”
Idea 121
7-2e Closing Positively 122
7-3 Refusing a Request 123
7-4 Denying a Claim 125 9 Understanding the Report
7-5 Denying Credit 127 Process and Research
7-6 Delivering Constructive Criticism 128 Methods 156
7-7 Communicating Negative Organizational News 129 9-1 Characteristics of Reports 157
7-7a Breaking Bad News 131 9-1a Types of Reports 157
7-7b Responding to Crisis Situations 131 9-1b Proposals 159
vi Contents

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 9-2 Basis for Reports: The Problem-Solving Process 159
9-2a Recognizing and Defining the Problem 159 12 Designing and Delivering
9-3 Selecting a Method of Gathering Information 161 Business Presentations 212
9-3a Secondary Research 161 12-1 Planning an Effective Business Presentation 213
9-3b Primary Research 163 12-1a Identify Your Purpose and Consider the Channel 213
9-4 Collecting and Organizing the Data 165 12-1b Know Your Audience and Consider the Context 214
9-4a Collecting Secondary Data 165 12-2 Organizing the Content 215
9-4b Collecting Data Through Surveys 166 12-2a Introduction 216
9-4c Avoiding Data-Gathering Errors 170 12-2b Body 217
9-4d Documenting Sources of Information 170 12-2c Closing 218
9-5 Arriving at an Answer 171 12-3 Designing Compelling Presentation Visuals 218
9-5a Analyzing the Data 172 12-3a Design of Presentation Visuals 219
9-5b Interpreting the Data 172 12-3b Adding Multimedia to PowerPoint Presentations   221
12-3c Design Tips for Audience Handouts and Notes

10 Managing Data and Using

Pages 223
12-4 Refining Your Delivery 223
Graphics 176 12-4a Delivery Method 223
10-1 Communicating Quantitative Information 177 12-4b Vocal Qualities 224
12-4c Delivery Style 226
10-2 Using Graphics 177
12-5 Adapting to Alternate Delivery Situations 229
10-2a Effective and Ethical Use of Graphics 178
12-5a Culturally Diverse Audiences 229
10-3 Types of Graphic Aids 179
12-5b Team Presentations 231
10-3a Tables 180
12-5c Distance Presentations 233
10-3b Bar Charts 181
12-5d Crisis Communication 235
10-3c Line Charts 182
10-3d Pie Charts 182

Part 5
10-3e Maps 184
10-3f Flowcharts 184
10-3g Other Graphics 184
10-4 Including Graphics in Text 184 Communication for
10-4a Positioning Graphics in Text 186
Employment 238
11 Organizing and Preparing
Reports and Proposals 190
11-1 Parts of a Formal Report 191
Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock.com

11-1a Preliminary Parts of a Report 191

11-1b Report Text 194
11-1c Report Addenda 195
11-2 Organization of Formal Reports 195
11-2a Writing Convincing and Effective Reports 195
11-3 Choosing a Writing Style for Formal Reports 198
11-3a Enhancing Credibility 199
11-4 Short Reports 200
11-4a Memorandum, Email, and Letter Reports 200
13 Preparing Résumés and
11-4b Form Reports 200 Application Messages 238
11-5 Proposals 205 13-1 Preparing for the Job Search 239
11-5a Proposal Structure 206 13-1a Gathering Essential Information 239
11-5b Proposal Preparation 209 13-1b Identifying Potential Career Opportunities 239

Contents vii
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 13-2 Planning a Targeted Résumé 243 14-2 Preparing for an Interview 273
13-2a Standard Parts of a Résumé 244 14-2a Research the Company 273
13-2b Types of Résumés 249 14-2b Study Yourself 274
13-3 Preparing Résumés for Print and Electronic 14-2c Plan Your Appearance 274
Delivery 251 14-2d Plan Your Time and Materials 274
13-3a Preparing a Print (Designed) Résumé 251 14-2e Practice 275
13-3b Preparing Electronic Résumé Submissions 252 14-3 Conducting a Successful Interview 275
13-4 Supplementing a Résumé 258 14-3a The Opening Formalities 275
13-4a Professional Portfolios 258 14-3b The Information Exchange 276
13-4b Employment Videos 260 14-3c The Closing 281
13-5 Composing Application Messages 262 14-3d Additional Considerations for Phone
Interviews 281
13-5a Persuasive Organization 262
13-5b General Writing Guidelines 266
14-4 Preparing Other Employment Messages 281
13-5c Finishing Touches 267 14-4a Application Forms 281
14-4b Follow-Up Messages 282

14 Interviewing for a Job and

14-4c Thank-You Messages 282
14-4d Job-Acceptance Messages 284
Preparing Employment 14-4e Job-Refusal Messages 284
Messages 270 14-4f Resignation Messages 284
14-4g Recommendation Requests 285
14-1 Understanding Types of Employment
Interviews 271
14-1a Structured Interviews 271 Grammar & Usage Appendix 288
14-1b Unstructured Interviews 271 References 312
14-1c Stress Interviews 271 Index 319
14-1d Series Interviews 272
14-1e Phone Interviews 272
14-1f Virtual Interviews 272

viii Contents

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
PART 1

1 Establishing a Framework
for Business Communication
Achim Sass/Getty Images

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to…

1-1 Define communication and describe the value of communication in business. After finishing
1-2 Explain the communication process model and the ultimate objective of the this chapter, go
communication process.
to PAGE21 for
1-3 Discuss how information flows in an organization.
STUDY TOOLS.
1-4 Explain how legal and ethical constraints, diversity challenges, changing technology,
and team environment act as contextual forces that influence the process of business
communication.

2 PART ONE: Communication Foundations

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
1-1 VALUE OF COMMUNICATION
We communicate to satisfy needs in both our work and
private lives. Each of us wants to be heard, appreci-
ated, and wanted. We also want to accomplish tasks and
achieve goals. Generally people communicate for three
basic purposes: to inform, to persuade, and to entertain.
However, in the professional workplace some of these
purposes have greater importance. Informing and per-
suading are common purposes of communication in the
workplace; entertainment is less so. In addition, estab-
lishing and maintaining our credibility and positive rela-
tionships with others are also important purposes in an
organizational setting.
What is communication? Communica-
tion is the process of exchanging and inter-
preting information and meaning between
or among individuals through a system of
symbols, signs, and behavior. In ideal situ-
ations, the goal is to reach mutual under-
standing. Studies indicate that managers
typically spend 60% to 80% of their time
involved in communication. In your career activities, you
will communicate in a wide variety of ways, including
• listening and contributing to decision making and
problem solving while attending meetings;
• writing various types of messages to inform and
persuade others about your ideas and the services
and products your organization provides;
• presenting information and persuasive messages to
large and small groups in face-to-face and virtual
environments;
• explaining and clarifying management procedures
and work assignments;
• coordinating the work of various employees,
departments, and other work groups;
FIGURE 1.1 THE TRANSACTIONAL PROCESS MODEL
Sender Message
Feedback
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
• evaluating and counseling employees and;
• promoting the company’s products, services,
and image using a variety of channels in various
contexts.
1-2 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Effective business communication is essential to success
in today’s work environments. Recent surveys of execu-
tives demonstrate that abilities in writing and speaking
are major determinants of career success in many fields.1
Although essential to personal and professional success,
effective business communication does not
occur automatically. Your own experiences
likely have taught you that a message is
Abilities in writing not interpreted correctly just because you
and speaking are transmitted it. An effective communica-
major determinants tor anticipates possible breakdowns in the
communication process—the unlimited
of career success. ways the message can be misunderstood.
This mind set provides the concentration
to plan and design the initial message effectively and
to be prepared to intervene at the appropriate time to
ensure that the message received is on target.
Consider the transactional process model of commu-
nication presented in Figure 1.1. These seemingly simple
steps actually represent a very complex process.
A number of communication process models exist.
The transactional model is useful, though, because it
illustrates the complexity of the communication pro-
cess and reveals some of the challenges to effective
communication that might emerge in a communication
encounter.
According to the transactional process model, two
parties involved in a communication encounter are poten-
tially both communicating at the same time, particularly
if the encounter is face-to-face. That’s because in face-
to-face communication situations,
OF COMMUNICATION parties to the encounter are con-
tinuously interpreting each other’s
nonverbal signals. Some scholars
say more than 90% of the infor-
mation in a face-to-face encoun-
Receiver
ter may be sent nonverbally. But
even in a cellphone conversation,
silences and tone of voice may be
interpreted in various ways. Even a
written message may provide infor-
mation about the writer that he or
she did not intend to convey.
CHAPTER 1: Establishing a Framework for Business Communication 3
 nonverbally, it can be very
challenging to ensure that
the information is received
as intended. For this reason,
it is particularly important
to check for understanding
rather than assume that it
has taken place, particularly
when communicating impor-
tant messages to audiences
that are less familiar to us.
You can surely compile
Paul Vasarhelyi/Shutterstock.com

a list of other barriers that

affect your ability to commu-
nicate with friends, instruc-
tors, coworkers, supervisors,
and others. By being aware
of them, you can concen-
trate on removing these
Interruptions or distractions can create barriers to understanding. interferences.

In an ideal communication situation, one party

would be able to encode his or her message in such a
1-3 COMMUNICATING WITHIN
way that the receiving party would understand it exactly
as intended. However, this goal can be challenging for a
ORGANIZATIONS
variety of reasons, or what are called interferences or
In order to be successful, organizations must create an
barriers to effective communication. For example,
environment that energizes and encourages employees
• differences in educational level, experience, culture, to accomplish tasks by promoting genuine openness and
and other characteristics of the sender and the effective communication.
receiver increase the complexity of encoding and Organizational communication is communica-
decoding a message; tion that occurs with an organizational context. Regard-
• physical interferences in the channel, including a less of your career or level within an organization, your
noisy environment, interruptions, and uncomfortable ability to communicate will affect not only the success
surroundings, can occur and; of the organization but also your personal success and
advancement within that organization.
• mental distractions,
interferences also called such as being
Communication Flow
1-3a 
barriers; numerous factors that preoccupied with
hinder the communication other matters in Organizations
process
and developing a Communication occurs in a variety of ways within an
organizational response, rather organization. Some communication flows are planned and
communication the than listening,
movement of information within structured, others are not. Some communication flows
the company structure create barriers to can be formally depicted, whereas some defy description.
understanding.
formal communication FORMAL AND INFORMAL
network a network of Because of these barriers, COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
communication flow typified by and because both parties
the formal organizational chart;
engaged in a communi- Communication within an organization involves both for-
dictated by the technical, political, mal and informal networks.
and economic environment of the cation encounter may be
organization simultaneously sending • Formal communication network. This channel
information both orally and is typified by the formal organizational chart, which
4 PART ONE: Communication Foundations

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 is created by management to define
individual and group relationships and
to specify lines of responsibility. Essen-
tially, the formal system is dictated by
the managerial, technical, cultural, and
structural environment of the organi-
zation. Within this system, people are
required to behave and to communicate
in certain ways simply to get work done.
• Informal communication

network. This network, which is
commonly called “the grapevine,”
continuously develops as people
interact within the formal system to
accommodate their social and psycho-
logical needs. Because the informal
network undergoes continual changes
and does not parallel the organiza-
tional chart, it cannot be depicted
accurately by any graphic means.
The Formal Communication Network When em-
ployees rely almost entirely on the formal communication
system as a guide to behavior, the system might be identi-
fied as a bureaucracy. Procedure manuals, job descriptions,
organizational charts, and other written materials dictate
the required behavior. Communication channels are fol-
lowed strictly, and red tape is abundant. Procedures are
generally followed exactly; terms such as rules and policies
serve as sufficient reasons for actions. Even the most formal
organizations, however, cannot function long before an in-
formal communication system emerges. As people operate
within the organized system, they interact on a person-to-
person basis and create an environment conducive to meet-
ing their personal emotions, prejudices, likes, and dislikes.
In a workplace, employees are generally expected to
satisfy a formal system of arriving at work on time, fulfill-
ing their job duties, working well with others, and address-
ing their supervisor’s requests. However, some employees
may not openly accept these expectations and may arrive
at work late and spend an undue amount of time “around
the water cooler.” If these informal practices become more
widely spread, the purposes of the group may move from
a focus on completing tasks to that of socializing with oth-
ers or speculating about organizational events or activities.
Obviously, the informal system benefits people because it
meets their needs, but it also may affect the overall com-
munication of the group in important ways.
The Informal Communication Network As peo-
ple talk casually during breaks, text one another, or chat
online, the focus usually shifts from topic to topic. One
of the usual topics is work—the company, supervisor,
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CREATISTA/Shutterstock.com
The office grapevine carries informal messages.
or fellow employees. Even though the formal system
includes definite communication channels, the grape-
vine tends to develop and operate within all organiza-
tions. Consider these points related to the accuracy and
value of grapevine communication:
• As a communication network, the grapevine has a
reputation for being speedy but inaccurate. In the
absence of alarms, the grapevine might be the most
effective way to let occupants know that the building
is on fire. It certainly beats sending an email.
• Although the grapevine often is thought of as a chan-
nel for inaccurate communication, in reality it is no
more or less accurate than other channels. Even
formal communication can become inaccurate and
filtered as it passes from level to level in the organi-
zational hierarchy.
• The inaccuracy of the grapevine has more to do with
the message input than with the output. For exam-
ple, the grapevine is noted as a carrier of rumors,
primarily because it carries informal messages. If the
input is a rumor, and nothing more, the output obvi-
ously will be inaccurate. But the output might be an
accurate description of the original rumor.
• In a business office,
news about promotions, informal communication
personnel changes, com- network a network of
pany policy changes, and communication flow that
annual salary adjustments continuously develops as people
interact within the formal system
often is communicated to accommodate their social and
through the grapevine psychological needs
long before being
CHAPTER 1: Establishing a Framework for Business Communication 5
 conveyed through formal channels. The process works
similarly in colleges, where information about instruc-
tors typically is not officially published but is known
by students, often through word-of-mouth. How best
to prepare for examinations, instructor attitudes on
attendance and homework, and even faculty personnel
changes are messages that travel over the grapevine.
• A misconception about the grapevine is that the
message passes from person to person until it
finally reaches a person who can’t pass it on: the
end of the line. Actually, the grapevine works as a
network channel. Typically, one person tells two or
three others, who each tell two or three others, who
each tell two or three others, and so on. Thus, the
message might spread to a huge number of people
in a short time, especially now that the grapevine
includes digital forms of communication, such as
social networking sites.
• The grapevine has no single, consistent source.
Messages might originate anywhere and follow
various routes.
Due at least in part to widespread downsizing and corpo-
rate scandals during the last few years, employees in many
organizations are demanding that they be better informed.
Some companies have implemented new formal ways,
such as newsletters and intranets, as well as informal ways,
including blogs, wikis, Twitter, and other social networking
platforms, for sharing information with their internal con-
stituents. Company openness with employees about man-
agement decisions, process changes, and financial issues
means conveying more information through the formal
system rather than risking its miscommunication through
informal channels. Online eyewear retailer Warby Parker,
for example, grew from a small start-up to a 300-employee
company in just three years. In order to keep the lines of
communication open, the company has an “Ask Anything”
segment of its weekly meetings, in which employees can
ask anything. The Warby Parker Wiki enables employees
to add notes from meetings,
key lessons from the past or
downward
communication a type present, or team updates.
of communication that flows The transparent company
from supervisor to employee, culture extends to each of
from policy makers to operating its employees submitting
personnel, or from top to bottom
weekly “happiness ratings”
on the organizational chart
(on a 0 to 10 scale) and
upward communication participating in quarterly,
a type of communication that is one-on-one, “360 reviews”
generally a response to requests
from supervisors in which brutal honesty is
encouraged.2
6 PART ONE: Communication Foundations
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
An informal communication network will emerge
from even the most carefully designed formal system.
Managers who ignore this fact are attempting to manage
blindfolded. Instead of denying or condemning the grape-
vine, the effective manager will learn to use the informal
communication network. The grapevine, for instance, can
be useful in counteracting rumors and false information.
DIRECTIONS OF COMMUNICATION FLOW
The direction in which communication flows in an orga-
nization can be downward, upward, or horizontal, as
shown in Figure 1-2. Because these three terms are used
frequently in communication discussions, they deserve
clarification. Although the concept of flow seems simple,
direction has meaning for those participating in the orga-
nizational communication process.
Downward Communication The communication that
flows from supervisor to employee, from policy
makers to operating personnel, or from top to bottom
on the organizational chart is called downward
communication. A simple policy statement from the
top of the organization might grow into a formal plan
for operation at lower levels. Teaching people how to
perform their specific tasks is an element of downward
communication. Another element is orientation to a
company’s rules, practices, procedures, history, and
goals. Employees learn about the quality of their job
performance through downward communication.
Downward communication normally involves both
written and spoken methods and makes use of the fol-
lowing assumptions:
DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION
▸ People at high levels in the organization usually
have greater knowledge of the organization’s
mission and goals than do people at lower levels.
▸ Both spoken and written messages tend to
become larger as they move downward through
organizational levels. This expansion results
from attempts to prevent distortion and is more
noticeable in written messages.
▸ Spoken messages are subject to greater changes
in meaning than are written messages.
When a supervisor sends a message to a subordinate
employee who then asks a question or nods in agreement,
the employee has given signs of feedback. Feedback can
flow both downward and upward in organizational commu-
nication through traditional as well as informal channels.
 FIGURE 1.2 FLOW OF INFORMATION WITHIN AN ORGANIZATION
UPWARD COMMUNICATION
Progress reports (spoken and written)
• Results/accomplishments
• Problems/clarifications
Upward Communication The information that
flows from the front lines of an organization to the top
is upward communication. When management
requests information from lower organizational levels, the
resulting information becomes feedback to that request.
Employees talk to supervisors about themselves, their
fellow employees, their work and methods of doing it,
customer needs and perceptions, and their own percep-
tions of the organization. These comments are commonly
feedback in response to the downward flow transmitted
UPWARD COMMUNICATION
▸ Upward communication is primarily feedback to
the requests and actions of supervisors.
▸ Upward communication can be misleading
because lower-level employees often tell their
superiors what they think their superiors want to
hear. Therefore, their messages might contradict
their true observations and perceptions.
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION UPWARD COMMUNICATION
Policies and procedures Ideas/suggestions
Organizational goals and strategies Feelings/attitudes
Work assignments
Employee development
• Job role/responsibility
• Performance appraisal
(formal and informal)
• Constructive criticism
• Deserved praise and recognition
HORIZONTAL OR
LATERAL COMMUNICATION
Coordination of interrelated activities
Problem-solving ef forts
in both spoken and written forms by group meetings,
emails, procedures or operations manuals, company news
releases, the company intranet, and the grapevine.
Although necessary and valuable, upward communi-
cation involves risks. The box that follows lists important
upward communication factors to consider.
When effectively used, upward communication
keeps management informed about the feelings of
lower-level employees, taps the expertise of employ-
ees, helps management identify both difficult and
▸ Upward communication frequently involves risk
to an employee and is dependent on his or her
trust in the supervisor.
▸ Employees will reject superficial attempts by
management to obtain feedback.
CHAPTER 1: Establishing a Framework for Business Communication 7
 potentially promotable employees, and paves the way coordination in a functional organizational structure.
for even more effective downward communication. Units coordinate their activities to accomplish task goals
Upward communication is key to keeping employees just as adjacent workers in a production line coordinate
engaged and informed and is especially critical in tap- their activities. So for horizontal communication to be
ping the power of younger employees who expect to maximally effective, the people in any system or organiza-
collaborate rather than to be supervised.3 tion should be available to one another.
Many companies realize that the traditional hierarchy
Horizontal Communication Horizontal, or lateral,
organized around functional units is inadequate for com-
communication describes interactions between orga-
peting in increasingly competitive global markets. They
nizational units on the same hierarchical level. These
value work teams that integrate work-flow processes rather
interactions reveal one of the major shortcomings of orga-
than specialists in a single function or product. Such work
nizational charts: They do
teams can break down communication barriers between
not recognize the role of
horizontal (or lateral) isolated functional departments, and communication pat-
horizontal communication
communication interactions terns take on varying forms to accommodate team activities.
when they depict authority
between organizational units on
relationships by placing one
the same hierarchical level
box higher than another
1-3b Levels of Communication
internal messages
and define role functions Communication can involve sending messages to
messages intended for recipients
within the organization by placing titles in those both large and small audiences. Internal messages
boxes. Yet management are intended for recipients within the organization.
external messages
messages directed to recipients
should realize that horizon- External messages are directed to recipients outside
outside the organization tal communication is the the organization. When considering the intended audi-
primary means of achieving ence, communication can be described as taking place on

FIGURE 1.3 LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION LEVELS EXAMPLES

INTRAPERSONAL
• Communication within oneself Individual considers how others respond to his
• Not considered by some to be true communication or her verbal and/or nonverbal communication
as it does not involve a separate sender and receiver
INTERPERSONAL
• Communication between two people Supervisor and subordinate, two coworkers
• Task goal is to accomplish work confronting them
• Maintenance goal is to feel better about themselves
and each other because of their interaction
GROUP
• Communication among more than two people Work group, project team, department meeting
• Goal of achieving greater output than individual
efforts could produce
ORGANIZATIONAL
• Groups combined in such a way that large tasks may Company, organization
be accomplished
• Goal of providing adequate structure for groups to
achieve their purposes
PUBLIC
• The organization reaching out to its public to achieve Media advertisement, website communication,
its goals annual report
• Goal of reaching many with the same message

8 PART ONE: Communication Foundations

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
five levels: intrapersonal, interpersonal, group,
organizational, and public. Figure 1.3 depicts
the five audience levels. An effective commu-
nicator has a clearly defined purpose for each
message, and has selected strategies for tar-
geting his or her intended audience.

1-4 CONTEXTUAL FORCES

INFLUENCING BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION
All communication occurs within a context,
which is the situation or setting. Context can
influence the content, the quality, and the effectiveness
Furthermore, one’s own ethical standards will often

Fotoluminate LLC/Shutterstock.com
of a communication event. The effective communicator
will recognize the importance of context, identify the con- influence what a person is willing to say in a message.
textual elements that will influence communication, and For example, a system of ethics built on honesty might
adjust his or her messages in response. Four important require that the message provide full disclosure rather
contextual forces influence the communication process than a shrouding of the truth. Legal responsibilities, then,
today and help determine and define the nature of the are the starting point for appropriate business communi-
communication that should occur, as shown in Figure 1.4. cation. One’s ethical belief system, or personal sense of
These forces are legal and ethical constraints, diversity right and wrong behavior, provides further boundaries for
challenges, changing technology, and team environment. professional activity.
The press is full of examples of unethical con-
duct in business and political communities, but unethi-
1-4a Legal and Ethical Constraints cal behavior is not relegated to the papers—it has
Legal and ethical constraints act as contextual or envi- far-reaching consequences.
ronmental forces on communication because they set Those affected by deci-
boundaries in which communication rightfully occurs. sions, the stakeholders, context a situation or setting
International, federal, state, and local laws affect the can include people inside in which communication occurs
way that various business activities are conducted. For and outside the organiza- stakeholders people inside
instance, laws specify that certain information must be tion. Employees and stock- and outside the organization who
stated in messages that reply to credit applications and holders are obvious losers are affected by decisions
those dealing with the collection of outstanding debts. when a company fails.

FIGURE 1.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

LEGAL AND ETHICAL CHANGING DIVERSITY TEAM

CONSTRAINTS TECHNOLOGY CHALLENGES ENVIRONMENT
• International Laws • Accuracy and • Cultural Differences • Trust
• Domestic Laws Security Issues • Language Barriers • Team Roles
• Codes of Ethics • Telecommunications • Gender Issues • Shared Goals and
• Stakeholder Interests • Software Applications • Education Levels Expectations
• Ethical Frameworks • “High-Touch” Issues • Age Factors • Synergy
• Personal Values • Telecommuting • Nonverbal Differences • Group Reward
• Databases • Distributed Leadership

CHAPTER 1: Establishing a Framework for Business Communication 9

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 Competitors in the same industry also suffer because
their strategies are based on what they perceive about
their competition. Beyond this, financial markets as a
whole suffer due to the erosion of public confidence.
Business leaders, government officials, and citizens
frequently express concern about the apparent erosion
of ethical values in society. Even for those who want to
do the right thing, matters of ethics are seldom clear-cut
decisions of right versus wrong, and they often contain
ambiguous elements. In addition, the pressure appears
to be felt most strongly by lower-level managers, who are
often recent business school graduates who are the least
experienced at doing their jobs.
THE FOUNDATION FOR LEGAL
AND ETHICAL BEHAVIOR
Although ethics is a common point of discussion, many find
defining ethics challenging. Most people immediately asso-
ciate ethics with standards and rules of conduct, morals,
right and wrong, values, and honesty. Dr. Albert Schweitzer
defined ethics as “the name we give to our concern for good
behavior. We feel an obligation to
consider not only our own personal
well-being, but also that of others Learning to analyze
and of human society as a whole.”4
In other words, ethics refers to the a dilemma from both
principles of right and wrong that legal and ethical
guide you in making decisions that
consider the impact of your actions perspectives will help
on others as well as yourself. you find a solution
Although the recorded
accounts of legal and ethical mis- that conforms to your
conduct would seem to indicate own personal values.
that businesses are dishonest and
unscrupulous, keep in mind that
millions of business transactions are made daily on the
basis of honesty and concern for others. Why should a busi-
ness make ethical decisions? What difference will it make?
Johan Karlstrom, global chief executive officer of construc-
tion giant Skanska, gave a powerful reply to these questions:
When you understand that profits and a
strong values base go together then you have
a company that employees are so proud of. We
want our team to feel that they’re doing some-
thing that has a higher
meaning, that they feel
ethics the principles of right like “I’m part of some-
and wrong that guide one in
thing bigger, part of a
making decisions that consider the
bigger puzzle driving
impact of one’s actions on others
as well as on the decision maker society in a positive
direction.”5
10 PART ONE: Communication Foundations
CAUSES OF ILLEGAL AND UNETHICAL
BEHAVIOR
Understanding the major causes of illegal and unethical
behavior in the workplace will help you become sensi-
tive to signals of escalating pressure to compromise your
values. Unethical corporate behavior can have a number
of causes:
• Excessive emphasis on profits. Business managers are
often judged and paid on their ability to increase
business profits. This emphasis on profits might send
a message that the end justifies the means.
• Misplaced corporate loyalty. A misplaced sense
of corporate loyalty might cause an employee to
do what seems to be in the best interest of the
company, even if the act is illegal or unethical.
• Obsession with personal advancement. Employees who
wish to outperform their peers or are working for the
next promotion might feel that they cannot afford to
fail. They might do whatever it takes to achieve the
objectives assigned to them.
• Expectation of not getting
caught. Thinking that the
end justifies the means,
employees often believe
illegal or unethical activity
will never be discovered.
Unfortunately, a great deal of
improper behavior escapes
detection in the business
world. Believing no one will
ever find out, employees are
tempted to lie, steal, and
perform other illegal acts.
• Unethical tone set by top man-
agement. If top managers are not perceived as highly
ethical, lower-level managers might be less ethical as
a result. Employees have little incentive to act legally
and ethically if their superiors do not set an example
and encourage and reward such behavior. The saying
“The speed of the leader is the speed of the pack”
illustrates the importance of leading by example.
• Uncertainty about whether an action is wrong.
Many times, company personnel are placed in
situations in which the line between right and wrong is
not clearly defined. When caught in this gray area, the
perplexed employee asks, “How far is too far?”
• Unwillingness to take a stand for what is right. Often
employees know what is right or wrong but are not
willing to take the risk of challenging a wrong action.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 They might lack the confidence
or skill needed to confront oth-
FIGURE 1.5 FOUR DIMENSIONS OF BUSINESS BEHAVIOR
ers with sensitive legal or ethi-
cal issues. They might remain
silent and then justify their
unwillingness to act. DIMENSION 1 DIMENSION 2
Behavior that is illegal Behavior that is illegal
FRAMEWORK FOR and unethical yet ethical
ANALYZING ETHICAL
DILEMMAS
Determining whether an action is
ethical can be difficult. Learning to DIMENSION 3 DIMENSION 4
analyze a dilemma from both legal Behavior that is legal Behavior that is both
and ethical perspectives will help yet unethical legal and ethical
you find a solution that conforms to
your own personal values. Figure 1.5
shows the four conclusions you might
reach when considering the advis-
ability of a particular behavior. concerned: you as an individual, your company, and soci-
ety. Contractual agreements between two parties also offer
Dimension 1: Behavior that is illegal and
guidance for legal decision making. Frequently, your own
unethical When considering some actions, you will
individual sense of right and wrong will also confirm that
reach the conclusion that they are both illegal and unethi-
the illegal action is wrong for you personally. In such situ-
cal. The law specifically outlines the “black” area—those
ations, decisions about appropriate behavior are obvious.
alternatives that are clearly wrong—and your employer
will expect you to become an expert in the laws that affect Dimension 2: Behavior that is illegal yet ethical
your particular area. When you encounter an unfamiliar Occasionally, a businessperson will decide that even though
area, you must investigate any possible legal implications. a specific action is illegal, there is a justifiable reason to
Obviously, obeying the law is in the best interest of all break the law. A case in point is a law passed in Vermont

ETHICAL DILEMMAS …
Identifying ethical issues in typical workplace situations can be difficult,
and coworkers and superiors might apply pressure for seemingly logical
reasons. To illustrate, examine each of the following workplace situations for
a possible ethical dilemma:
▸ In order to achieve profit expectations, a stockbroker hides the financial

Stokkete/Shutterstock.com
risk of an investment product from potential clients.
▸ To prevent an adverse effect on stock prices, corporate officers deliberately
withhold information concerning a possible corporate takeover.
▸ To protect the organization, management decides not to publicize a
design flaw in an automobile that could lead to possible injury and even
death to consumers, because the announcement might result in legal action.
▸ A supervisor takes advantage of his position and threatens an employee with dismissal if she does not acquiesce
to his inappropriate requests and language use.
▸ Angry because of an unfavorable performance appraisal of a colleague, an employee leaks confidential
information to the colleague that creates distrust among others in the department and results in a lawsuit.
Your fundamental morals and values provide the foundation for making ethical decisions. However, as the previous
examples imply, even seemingly minor concessions in day-to-day decisions can gradually weaken an individual’s
ethical foundation.

CHAPTER 1: Establishing a Framework for Business Communication 11

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 that makes it illegal for a pharmaceutical company to
give any gift valued at more than $25 to doctors or their
personnel.6 Those supporting the law charge that the giv-
ing of freebies drives up medical costs by encouraging doc-
tors to prescribe new, more expensive brand-name drugs.
The law’s opponents contend that the gifts do not influence
doctors and are merely educational tools for new products.
Although a pharmaceutical firm and its employees might
see nothing wrong with providing gifts worth in excess of
$25, they would be well advised to consider the penalty of
$10,000 per violation before acting on their personal eth-
ics. A better course of action would be to act within the law,
possibly while lobbying for a change in the law.
Dimension 3: Behavior that is legal yet unethical
If you determine that a behavior is legal and complies
with relevant contractual agreements and company
policy, your next step is to consult your company’s or
profession’s code of ethics. This written document sum-
marizes the company’s or profession’s standards of ethical
conduct. Some companies refer to this document as a
credo. If the behavior does not violate the code of eth-
ics, then put it to the test of your own personal integ-
rity. You may at times reject a legal action because it does
not “feel right.” Most Americans were appalled to learn
that the marketing of sub-prime loans packaged as repu-
table securities has been blamed for causing the “Great
Recession.” Although they might have acted legally, their
profiting at the expense of company employees, stock-
holders, and the public hardly seemed ethical. You might
be faced with situations in which you reject a behavior
that is legal because you would not be proud to have your
family and community know that you engaged in it.
Dimension 4: Behavior that is both legal and
ethical Decisions in this dimension are easy to make.
Such actions comply with the law, company policies, and
your professional and personal codes of ethics.
The Pagano Model offers
a straightforward method for
determining whether a pro-
posed action is advisable.7 For
this system to work, you must
answer the following six ques-
tions honestly:
1. Is the proposed
action legal? (This
is the core starting
point.)
2. What are the benefits
and costs to the people
involved?
12 PART ONE: Communication Foundations
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
3. Would you want this action to be a universal stan-
dard, appropriate for everyone?
4. Does the action pass the light-of-day test? That
is, if your action appeared on television or others
learned about it, would you be proud?
5. Does the action pass the Golden Rule test? That is,
would you want the same to happen to you?
6. Does the action pass the ventilation test? Ask the
opinion of a wise friend with no investment in the out-
come. Does this friend believe the action is ethical?
1-4b Diversity Challenges
Diversity in the workplace is another force influencing
communication. Differences between the sender and the
receiver in areas such as culture, age, gender, and educa-
tion require sensitivity on the part of both parties so that
the intended message is the one that is received.
Understanding how to communicate effectively
with people from other cultures has become more inte-
gral to the work environment as many US companies are
increasingly conducting business with international com-
panies or becoming multinational. Even when a person
can communicate, it may differ in other countries. For
example, France’s administrative court recently ruled
that tech workers’ right to health and rest was not suf-
ficiently protected by existing laws. What this means is
that a tech worker in France can choose to not check his
work email during his legally mandated rest period and
not face retribution.8 For Americans, who may not think
of “unplugging,” these cultural differences might require
adjustments to their communication expectations.
When addressing cultural differences, successful
communication must often span barriers of language and
differing worldviews resulting from societal and religious
beliefs and practices. When a person fails to consider these
factors, communication suffers, and
the result is often embarrassing
and potentially costly. To be suc-
cessful on an international scale,
managers need to be aware of
cultural differences and be
willing to work to ensure
that effective commu-
nication occurs despite
these barriers.
Philip Date/Shutterstock.com
Cultural blunders
aren’t limited to inter-
national communication
situations, however. In
April 2015, Clorox tweeted
about Apple’s new emoji; they sent out a picture of a bot- CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION
tle of Clorox made up of emoji with the text: “The new The way messages are decoded and encoded is not just a
emoji are alright, but where’s the bleach?” The problem function of the experiences, beliefs, and assumptions of
was that the new round of emoji included, for the first the person sending or receiving those messages but also
time, racially diverse emoji. iOS now gives users the abil- is shaped by the society in which he or she lives.
ity to pick different skin tones and hair colors for anything People learn patterns of behavior from their culture.
from a thumbs up to a simple face. The result was that The culture of a people is the product of their living experi-
Clorox’s tweet sounded racist, and the company deleted ences within their own society. Culture could be described
the tweet9. This example shows how much homework is as “the way of life” of a people and includes a vast array of
involved in maintaining good relations with customers behaviors and beliefs. These patterns affect how people
or clients from other cultures, and the danger of instan- perceive the world, what they value, and how they act. Dif-
taneous messaging. The potential barrier of language fering patterns can also create barriers to communication.
is obvious in international situations; however, success-
ful communicators know that much
more is involved when interacting BARRIERS TO
INTERCULTURAL
across cultures, genders, ages, abili- Employees must
ties, and other differences, regardless COMMUNICATION
of national boundaries. be prepared to Because cultures give different defi-
communicate nitions of such basics of interaction
COMMUNICATION as values and norms, people raised
effectively in two different cultures can clash in
OPPORTUNITIES AND
CHALLENGES IN DIVERSITY with workers various ways.
• Ethnocentrism. Problems occur
As world markets continue to expand, of different between people of different cul-
US employees at home and abroad
will be doing business with more peo- nationalities, tures primarily because people
tend to assume that their own
ple from other countries. You might genders, races, cultural norms are the right
find yourself working abroad for a
large American company, an inter- ages, abilities, way to do things. They wrongly
national company with a plant in the believe that the specific pat-
and other terns of behavior desired in their
United States, or a company with an
ethnically diverse workforce. Regard- characteristics. own cultures are universally
less of the workplace, your diversity valued. This belief, known as
skills—that is, your ability to communicate effectively ethnocentrism, is certainly
with both men and women of all ages, cultures, and natural; but learning about other cultures and
minority groups—will affect your success in today’s cul- developing sensitivity will help minimize ethnocen-
turally diverse global economy. tric reactions when dealing with other cultures.
Workplace diversity can lead to misunderstandings • Stereotypes. We often form a mental picture of the
and miscommunications, but it also poses opportunities to main characteristics
improve both workers and organizations. Employees must of another group, diversity skills the ability
be prepared to communicate effectively with workers of creating preformed to communicate effectively with
different nationalities, genders, races, ages, abilities, and ideas of what people both men and women of all ages,
cultures, and minority groups
other characteristics. in this group are like.
Being a part of a diverse workforce will require you These pictures, called ethnocentrism the
to communicate with everyone and to support colleagues stereotypes, influ- assumption that one’s own
in reaching their fullest potential and contributing to the ence the way we inter- cultural norms are the right way
to do things
company’s goals. To lessen miscommunication, which act with members of
inevitably occurs, increasing numbers of companies have the other group. When stereotypes mental pictures
undertaken diversity initiatives and are providing diver- we observe a behavior that one group forms of the main
characteristics of another group,
sity training seminars to help workers understand and that conforms to the creating preformed ideas of what
appreciate gender and age differences and the cultures of stereotype, the valid- people in this group are like
coworkers. ity of the preconceived
CHAPTER 1: Establishing a Framework for Business Communication 13
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

HomeStudio/Shutterstock.com
While Americans and some Europeans believe “time is money,”
other cultures are less concerned about economy of time.
notion is reinforced. We often view the other person
as a representative of a class of people rather than as
an individual. People of all cultures have stereotypes
about other cultural groups they have encountered.
These stereotypes can interfere with communication
when people interact on the basis of the imagined
representative and not the real individual.
• Interpretation of time. The study of how a culture
perceives time and its use is called chronemics.
In the United States, we have a saying that “time is
money.” Canadians, like some northern Europeans
who are also concerned about punctuality, make
appointments, keep them, and complete them, and
waste no time in the process. In some other cultures,
time is the cheapest commodity and an inexhaustible
resource; time represents a person’s span on Earth,
which is only part of eternity. To these cultures,
engaging in long, casual conversations prior to seri-
ous discussions or negotiations is time well spent in
establishing and nurturing relationships. On the other
hand, the time-efficient American businessperson is
likely to fret about wasting precious time.
• Personal space requirements. Space operates as a
language just as time does. The study of cultural
space requirements is
known as proxemics. In
chronemics the study of how a all cultures, the distance
culture perceives time and its use
proxemics the study of between people functions
in communication as “per-
cultural space requirements
kinesics the study of body sonal space” or “personal
language, which is not universal, but, territory.” In the United
instead, learned from one’s culture
States, for example, for
14 PART ONE: Communication Foundations
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
intimate conversations with close friends
and relatives, individuals are willing to stay
within about a foot and a half of each other;
for casual conversations, up to two or three
feet; for job interviews and personal busi-
ness, four to twelve feet; and for public
occasions, more than twelve feet. However,
in many cultures outside the United States,
closer personal contact is accepted, or
greater distance might be the norm.
• Body language. The study of body language
is known as kinesics. Body language is
not universal, but, instead, is learned from
one’s culture. Even the most basic ges-
tures have varying cultural meanings—the
familiar North American symbol for “okay”
means zero in France, money in Japan,
and an expression of vulgarity in Brazil.
Similarly, eye contact, posture, and facial
expressions carry different meanings throughout
the world.
• Translation limitations. Words in one language do
not always have an equivalent meaning in other
languages, and the concepts the words describe are
often different as well. Translators can be helpful,
but keep in mind that a translator is working with a
second language and must listen to one language,
mentally cast the words into another language, and
then speak them. This process is difficult and opens
the possibility that the translator will fall victim to
one or more cultural barriers. Even if you cannot
speak or write another language fluently, people
from other cultures will appreciate simple efforts to
learn a few common phrases.
DEVELOPING CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE
One way to improve your ability to communicate with
those from other cultures is to develop your cultural
intelligence. Cultural intelligence can be defined as “a
person’s capability to adapt as he or she interacts with
others from different cultural regions.”10 There are three
elements of cultural intelligence:
• Cognitive knowledge: The possession of a wide rang-
ing information base about a variety of people and
their cultural customs.
• Motivation: Healthy self-efficacy, persistence, goals,
value questioning, and integration.
• Behavioral adaptability: The capacity to interact in a
wide range of situations, environments, and diverse
groups.
 3. Being conscious of the dynam-
FIGURE 1.6 GLOBAL LEADERSHIP COMPETENCY MODEL ics inherent when cultures
interact
4. Having institutionalized
Adaptation cultural knowledge
5. Having developed adaptations
Internalization
to service delivery reflecting
Acceptance an understanding of cultural
diversity (Cross et al., 1989).
Appreciation These five elements should
be manifested at every level
Understanding
of an organization, including
Awareness policy making, administrative,
and practice. Further, these
Ignorance elements should be reflected
in the attitudes, structures,
policies, and services of the
organization.
Source: C. O. Chin, J. Gu, and S. Tubbs. (2001). Developing global leadership
competencies. Journal of Leadership Studies, 7(4): 20–35.

The global literacy competence (GLC) model offers

a road map to begin the conceptualization of the stages of
cultural intelligence development (see Figures 1.6 and 1.7).
The GLC assumes that ascending to a higher level of
global functioning is not only possible but also required
for excellence in a cross-cultural environment. To do so
requires a commitment to personal growth, openness, and
continuous learning about other cultures and customs.
A related concept, “cultural competence,” has various
definitions, but generally applies similar characteristics to
organizations, agencies, or a set of professionals. Cultural
competence requires that organizations have a defined set
of values and principles, and demonstrate behaviors, atti-
tudes, policies, and structures that enable them to work
effectively across cultures. Like cultural intelligence, cul-
tural competence is a developmental process that evolves
over an extended period. Both individuals and organiza-
tions are at various levels of awareness, knowledge, and
skills along the cultural competence continuum.
Cultural incompetence in the business community
iStockphoto.com/IS_ImageSource

can damage an individual’s self-esteem and career, but

the unobservable psychological impact on the victims can
go largely unnoticed until the threat of a class action suit
brings them to light.
Five essential elements contribute to a system’s,
institution’s, or agency’s ability to become more cultur-
ally competent. These include:
It’s critical in business to develop a cultural intelligence and
1. Valuing diversity
cultural competence.
2. Having the capacity for cultural self-assessment
CHAPTER 1: Establishing a Framework for Business Communication 15
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Calthrop, 184;
of Radiolaria, 83
Calycophorae, 300 f. 305
Calymma, 79, 82
Calymma, 420
Calymmidae, 420
Calyptoblastea, 275 f.
Calyx, of Echinus esculentus, 513;
of Echinarachnius parma, 545;
of Pelmatozoa, 579;
of Crinoidea, 580, 588 f.;
of Carpoidea, 580;
of Cystoidea, 580, 598;
of Blastoidea, 580, 599;
of Holopus, 592;
of fossil Crinoidea, 595
Camerata, 595
Campanularia, 280
Campanulariidae, 280
Campascus, 52;
test of, 55
Camptolithus, 346
Camptonema, 70, 73
Canalaria, 201
Canals, "feeding," afferent, or replenishing of contractile vacuole
system in Ciliata, 14, 143, 146;
of Stylonychia, 139 f.;
of Stentor, 156
Cannopora, 283
Cannopylaea (= Phaeodaria), 76
Cannotidae, 278
Capillitium of Myxomycetes, 90 f., 92
Capnea sanguinea, 383
Capria, 321
Caravella, 308
Carbohydrates, formation of, 33
Carbon dioxide, attracts Paramecium, 23;
 excretion of, 8, 13 f.;
secreted by Arcella, etc., 53
Carchesium, 138;
feeding of, 145, 158
Carinal ossicle of Asteroidea, 436
Carlgren, 378 n.
Carmarina, 295
Carpenter, P. H., on the classification of the Crinoidea, 589
Carpenter, W. B., classification of Foraminifera, 58;
on their true nature, 62;
on their structure, 63 f.;
on Arenacea, 65 f.;
on the nervous system of Antedon rosacea, 585
Carpoidea, 580, 596 f.
Carter, on Protozoa, 45;
on Sponges, 167, 180, 208, 237 n.;
on fossil Hydrozoa, 270 n.
Caryophyllia, 386, 398
Cash, on Rhizopoda, 58 n.
Cassidulidae, 554
Cassidulina, 59
Cassiopea, 324
Cassiopeidae, 324
Castellani, on Trypanosomic fever and sleeping sickness, 120
Catabolic, catabolism, 13 f., 24
Cataclysmal metamorphosis of Dipleurula, 613
Catallacta, 89
Catostylidae, 325
Cattle, Trypanosomic diseases of, 119 f.
Caudal cirrhi, 139 f.
Caudina, 575
Caullery and Mesnil, on Actinomyxidiaceae, 98 n.
Cavernularia, 359, 364;
C. obesa, 364
Cell, 3 f.;
definition of, 3;
nutrition of, 15 f., 35 f.;
 -membrane of ovum of Sea-urchin, 7;
-wall, 3;
in Flagellates, 109, 113;
in Dinoflagellates, 130;
-boundary in Flagellates, 113;
-division, 24 f., 25, 27;
Spencerian division, 31 f.;
-unions in Volvox, 126, 127;
collar-, of Choanoflagellates, 121, 122;
of Sponges (= choanocytes), 171, 176, 186
Cellular relationship explained, 10
Cellulose, 37;
cell-wall of holophytic Flagellates, 113;
in Dinoflagellates, 130
Central blood plexus—see Heart
Central capsule, 49, 76, 77, 82, 84;
its functions in regeneration, 35;
of Collozoum inerme, 76
Centrifugal force, stimulus of, 19 f.
Centriole, 25, 27
Centripetal canals, 289
Centro-dorsal ossicle, of Crinoidea, 580;
of Antedon rosacea, 582;
of Actinometra, 588, 594;
of Atelecrinus, 594
Centrogenous (used of spicules = meeting in a common centre and
growing outwards), 76
Centropyxis, 51;
test of, 55;
C. aculeata, reproduction of, 57
Centrosome, 19, 26 f.;
of Heliozoa, 72;
(= blepharoplast) in Flagellates, 115
Centrosphere, 25 f., 27
Centrostephanus, 522, 539;
C. longispinosus, 522, 532, 539
Cephalis (= uppermost chamber of monaxonic Radiolarian shells),
83
Cephalodiscus, 617
Cephalont of Gregarines, 98
Cephalopoda, erroneous reference of Foraminifera to, 62
Cephea, 325
Cepheidae, 324
Ceratella, 263, 271;
C. fusca, 271
Ceratellidae, 271
Ceratium, 110;
habitat of, 131
Ceratosa, 211, 220
Cercomonas, 116 n., 119;
C. dujardini, gametes of, 116 n.
Cereactis (family Actiniidae, 381);
C. aurantiaca, 378
Cerianthidea, 367, 373, 377, 409
Cerianthus, 328, 366, 409;
nematocyst of, 247;
C. americanus, 411;
C. bathymetricus, 411;
C. lloydii, 411;
C. membranaceus, 370, 410, 411;
C. oligopodus, 411;
C. vogti, 411
Cestidae, 420
Cestoidea, 413, 414, 416, 420
Cestus, 420;
C. pectenalis, 420;
C. veneris, 417, 420
Chaetetidae, 346
Chalarothoraca, 71
Chalina, 217, 223
Chalk, Foraminifera, etc., in, 69 f.
Challengeridae (a family of Phaeogromia, 79);
shells, skeleton of, 84, 85
Chambered organ, of Antedon rosacea, 584;
of Pentacrinidae, 592
Chambers, of Foraminiferal shell, 62
Chapman, on Foraminifera, 58 n., 70
Charistephane, 417
Charybdea, 311, 314, 319;
C. xaymacana, 310, 319;
C. marsupialis, 319;
C. grandis, 319
Charybdeidae, 318
Cheilostomella, 59
Cheilostomellaceae, 59
Chela (a complex microsclere derived from a sigma and consisting
of a curved shaft bearing recurved processes), 234
Chemical, reactions, of protoplasm and of vacuoles, 13;
substances in solution, 19, 22 f.;
rays of spectrum in relation to plant pigments, 36 n.
Chemiotaxy, 23;
its rôle in syngamy, 34;
of Coccidians, 100
Chirodropidae, 319
Chirodropus, 319
Chironephthya, 349;
C. variabilis, 338
Chiropsalmus, 319
Chitin, 37
Chlamydomonadidae, 111, 125, 126;
brood-division of active, 115
Chlamydomonas, 111, 125 f.;
barotaxy of, 20;
conjugation of, 115 f.;
Dill on, 119 n.
Chlamydophora, 71
Chlamydophrys, 52;
C. stercorea, reproduction of, 57;
habitat of, 57 f.
Chloramoeba, 110
Chloromonadaceae, 110;
trichocysts in, 113 n.
Chlorophyll, 36 n.;
in Flagellates, 115 n.;
bodies of Euglenaceae, 124 f.
Chloroplasts (= chlorophyll bodies), of Eutreptia viridis, 124 f.
Choanocytes, 171, 176, 186, 200, 237
—see also Collar-cells
Choanoflagellata, Choanoflagellates (= Craspedomonadidae, 111),
121, 122 f.;
in relation to Sponges, 41, 171, 181
Choanophrya, 159 f., 162;
C. infundibulifera, 162
Choanosome, 170
Chondrilla, spicules of, 233
Chondrioderma, 90;
C. diffusum, 93
Chondrocladia, 216
Chondrophoridae, 301, 308
Chone, 213, 214
Choristida, 212
Chromatin, 6 f.;
function of, in cell-division, 24 f.;
of ovum of Sea-urchin, 7;
of Radiolaria, 81;
-granules, 7, 24
Chromatophore, 13, 21, 36 f., 113, 115;
of Sphaerella, 126
—see also Chromoplastid, Chlorophyll, Plastid
Chromidia, 30;
of Rhizopoda, 51;
of Foraminifera, 67 f.
Chromoplastid, 21, 36 f.;
of Zooxanthella, 86
—see also Chromatophore
Chromosomes, 25 f., 27;
functions of, 28 f.
Chromulina, 110
Chrysamoeba, 110
Chrysaora, 312, 315, 316, 323;
C. isosceles, 311, 314, 323
Chrysogorgia, 355
Chrysogorgiidae, 355 (= Dasygorgiidae, 333)
Chrysomitra, 302, 309
Chrysomonadaceae, 110;
external plasmic layer of, 113;
symbiotic, 86, 125
Chun, 197 n., 300, 307 n., 308, 414 n.
Chunella, 360, 363
Chytridieae, movements and affinities of, 114 n.;
relations of, 40, 48, 119
Cidaridae, 530, 531, 532, 533, 558
Cidaris, 533, 534;
C. (Dorocidaris) papillata, 534
Cienkowsky, on Monadineae (= Flagellates and Proteomyxa), 40, 89;
on Radiolaria, 88;
on Zooxanthella, 86;
on Cystoflagellates, 135
Cilia, 17, 18;
of Protozoa, 47;
paroral, 156 n.;
preoral, 139;
of Trichonymphidae, 123;
of Opalina, 123;
of Maupasia, 124;
of Ciliata, 141;
organs formed of combined, 138, 141, 413;
sensory, of Stylonychia, 138;
Schuberg, A., on, 141 n.
Ciliary motion, 18;
mechanism of, 18 n.
Ciliata, 18, 41, 137 f., 181;
animal nutrition, 40;
conjugation, 149 f.;
contractile vacuole, 14 f., 143;
encystment, 147 f.;
 feeding, 145;
fission, 147 f.;
form of body, 141;
galvanotaxy, 22;
infested by Suctorian parasites, 160 f.;
gut, 146;
mouth, 145;
nuclear apparatus, 144 f.;
parasitic, 152;
pharynx, 145;
pellicle, 141;
regeneration, 35, 145;
relations to Metazoa, 41;
rheotaxy, 21;
Suctoria allied to, 159;
thigmotaxy of, 20;
tubicolous, 152;
Zooxanthella symbiotic with, 125
Ciliated, buds of Suctoria, 159, 160 f., 162;
epaulette, 607
Cilioflagellata (= Dinoflagellata, given by misinterpretation of
transverse flagellum), 130.
Ciliophrys, 75 n., 89
Cilium of Noctiluca, 133
Cinachyra, 212, 215;
C. barbata, 212
Cinclides, 369
Cinetochilum, 137
Ciocalypta, 225
Cirripathes, 408;
C. spiralis, 408
Cirrus, of Crinoidea, 430, 580;
of Antedon rosacea, 581, 585;
of Rhizocrinidae, 588, 590;
of Pentacrinidae, 588, 591, 592;
of Rhizocrinus, 591;
of Comatulidae, 594;
 of Actinometra, 594;
of Antedon, 594;
development of, in A. rosacea, 620;
of fossil Crinoidea, 595
Cladocarpus, 279
Cladocora, 373, 400
Cladocoryne, 272
Cladocrinoidea, 595
Cladonema, 266, 270;
C. radiatum, 267
Cladonemidae, 270
Cladopathes, 408
Cladophiurae, 491, 494, 502
Cladorhiza, 216
Cladotyle (a rhabdus on which one actine is branched, the other
tylote or knobbed at the extremity), 222
Claparède and Lachmann on Protozoa, 45;
on Suctoria, 162
Clark—see James-Clark
Classification, of Protozoa, 48 f., 50;
of Rhizopoda, 51 f.;
of Foraminifera, 58 f.;
of Heliozoa, 70 f.;
of Radiolaria, 76 f.;
of Proteomyxa, 90;
of Sporozoa, 97;
of Flagellata, 109 f.;
of Protomastigaceae, 111;
of Volvocaceae, 111;
of Infusoria, 136;
of Ciliata, 137;
of Suctoria, 159;
of Sponges, 183 f.;
of Coelenterata, 249 f.;
of Ctenophora, 417 f.;
of Eleutherozoa, 430 f.;
of Asteroidea, 459 f.;
 of Ophiuroidea, 491 f.;
of Echinoidea, 529 f.;
of Endocyclica, 532;
of Clypeastroidea, 548 f.;
of Spatangoidea, 552;
of Holothuroidea, 567 f.;
of Pelmatozoa, 580;
of Crinoidea, 589 f.
Clathria, 225
Clathrina, 186, 221, 231;
C. blanca, larva of, 227
Clathrinidae, 185 f.
Clathrissa, 223
Clathrozoon, 277, 279;
C. wilsoni, 279
Clathrulina, 71, 73, 74
Clava, 272;
C. squamata, 263
Clavatella, 267, 270
Clavatellidae, 270
Clavidae, 272
Clavularia, 330, 334, 344;
C. viridis, 329, 337, 343 f., 344
Clavulariidae, 344
Clearing of tissues, physical explanation of, 11
Climacograptus, 282
Cliona, 219, 224
Clionidae, 218
Cloaca of Holothuria nigra, 563
Clypeaster, 548, 549
Clypeastridae (= Echinanthidae), 549
Clypeastroidea, 529, 542 f., 556, 559, 566
Clytia, 280;
C. johnstoni, 275, 280 f.
Cnidoblast, 247, 248
Cnidocil, 248
Cnidopod, 248
Cnidosac, 300
Coalescence of individual Rhizopods during bud-fission, 55
Coccidiaceae, 97, 99 f.;
relations to Trypanosoma, 120
Coccidiidae, 97, 99 f., 101
Coccidiosis, 102
Coccidium, 99 f., 101 f.;
C. cuniculi, 102;
C. lacazei, syngamy of, 101;
C. schubergi, 99 f., 101
Coccolithophora, 110
Coccolithophoridae, in Chalk, 70;
wall of, 114
Coccoliths, 83, 110, 114, 242
Coccoseridae, 346
Coccospheres, 83, 114
Cockroach, Lophomonas parasitic in gut of, 123
Codaster, 599
Codosiga, 111
Coelenterata, 243 f.;
definition, 245;
almost all immune from Gregarines, 99
Coeliac canal of Antedon rosacea, 586
Coelogorgia, 349
Coelogorgiidae, 349
Coelom (including body-cavity), 428;
of Asterias rubens, 437;
of arm of Ophiothrix fragilis, 480;
of Echinus esculentus, 516;
of Holothuria nigra, 562;
of Antedon rosacea, 585;
development of first rudiment in larva, 605;
subsequent development in Dipleurula, 608, 609;
in Asterina gibbosa, 611;
in Antedon rosacea, 618, 619
Coelomic nervous system, of Asterias rubens, 448;
of Ophiothrix fragilis, 488;
 of Echinus esculentus, 524;
of Holothuria nigra, 566;
of Antedon rosacea, 584, 585
Coeloplana, 412, 422;
C. mitsukurii, 422
Coeloplanidae, 422
Coenocyte, 30
Coenograptus, 282
Coenopsammia, 404
Coenosteum, 371, 387
Coenothecalia, 344
Cohn, Ferdinand, on cultures of Schizomycetes, etc., 44
Cold-blooded Vertebrates, as hosts of Haemosporidae, 102
Coleps, 137;
mail-like pellicle of, 141, 152;
C. hirtus, group feeding, 150
Collar, of Choanoflagellates, 121 f., 122;
of peristome of Vorticella, etc., 156
Collar-cells, in Choanoflagellates, 121 f., 122, 171, 237;
of Calcarea, 186;
of Non-Calcarea, 176, 200
—see also Choanocytes
Collencyte, 171
Colletocystophores, 320
Collida, 77 n.
Colloblasts, 414
Collodaria, 77
Colloidea, 77
Collosphaera, 77;
symbiotic Diatoms in, 86
Collosphaeridae, 85
Collozoidae, 85
Collozoum, 77;
C. inerme, 76
Collyritidae, 559
Colobocentrotus, 532, 542
Colonial, cells, 31;
 Protista, 31
Colony, 31;
of Collozoum inerme, 76;
-formation in Polycyttarian Radiolaria, 84 f.;
in Flagellata, 113;
of Choanoflagellates, 121, 122;
in Vorticellidae, 158;
of Volvocidae, 126 f.;
of Pandorina, 128 f.;
of Eudorina, 129
Colour, red, of lakes and ponds, often due to Dinoflagellata, 131
Coloured vegetal nutrition, 36 f.
Colouring matter of chromatophores of Flagellates, 115 n.
Colpidium, 137;
C. colpoda, diagram of conjugation, 149;
nuclear relations in conjugation, 151
Colpoda, 137;
C. cucullus, 153;
brood-fission in cyst, 147
Columella, 370, 385
Columnals, 619 (= Stem-ossicles, q.v.)
Columnaria, 344
Comatula = Antedon, q.v.
Comatulidae, 594
Combs of Ctenophora, 141, 412
Comitalia, 201
Commensals, of Heliozoa, 73;
of Radiolaria, 80, 86 f.;
of Infusoria, 153 f.;
—see also Zoochlorella, Zooxanthella, and Symbiosis
Comminator muscles of Aristotle's lantern, 526
Commissure of radial cords of aboral nervous system of Antedon
rosacea, 585
Compasses (or radii) of Aristotle's lantern, 526
Conant, 319
Conaria larva, 302
Conchophtheirus, 137
Conchula, 380
Confervaceae, related to green Flagellates, 48
Confervoid form of Hydrurus, 113
Conjugatae, syngamy of, compared to certain Chlamydomonads,
126
Conjugation, 33 f.;
of Rhizopoda, 54, 56 f.;
of Trichosphaerium, 54, 56 f.;
exogamous, in Foraminifera, 68 f.;
of Heliozoa, 72, 73 f.;
of Sporozoa, 95 f.;
of Lankesteria, 95 f.;
of Monocystis, 96;
of Gregarines, 97, 100;
of Stylorhynchus, 99;
bisexual, of Sarcocystis tenella, 108 n.;
of Flagellates, 115;
of Bodo saltans, 117;
of Trypanosoma, 120;
by a fertilising tube in Chlamydomonas, 125;
of Volvocaceae, 127 f.;
of Volvox, 127 f.;
isogamous and endogamous, of Stephanosphaera, 128;
in Dinoflagellates, 131 n.;
of Noctiluca, 133;
of Ciliata, 148 f.;
of Paramecium caudatum, 148;
of Colpidium colpoda, diagram, 149;
of Peritrichaceae, 151 f., 157;
of Vorticella, 157;
of Suctoria, 161;
of meganucleus in Dendrocometes, 161, 162
—see also Syngamy, Fertilisation
Conoclypeus, 558
Constancy of type in Protista, 42 f.
Conte, 292 n.
Contractile vacuole, 5, 10, 14 f.;
 of Amoeba polypodia, 5, 10;
of fresh-water and brackish Protozoa, accessory spaces and
canals, 47;
of Rhizopods, 52;
of fresh-water Allogromidiaceae, 60;
of Microgromia socialis, 60;
of Heliozoa, 71, 72, 74;
of zoospore of Clathrulina, 74;
of Myxomycetes, 92;
of Flagellata, 110, 112, 115;
of Cryptomonas, 112;
of Diplomita, 112;
of Oikomonas, 112;
of Tetramitus, 112;
of Trachelomonas, 112;
of Bodo saltans, 117;
of Choanoflagellates, 122;
absent from Opalinidae, 123;
of Euglenaceae, 125;
of Volvox, 126;
of Ciliata, 143 f.;
in fission, 147;
of Stylonychia, 139 f.
of Stentor, 156;
of Vorticella, 157;
of Suctoria, 160 f., 162
Contractility, 8, 9;
muscular mechanism of, 14 f.
Contraction, of Amoeboid cell, 16 f.
Copepoda, infested by Epistylis, 158
—see also Cyclops
Coppinia, 280;
C. arcta, 280
Coprolites, Radiolaria in, 87
Copromyxa, 90
Coral, 326, 365;
Organ-pipe, 343;
 Precious (= Red), 326, 352;
Flexible (= various Alcyonaria), 326;
Stony (= Madreporaria), 326, 384 f.;
Brain-, 401;
Black (= Gerardia, 406, and Antipatharia, 407);
-Reefs, 390 f.;
Reef-, 389 f.
Coralliidae, 335, 352;
commercial importance, 328
Corallimorphidae, 383
Corallimorphus, 383
Corallium, 333, 350, 352;
C. boshuensis 352;
C. confusum, 352;
C. elatius, 352;
C. inutile, 352;
C. japonicum, 352;
C. johnsoni, 352;
C. konojoi, 352;
C. nobile, 340 n., 341, 352;
C. pusillum, 352;
C. reginae, 352;
C. stylasteroides 352;
C. sulcatum, 352
Corbula, 276
Cordylophora, 269, 272
Cormidia, 301, 305
Cornularia, 334, 344
Cornulariidae, 344
Cornuspira, 59;
shell of, 64
Corona, of Echinus esculentus, 504, 511;
of Endocyclica, 530;
of Cidaridae, 530;
of Echinothuriidae, 530, 535;
of Temnopleurinae, 539
Coronaster, 474
Coronata, 314, 321
Cortex, 190, 191, 213;
gastral cortex, 188
Corticata, 49 n.
Corydendrium (family Tiaridae, 273);
C. parasiticum, 269
Corymorpha, 263, 265, 266, 273;
C. nutans, 273
Corymorphidae, 273
Corynactis, 372, 383;
C. viridis, 383
Coryne, 272
Corynidae, 272
Cosmiolithus, 346
Costae, 385, 387;
of Ctenophora, 413, 416 n.
Costia, 111;
C. necatrix, produces epidemics in fresh-water fish, 119
Cothurnia, 138, 158
Cotte, 218 n.
Cotton-spinner, 564
Cotylorhiza, 325
Coupled cell, 31, 33 f.;
in Flagellates, 116 f.
—see also Zygote
Covering-plates, of arms of Ophiuroidea, 491;
of arms of Crinoidea, 589;
of Hyocrinus, 589, 590;
of Rhizocrinidae, 589, 591;
of Pentacrinidae, 589;
of Antedon, 589, 594;
of Thecoidea, 596;
of Blastoidea, 599
Crambessa, 325
Crambione, 325
Craniella, 213, 213, 214;
C. cranium, 222
Craspedomonadidae, 111, 115 n., 121 f., 122;
transverse division in, 115 n.
—see also Choanoflagellata
Crescent (gametocyte of Laverania), 104 f.
Cretaceous firestone of Delitzet contains Peridinium, 132
Cribrella, 457, 462;
C. (Henricia) sanguinolenta, 462, 463;
C. laeviuscula, 462
Cribriform organs, 470
Cricket, Mole-, Lophomonas parasitic in gut of, 123
Crinoidea, 430, 580 f.;
development of, 617 f.
Crinorhiza, 212, 216
Cristellaria, 59
Crotalocrinus, 595;
C. pulcher, 595
Crustacea, small, rheotaxy of, 21
Cryptabacia, 404
Cryptogams, Higher, spermatozoa of, 38
Cryptoglena, shell of, 113
Cryptohelia, 284, 287;
C. ramosa, 285
Cryptomonadaceae, 110
Cryptomonas, 110
Cryptozonate, 454
Crystals, in isospores of Collozoum inerme, 76;
proteid, 37
Ctenocella, 357
Ctenodiscus, 458, 471
Ctenophora, 412 f.;
comb-plates of, 141
Ctenophoral plates, 141, 412
Ctenoplana, 416, 421
Ctenoplanidae, 421
Cubomedusae, 310, 316, 318 f.
Cucumaria, 573;
C. crocea, 573, 602;
 C. laevigata, 602
Cuénot, on Sporozoa, 94;
on reproduction of Monocystis, 96 n.
Culcita, 453, 472;
C. tetragona, 453
Culex, host of Haemoproteus or Proteosoma, 103;
intermediate host of a Trypanosoma, 120
Cultures, pure, 43
Cunanthidae, 296
Cunarcha, 296
Cunina, 296;
C. proboscidea, 296;
C. rhododactyla, 296
Cunoctantha, 296;
C. octonaria, 295
Cup (= theca), of Flagellates, 113;
of Salpingoeca, 122;
of Acineta, 159, 160
—see also Theca, Tube
Cupulita, 307;
C. sarsii, 304
Current, 169, 171, 234 f.;
electric, stimulus of, 19, 22;
in liquid, relation of protoplasmic movements to, 7, 19, 21
Cuticle, of Dinoflagellata, 130;
of Gregarines, 96;
of Noctiluca, 133
—see also Membrane, Pellicle
Cuticular shell of Flagellates, 113
Cuvier, 245, 246
Cuvierian organs of Holothuria nigra, 564
Cyanaea, 311, 312, 324;
C. capillata, 311, 324;
C. lamarcki, 324
Cyanaeidae, 324
Cyathaxoniidae, 394
Cyatholiths, 114