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Geography Editor: Christian Botting Production Assistant to the Author: Bobbé Christopherson
Marketing Manager: Maureen McLaughlin Copyeditor: Sherry Goldbecker
Project Editor: Anton Yakovlev Proofreader: Jeff Georgeson
VP/Executive Director, Development: Carol Trueheart Indexer: Robert Swanson
Development Editor: Ginger Birkeland Senior Art Specialist: Connie Long
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Full Service/Composition: Element, LLC Media Producer: Katherine Brayton
Full Service Project Managers: Suganya Karrupasamy and
Cindy Miller

—In memory of the late Randall Goodall—

Cover photo: Crystal Spring flows into Crystal Lake along the Smiths Fork, southeast of Afton, Wyoming; 2195 m (7200 ft) elev. Photo by
Bobbé Christopherson. Back cover: Four Terra satellite images and Earth. Photo courtesy of NASA.

Dedication Page Quote: B. Kingsolver, Small Wonder (New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2002) p. 39

Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the
appropriate page within the text.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Christopherson, Robert W.
Elemental geosystems / Robert W. Christopherson. — 7th ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-269856-6
ISBN-10: 0-13-269856-0
1. Physical geography. I. Title.
GB54.5.C47 2013
910’.02—dc23
2011037957

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10—CRK—15 14 13 12 11

ISBN-10: 0-13-269856-0; ISBN-13: 978-0-13-269856-6 (Student Edition)

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 DEDICATION

To the students and teachers of Earth, and

to all the children and grandchildren,
for it is their future and home planet.

The land still provides our genesis,

however we might like to forget
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muddy Earth, that the oxygen in our lungs was
recently inside a leaf, and that every newspaper or
book we may pick up is made from the hearts of
trees that died for the sake of our imagined lives.
What you hold in your hands right now,
beneath these words,
is consecrated air and time and sunlight.
—Barbara Kingsolver

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 B R I E F C O N T E N T S

1 Essentials of Geography xxx

P A R T I

The Energy–Atmosphere System 34

2 Solar Energy, Seasons, and the Atmosphere 36

3 Atmospheric Energy and Global Temperatures 70
4 Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulations 104
P A R T I I

Water, Weather, and Climate Systems 136

5 Atmospheric Water and Weather 138

6 Water Resources 180
7 Climate Systems and Climate Change 214

P A R T I I I

The Earth–Atmosphere Interface 252

8 The Dynamic Planet 254

9 Tectonics, Earthquakes, and Volcanism 282
10 Weathering, Karst Landscapes, and Mass Movement 318
11 River Systems and Landforms 344
12 The Oceans, Coastal Systems, and Wind Processes 374
13 Glacial and Periglacial Landscapes 408
P A R T I V

Soils, Ecosystems, and Biomes 442

14 The Geography of Soils 444

15 Ecosystem Essentials 472
16 Terrestrial Biomes 502
17 Earth and the Human Denominator 524

APPENDIX A Maps in this Text and Topographic Maps A.1

APPENDIX B The Köppen Climate Classification System A.6
APPENDIX C Common Conversions A.9

vi
 C O N T E N T S

Preface xvi Prime Meridian and Standard Time 19

Elemental Geosystems and MasteringGeography GEO REP ORT 1.5 Magellan’s crew loses a day 20
Walkthrough xxii Maps, Scales, and Projections 21
The Scale of Maps 22

1 Essentials of C. T . 1.3: Find and calculate map scales 22

Map Projections 23
Geography xxx Remote Sensing and GIS 25
Remote Sensing 25
G E O S Y S T E MS N OW: Where Is Four Corners, Exactly? 1 GEO REP ORT 1.6: Mapping anniversary for the USGS 25
The Science of Geography 3 Geographic Information Systems 28
Geographic Analysis 3 GEOSYST EM S CONNECT I ON 30
The Geographic Continuum 3 Key Learning Concepts Review 30
Earth Systems Concepts 3
Systems Theory 3
F O C U S S T UD Y 1 . 1 : The Scientific Method 6 P A R T I
G E O R E P OR T 1 . 1 : Amphibians at thresholds 10
The Energy–
Systems in Elemental Geosystems 11
A Spherical Planet 13 Atmosphere System 34
G E O R E P OR T 1 . 2 : Water in the Solar System 13
Measuring Earth in 247 B.C. 14
Location and Time on Earth 15
Latitude 15
2 Solar Energy,
G E O R E P OR T 1 . 3 : The value of a stadium 15 Seasons, and the
C R I TI C A L THIN K IN G 1 . 1 : Latitudinal zones and
temperature 16
Atmosphere 36
Longitude 16 GEOSY ST EM S NOW : Humans Help Define the
Great Circles and Small Circles 18 Atmosphere 37
C . T. 1 . 2 : Where are you? 18 The Solar System 38
Global Positioning System 18 Dimensions, Distances, and Earth’s Orbit 38
G E O R E P OR T 1 . 4 GPS origins 19 Solar Energy: From Sun to Earth 38
Solar Activity and Solar Wind 40
GEO REP ORT 2.1: Recent solar cycle 40
Electromagnetic Spectrum of Radiant Energy 41
Incoming Energy at the Top of the Atmosphere 42
The Seasons 44
Seasonality 44
CRI T I CA L T HI NKI NG 2.1: A way to calculate sunrise and
sunset 45
Reasons for Seasons 45
GEO REP ORT 2.2 Why do we always see the same side of
the Moon? 46
C. T . 2.2: Astronomical factors vary over long time
frames 47
Annual March of the Seasons 48
C. T . 2.3: Measuring the Sun’s changing altitude 49
Atmospheric Composition, Temperature, and
Function 49
Atmospheric Profile 49
Atmospheric Composition Criterion 51
GEO REP ORT 2.3: Outside the airplane 51

vii
viii CONTENTS

Daily Radiation Patterns 80

Simplified Surface Energy Balance 81
FOCUS ST UDY 3.1: Solar Energy Applications 82
C. T . 3.2: Know more about applied solar
technologies 84
Atmospheric Temperature Criterion 53 Temperature Concepts and Measurement 84
G E O R E P O R T 2 . 4 : Atmospheric carbon dioxide Temperature Scales 84
accelerates 53 Measuring Temperature 85
C . T. 2 . 4 : Where is your tropopause? 54 GEO REP ORT 3.3: Getting the measurement right 85
Atmospheric Function Criterion 54 Principal Temperature Controls 86
C . T. 2 . 5 : Finding your ozone column 55 Latitude 86
F O C U S S TU D Y 2 . 1 : Stratospheric Ozone Losses: Altitude/Elevation 86
A Continuing Health Hazard 56 Cloud Cover 87
Variable Atmospheric Components 58 Land–Water Heating Differences 87
Natural Sources 58 GEO REP ORT 3.4: Referring to heights above sea
G E O R E P O R T 2 . 5 : NASA’s Global Hawk makes first level 88
scientific flight 58 Earth’s Temperature Patterns 91
Natural Factors That Affect Air Pollution 59 C. T . 3.3: Begin a record and physical geography
Anthropogenic Pollution 60 profile 91
G E O R E P O R T 2 . 6 : Smoke gets in your eyes 61 January and July Temperature Maps 91
Benefits of the Clean Air Act 63 GEO REP ORT 3.5: Polar regions show greatest
F O C U S S TU D Y 2 . 2 : Acid Deposition: Damaging to warming 92
Ecosystems 64 Polar Region Temperature Maps 93
C . T. 2 . 6 : Evaluating costs and benefits 66 Annual Temperature Range Map 95
G E O S YS TE M S C O N N E CTION 66 The Urban Environment 95
Key Learning Concepts Review 66 FOCUS ST UDY 3.2: Air Temperature and the Human
Body 98
C. T . 3.4: Looking at your surface energy budget 101

3 Atmospheric GEOSYST EM S CONNECT I ON 101

Key Learning Concepts Review 101
Energy and Global
Temperatures 70
Albedo Impacts, a Limit on Future
G E O S Y S TE M S N O W:
4 Atmospheric
Arctic Shipping? 71 and Oceanic
Energy Essentials 72
Energy Pathways and Principles 72
Circulations 104
Insolation Input 73 GEOSY ST EM S NOW : Ocean Currents Bring Invasive
G E O R E P O R T 3 . 1 : Earthshine 74 Species 105
G E O R E P O R T 3 . 2 : Monitoring Earth’s radiant energy GEO REP ORT 4.1: Blowing in the wind 106
systems 76 Wind Essentials 106
C R I TI C A L TH I N K I NG 3 . 1 : A kelp indicator of surface energy Air Pressure and Its Measurement 106
dynamics 77 Wind: Description and Measurement 108
The Greenhouse Effect and Atmospheric Warming 77 Driving Forces Within the Atmosphere 110
Clouds and Earth’s “Greenhouse” 77 GEO REP ORT 4.2: A force is with us 110
Earth–Atmosphere Energy Balance 78 CRI T I CA L T HI NKI NG 4.1: Measure the wind 110
Energy Balance at Earth’s Surface 80 Pressure Gradient Force 110
 CONTENTS ix

Coriolis Force 111 Iceberg analysis 142

CRI T I CA L T HI NKI NG 5.1:
G E O R E P OR T 4 . 3 :Coriolis: Not a force on sinks or GEO REP ORT 5.2: Katrina had the power 143
toilets 111 Heat Properties of Water in Nature 144
Friction Force 114 Humidity 144
Atmospheric Patterns of Motion 114 Relative Humidity 144
Primary High-Pressure and Low-Pressure Areas 114 Expressions of Humidity 145
Upper Atmospheric Circulation 119 Atmospheric Stability 147
G E O R E P OR T 4 . 4 : Icelandic ash caught in the jet Adiabatic Processes 147
stream 119 C. T . 5.2: Using relative humidity and dew-point
Local Winds 121 maps 147
C . T. 4 . 2 : Construct your own wind-power assessment Stable and Unstable Atmospheric Conditions 148
report 123 Clouds and Fog 150
Monsoonal Winds 123 Cloud Types and Identification 151
F O C U S S T UD Y 4 . 1 : Wind Power: An Energy Resource for the GEO REP ORT 5.3: Lenticular clouds signal mountain
Present and Future 124 weather 152
Oceanic Currents 126 Fog 153
Surface Currents 127 C. T . 5.3: Identify two kinds of fog 154
Thermohaline Circulation—The Deep Currents 128 Air Masses 154
Natural Oscillations in Global Circulation 129 Air Mass Modification 155
El Niño–Southern Oscillation 129 Atmospheric Lifting Mechanisms 156
Pacific Decadal Oscillation 131 Convergent Lifting 156
G E O R E P OR T 4 . 5 : 2010–2011 La Niña breaks records 131 Convectional Lifting 157
North Atlantic and Arctic Oscillations 131 GEO REP ORT 5.4: Lake-effect snow makes an avalanche
G E O S YS T E MS CON N E CTION 132 of a storm 157
Key Learning Concepts Review 132 Orographic Lifting 157
Frontal Lifting: Cold and Warm Fronts 158
GEO REP ORT 5.5: Mountains cause record rains 158
P A R T I I

Water, Weather,
and Climate Systems 136

5 Atmospheric Water
and Weather 138
G E O S Y S T E MS N OW: On the Front Lines of Intense
Weather 139
Water’s Unique Properties 140
Heat Properties 140
G E O R E P OR T 5 . 1 : Breaking roads and pipes 141
x CONTENTS

FOCUS ST UDY 6.1: The Colorado River: A System Out of

Balance 194
Water Surplus—Managing Streamflow 198
GEO REP ORT 6.4: Harvesting fog as a water resource 198
Groundwater Resources 200
Groundwater Profile and Movement 201
Overuse of Groundwater 202
GEO REP ORT 6.5: Water pipelines in the Middle East 203
FOCUS ST UDY 6.2: High Plains Aquifer Overdraft 204
Pollution of Groundwater 206
Our Water Supply 206
C. T . 6.2: Water on your campus 207
Desalination 207
Water Supply in the United States 208
GEO REP ORT 6.6: The water it takes for food and
necessities 208
C. T . 6.3: That next glass of water 210
Midlatitude Cyclonic Systems 161 Future Considerations 210
Life Cycle of a Midlatitude Cyclone 161 GEOSYST EM S CONNECT I ON 210
Weather Maps and Forecasting 162 Key Learning Concepts Review 210
C . T. 5 . 4 : Analyzing a weather map 163
Violent Weather 163
Thunderstorms 164
G E O R E P O R T 5 . 6 : Kentucky ice storm causes record power
7 Climate Systems and
losses 164 Climate Change 214
Derechos 165
GEOSY ST EM S NOW : A look at Puerto Rico’s Climate at a
G E O R E P O R T 5 . 7 : You can feel the warning 165
Larger Scale 215
Tornadoes 167
Classifying Earth’s Climates 216
Tropical Cyclones 169
Climate Systems: A Review 216
G E O R E P O R T 5 . 8 : Research aircraft dissect Hurricane
Classification Types and Categories 217
Karl 173
GEO REP ORT 7.1: Ancient thinking on climate
F O C U S S TU D Y 5 . 1 : Atlantic Hurricanes and the
classifications 216
Future 174
GEO REP ORT 7.2: Boundary considerations and changes
C . T. 5 . 5 : Hazard perception and planning: What seems
under way 218
to be missing? 176
CRI T I CA L T HI NKI NG 7.1: Finding your climate 219
G E O S YS TE M S C O N N E CTION 176
Tropical Climates (tropical latitudes) 219
Key Learning Concepts Review 176
Tropical Rain Forest Climates 219
Tropical Monsoon Climates 222

6 Water Resources 180

Tropical Savanna Climates 223
Mesothermal Climates (midlatitudes, mild
winters) 224
G E O S Y S TE M S N O W: Lake Baikal: Earth’s Oldest Lake
Humid Subtropical Climates 225
Provides a Warming Signal 181
Marine West Coast Climates 225
Water on Earth 182
Mediterranean Dry-Summer Climates 225
Worldwide Equilibrium 182
Microthermal Climates (mid and high latitudes,
Distribution of Earth’s Water Today 183
cold winters) 228
G E O R E P O R T 6 . 1 : Earth’s lakes respond to climate
Humid Continental Hot-Summer Climates 228
change 183
Humid Continental Mild-Summer Climates 228
The Hydrologic Cycle 184
Subarctic Climates 229
A Hydrologic Cycle Model 184
Surface Water 185
G E O R E P O R T 6 . 2 : The water we use 185
Soil-Water-Budget Concept 185
G E O R E P O R T 6 . 3 : How is water measured? 186
The Soil-Water-Balance Equation 186
Water Deficit—Defining Drought 190
Sample Water Budgets 192
C R I TI C A L TH I N K I NG 6 . 1 : Your local water budget 192
Water-Budget Application: Hurricane Camille 192
 CONTENTS xi

Polar and Highland Climates 232 GEO REP ORT 8.2: Earth on the scales 258
Tundra Climates 233 Earth’s Mantle 259
Ice-Cap and Ice-Sheet Climates 234 Earth’s Lithosphere and Crust 260
Polar Marine Climates 234 The Geologic Cycle 262
Dry Climates (permanent mositure deficits) 235 The Rock Cycle 262
Characteristics of Dry Climates 235 Igneous Processes 264
Tropical, Subtropical Hot Desert Climates 235 Sedimentary Processes 266
Midlatitude Cold Desert Climates 236 Metamorphic Processes 267
Tropical, Subtropical Hot Steppe Climates 238 Plate Tectonics 269
Midlatitude Cold Steppe Climates 238 A Brief History 269
G E O R E P OR T 7 . 3 : Climate science and the UNFCCC 238 Sea-Floor Spreading 270
Global Climate Change 240 Subduction of the Lithosphere 270
“Reasons for Concern” 241 The Formation and Breakup of Pangaea 273
G E O R E P OR T 7 . 4 : Professional consensus on climate C. T . 8.2: Tracking your location since Pangaea 273
change 241 Plate Boundaries 273
Climate-Change Measurements 242 Earthquake and Volcanic Activity 273
G E O R E P OR T 7 . 5 : The IPCC and the Nobel Peace Hot Spots 275
Prize 243 FOCUS ST UDY 8.1 Heat from Earth—Geothermal Energy
G E O R E P OR T 7 . 6 : China leads the world in CO2 and Power 276
emissions 244 GEO REP ORT 8.3: A lot of basalt in Hawai‘i 277
Climate Models and Forecasts 245 C. T . 8.3: How fast is the Pacific plate moving? 278
C . T. 7 . 2 : The forcing element of fuel economy 245 GEOSYST EM S CONNECT I ON 279
“No Regrets” 247 Key Learning Concepts Review 280
G E O S YS T E MS CON N E CTION 248
C . T. 7 . 3 : Thinking through an action plan to reduce human
climate forcing 248
Key Learning Concepts Review 249
9 Tectonics,
Earthquakes, and
P A R T I I I Volcanism 282
GEOSY ST EM S NOW : The San Jacinto Fault Connection 283
The Earth–
Ocean floor tectonics tour 284
CRI T I CA L T HI NKI NG 9.1:
Atmosphere Interface 252 Earth’s Surface Relief 285
Crustal Orders of Relief and Hypsometry 285
GEO REP ORT 9.1: Mount Everest at new heights 285

8 The Dynamic Planet 254

Earth’s Topographic Regions 286
C. T . 9.2: Scaling topographic regions to your area 286
G E O S Y S T E MS N OW: Earth’s Migrating Magnetic Poles 255 Crustal Formation 286
The Pace of Change 256 Continental Shields 287
G E O R E P OR T 8 . 1 : Radioactive dating and Earth time 256 Building Continental Crust and Terranes 288
C . T. 8 . 1 : Thoughts about an “Anthropocene” Epoch 256 Crustal Deformation 289
Earth’s Structure and Internal Energy 258 Folding and Broad Warping 290
Earth’s Core and Magnetism 258 Faulting 291
xii CONTENTS

2011

Factors Influencing Weathering Processes 323

Physical Weathering 325
Mountain Building 297
GEO REP ORT 10.1: Rockfalls in Yosemite 325
Types of Orogenesis 297
Chemical Weathering 326
The Grand Tetons and the Sierra Nevada 299
GEO REP ORT 10.2: Weathering on bridges in Central Park,
The Appalachian Mountains 299
New York City 328
Earthquakes 299
Karst Topography 329
Focus, Epicenter, Foreshock, and Aftershock 300
Formation of Karst 330
Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude 301
Features of Karst Landscapes 330
The Nature of Faulting 302
Caves and Caverns 331
G E O R E P O R T 9 . 2 : Large earthquakes affect the entire Earth
Mass-Movement Processes 332
system 302
Mass-Movement Mechanics 332
F O C U S S TU D Y 9 . 1 : Earthquakes in Haiti, Chile, and Japan:
GEO REP ORT 10.3: Amateurs make cave discoveries 333
A Comparative Analysis 304
Classes of Mass Movements 335
Earthquake Prediction and Planning 306
C. T . 10.2: National landslide hazard potential 336
Volcanism 307
FOCUS ST UDY 10.1: Vaiont Reservoir Landslide
G E O R E P O R T 9 . 3 : Northridge classes held in the
Disaster 337
outdoors 307
GEO REP ORT 10.4: Landscaping choices, watering, and
Volcanic Features 308
landslides 338
Location and Types of Volcanic Activity 309
Human-Induced Mass Movements 338
Effusive Eruptions 309
GEOSYST EM S CONNECT I ON 340
Explosive Eruptions 311
Key Learning Concepts Review 340
G E O R E P O R T 9 . 4 : Slow slip events across Kılauea
¯ ’s south
flank 311
F O C U S S TU D Y 9 . 2 : The 1980 Eruption of
Mount St. Helens 312
Volcano Forecasting and Planning 315
11 River Systems and
G E O S YS TE M S C O N N E CTION 315
Landforms 344
Key Learning Concepts Review 316 GEOSY ST EM S NOW : Removing Dams and Restoring Salmon
on the Elwha River, Washington 345
Spatial Organization of Streams 346
10 Weathering, Karst Drainage Basins 346
CRI T I CA L T HI NKI NG 11.1: Locate your drainage basin 348
Landscapes, and Drainage Patterns 350
C. T . 11.2: Identifying drainage patterns 351
Mass Movement 318 Basic Fluvial Concepts 351
G E O S Y S TE M S N O W: Human-Caused Mass Movement at the Base Level 351
Kingston Steam Plant, Tennessee 319 Stream Discharge 352
Landmass Denudation 320 Fluvial Processes and Landforms 356
Dynamic Equilibrium Approach to Landforms 320 Stream Erosion and Transportation 356
Slopes 321 Meandering Stream Channels 357
Weathering Processes 323 GEO REP ORT 11.1: River rumbles 357
C R I TI C A L TH I N K I NG 1 0 . 1 : Find a slope; apply the Stream Gradient 358
concepts 323 GEO REP ORT 11.2: The first meanders 359
 CONTENTS xiii

C. T . 12.2:What seems to be a reasonable conclusion,

however.... 393
Biological Processes: Coral Formations 393
FOCUS ST UDY 12.1: An Environmental Approach to
Shoreline Planning 394
Coastal Wetlands 397
GEO REP ORT 12.4: Ocean acidification impact on
corals 397
C. T . 12.3: Exploring corals 397
The Work of Wind 398
Eolian Erosion 399
Eolian Transportation 400
Eolian Deposition 400
GEO REP ORT 12.5: Conflicts feed the sand seas 403
C. T . 12.4: The nearest eolian features 404
GEOSYST EM S CONNECT I ON 404
Key Learning Concepts Review 404
Stream Deposition 360
The Nile River delta is
13 Glacial and Periglacial
G E O R E P OR T 1 1 . 3 :
disappearing 364
Floods and River Management 367
G E O R E P OR T 1 1 . 4 : What is a bayou? 367
Landscapes 408
Rating Floodplain Risk 368 GEOSY ST EM S NOW : Ice Shelves and Tidewater Glaciers
Engineering Failures in New Orleans, 2005 369 Give Way to Warming 409
F O C U S S T UD Y 1 1 . 1 : Floodplain Measurement and Rivers and Sheets of Ice 410
Strategies 370 Alpine Glaciers 411
C . T. 1 1 . 3: Review and assessment of the post-Katrina GEO REP ORT 13.1: Global glacial ice losses 411
Gulf Coast 370 Continental Glaciers 412
G E O S YS T E MS CON N E CTION 370 Glacial Processes 413
Key Learning Concepts Review 371 Formation of Glacial Ice 413
Glacial Mass Balance 413
Glacial Movement 415
12 The Oceans, Coastal GEO REP ORT 13.2: Alaskan ice losses related to isostatic
rebound 415
Systems, and Wind Glacial Landforms 416
Erosion by Alpine Glaciation 416
Processes 374 GEO REP ORT 13.3: Greenland Ice Sheet losses
G E O S Y S T E MS N OW: Tsunami Warnings, Past and increasing 417
Present 375 CRI T I CA L T HI NKI NG 13.1: Looking for glacial features on
Global Oceans and Seas 376 closer inspection 418
Chemical Composition of Seawater 376 Deposition by Alpine Glaciation 419
Physical Structure of the Ocean 378 Landforms of Continental Glaciation 420
G E O R E P OR T 1 2 . 1 : The Mediterranean Sea is getting Periglacial Landscapes 422
saltier 378 Geography of Permafrost 423
Coastal System Components 378 Periglacial Processes 424
The Coastal Environment and Sea Level 379
Changes in Sea Level 380
G E O R E P OR T 1 2 . 2 : Sea level varies along
the U.S. coastline 380
Coastal System Actions 381
Tides 381
C R I TI C A L THIN K IN G 1 2 . 1 : Thinking through a rising sea
level 381
Waves 382
G E O R E P OR T 1 2 . 3 : Sea-wave amplification kills 384
Coastal System Outputs 386
Coastal Erosion 387
Coastal Deposition 387
xiv CONTENTS

Soil Classification 454

Soil Taxonomy 454
CRI T I CA L T HI NKI NG 14.1: Soil losses—What to do? 454
The 12 Soil Orders of the Soil Taxonomy 455
C. T . 14.2: Soil observations 455
FOCUS ST UDY 14.1: Selenium Concentration in Soils:
The Death of Kesterson 460
GEO REP ORT 14.2: Loss of marginal lands puts pressure
on prime lands 461
GEOSYST EM S CONNECT I ON 468
Key Learning Concepts Review 468

15 Ecosystem
Essentials 472
GEOSY ST EM S NOW : Species’ Distributions Shift with
GEO REPORT 13.4: Feedback loops from fossil-fuel
Climate Change 473
exploration to permafrost thawing 426
Ecosystem Components 475
Humans and Periglacial Landscapes 426
Communities 476
The Pleistocene Epoch 426
GEO REP ORT 15.1: Six major extinctions affect Earth’s
Ice-Age Temperatures and Landscapes 427
species 476
Paleolakes 428
Plants: The Essential Biotic Component 477
G E O R E P O R T 1 3 . 5 : Glacial ice might protect underlying
C. T . 15.1: Mutualism? Parasitism? Where do we
mountains 429
fit in? 477
Deciphering Past Climates 430
Abiotic Ecosystem Components 479
Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age 430
GEO REP ORT 15.2: Earth’s magnetic field acts as an abiotic
Mechanisms of Climate Fluctuation 431
component 480
F O C U S S TU D Y 1 3 . 1: Ice Cores Reveal Earth’s Climate
Ecosystem Operations: Nutrient Cycles and
History 432
Flows 480
Arctic and Antarctic Regions 434
Elemental Cycles 480
C . T. 1 3 . 2 : A sample of life at the polar station 436
Energy Pathways 485
Recent Polar Region Changes 436
Limiting Factors 488
C . T. 1 3 . 3 : The IPY accomplishment continues 438
GEO REP ORT 15.3: Poisoning a food web; who is at
G E O S YS TE M S C O N N E CTION 438
the top? 488
Key Learning Concepts Review 438
Biodiversity, Evolution, and Ecosystem
Stability 489
P A R T I V Biological Evolution Delivers Biodiversity 489
Biodiversity Fosters Ecosystem Stability 490
Soils, Ecosystems, Biodiversity on the Decline 491
and Biomes 442 Threatened Species—Examples 492
Species and Ecosystem Restoration 493
Ecological Succession 493

14 The Geography of C. T . 15.2: Observe ecosystem disturbances 494

Terrestrial Succession 494
Aquatic Succession 495
Soils 444
FOCUS ST UDY 15.1: Wildfire and Fire Ecology 496
G E O S Y S TE M S N O W: Increasing Desertification and Political GEOSYST EM S CONNECT I ON 498
Action—A Global Environmental Issue 445 Key Learning Concepts Review 499
Soil Characteristics 446
Soil Profiles 446
Soil Horizons 447
Soil Properties 448
16 Terrestrial Biomes 502
Soil Chemistry 450 GEOSY ST EM S NOW : Invasive Species Arrive at Tristan
Soil Formation Factors and Management 451 da Cunha 503
Natural Factors in Soil Development 451 GEO REP ORT 16.1:Designating large marine ecosystems
Human Impacts on Soils 453 for managing coastal oceans 504
G E O R E P O R T 1 4 . 1 : Slipping through our fingers 453 Terrestrial Ecosystem Concepts 504
 CONTENTS xv

Arctic and Alpine Tundra 520

GEO REP ORT 16.3: The Porcupine Caribou Herd 520
C. T . 16.3: Shifting climate hypothetical 522
GEOSYST EM S CONNECT I ON 522
Key Learning Concepts Review 522

17 Earth and the Human

Denominator 524
GEOSY ST EM S NOW : Seeing Earth and Ourselves from
Space 525
GEO REP ORT 17.1: Flights of exploration 526
The Human Count 527
GEO REP ORT 17.2: Considering the Anthropocene at a
population of 7 billion 527
An Oily Bird 528
The Century Before Us 529
Who Speaks for Earth? 530
CRI T I CA L T HI NKI NG 17.1: A final review 531
GEOSYST EM S CONNECT I ON 531

Biomes and Ecotones 504 APPENDIX A

Invasive Species 505 Maps in This Text and Topographic Maps A.1
Earth’s Major Terrestrial Biomes 506
C R I TI C A L THIN K IN G 1 6 . 1 : Reality check 506
APPENDIX B
Tropical Rain Forest 506
G E O R E P OR T 1 6 . 2 The Question of Food and
The Köppen Climate Classification System A.6
Medicine 508
C . T. 1 6 . 2: Tropical forests: A global or local resource? 512 APPENDIX C

Tropical Seasonal Forest and Scrub 512 Common Conversions A.9

Tropical Savanna 513
Midlatitude Broadleaf and Mixed Forest 513 Glossary G.1
F O C U S S T UD Y 1 6 . 1 : Island Biogeography and
Conservation—Preserving Biodiversity 514 Index I.1
Needleleaf Forest and Montane Forest 516
Temperate Rain Forest 517
Mediterranean Shrubland 518
Midlatitude Grassland 518
Deserts 519
 P R E F A C E
elcome to the seventh edition of Elemental
W Geosystems. This edition stands on the success
of the first six editions, as well as the com-
panion texts, Geosystems, now in its eighth edition, and
Geosystems, Canadian Edition, now in its third edition. Stu-
dents and teachers appreciate the systems organization,
scientific accuracy, integration of figures and text, clarity of
the summary and review sections, and overall relevancy to
what is happening to Earth systems in real time. Elemental
Geosystems continues to tell Earth’s story in student-friendly
language and now with new features and learning tools.
The goal of physical geography is to explain the spatial
dimension of Earth’s dynamic systems—its energy, air, water,
weather, climate, tectonics, landforms, rocks, soils, plants,
ecosystems, and biomes. Understanding human–Earth
relations is part of the challenge of physical geography—
to create a holistic (or complete) view of the planet and its
inhabitants. Welcome to physical geography!
New to the Seventh Edition
Nearly every page of Elemental Geosystems’ seventh edition
has updated material and new content in text and figures—
far too much to list here. Following is a sampling of
features new to the seventh edition:
■ An expansion of biogeography coverage in Chapters 15
and 16 is new to this edition. The former content of
Chapter 12 on wind processes and desert landscapes
is not cut, but is redistributed to appropriate con-
tent areas in other chapters—for example, basin and
range with faulted landscapes in Chapter 9; desert en-
vironments in Chapters 7 and 16, with climates and
biomes; wind processes and dunes in Chapter 12; and
loess with soils in Chapter 14.
■ Many illustrations and maps are new or recast to im-
prove student learning. Also, there are more than 250
new photos and images bringing real-world scenes
into the classroom. Our photo and remote sensing
program exceeds 425 items, integrated throughout
the text.
■ The 4 Part Openers and 17 Chapter Openers are re-
designed with 20 new photos and images, the only ex-
ception being Chapter 9, with its new integrated map
of the ocean floor. Each of these four parts, described
on the back cover, feature a new systems schematic
that portrays the organization of the content; check
out each of these on pages 34–35, 136–37, 252–53,
and 442–43.
■ Key Learning Concepts appear at the outset of each
chapter, many rewritten for clarity. Each chapter
xvi
concludes with Key Learning Concepts Review, which
summarizes the chapter using the opening objectives.
New to this edition are representative figures, photos,
and images highlighting each concept in the review.
■ New to each chapter is an opening case study feature,
Geosystems Now. These original, unique essays focus
interest on chapter content. Geosystems Now topics
include:
PART I—Geosystems Now:
1 Where Is Four Corners, Exactly?
2 Humans Help Define the Atmosphere
3 Albedo Impacts, a Limit on Future Arctic
Shipping?
4 Ocean Currents Bring Invasive Species
PART II—Geosystems Now:
5 On the Front Lines of Intense Weather
6 Lake Baikal: Earth’s Oldest Lake Provides
a Warming Signal
7 A Look at Puerto Rico’s Climate at a
Larger Scale
PART III—Geosystems Now:
8 Earth’s Migrating Magnetic Poles
9 The San Jacinto Fault Connection
10 Human-Caused Mass Movement at the
Kingston Steam Plant, Tennessee
11 Removing Dams and Restoring Salmon on the
Elwha River, Washington
12 Tsunami Warnings, Past and Present
13 Ice Shelves and Tidewater Glaciers Give Way
to Warming
PART IV—Geosystems Now:
14 Increasing Desertification and Political
Action—A Global Environmental Issue
15 Species’ Distributions Shift with Climate
Change
16 Invasive Species Arrive at Tristan da Cunha
17 Seeing Earth and Ourselves from Space
Be sure to read these as you begin each chapter. For
instance, “Ocean currents bring invasive species,” in Chap-
ter 4, tracks an oil-drilling platform left adrift in a storm
in the South Atlantic Ocean. Months later the platform
ran aground in Tristan da Cunha. The Geosystems Now in
Chapter 16 picks up the story with “Invasive species arrive
at Tristan da Cunha.” The rig was contaminated with
non-native species, introducing them to fragile Tristanian
marine ecosystems. The Elemental Geosystems approach
involves such connections and linkages across the chapters
and among Earth systems.

■ New within each chapter are Geo Reports, placed along
the bottom of pages. Geo Reports offer facts, events re-
lated to the discussion in the chapter, student action
items, and new sources of information, among other
items. There are 75 Geo Reports throughout the book,
with topics such as “Water in the Solar System,” “Why
do we always see the same side of the Moon?” “Outside
the airplane,” “Polar regions show greatest warming,”
“Icelandic ash caught in the jet stream,” “Research
aircraft dissect Hurricane Karl,” “Harvesting fog as
a water resource,” “The IPCC and the Nobel Peace
Prize,” “Earth on the scales,” “Large earthquakes af-
fect the entire Earth system,” “What is a bayou?” “The
Mediterranean Sea is getting saltier,” “Sea-wave am-
plification kills,” “Greenland Ice Sheet losses increas-
ing,” and “ The question of food and medicine.”
■ New to this edition and placed throughout the chap-
ters are 50 carefully crafted Critical Thinking items
to take you to the next level of learning, placing you
in charge of further inquiry. Included are such top-
ics as “Where are you?” “A way to calculate sunrise
and sunset,” “Looking at your surface energy budget,”
“Analyzing a weather map,” “Hazard perception and
planning: What seems to be missing?” “Thinking
through an action plan to reduce human climate forc-
ing,” “National landslide hazard potential,” “Review
and assessment of the post-Katrina Gulf Coast,” and
“Mutualism? Parasitism? Where do we fit in?” These
bring you directly into learning physical geography.
■ Seventeen updated and revised Focus Studies pursue
relevant topics to greater depth and are a popular fea-
ture of the Geosystems texts.
■ Placed at the end of the text for each chapter is a new
Geosystems Connection feature. In a brief paragraph,
we review what we covered in the chapter and what
is about to unfold in the next chapter, “bridging”
from one chapter to the next. The final Geosystems
Connection in Chapter 17 bridges to what comes next
beyond this course.
■ Climate change science is well established and affects
systems in every chapter of Elemental Geosystems. Part
of this revision effort further updates our extensive
climate change coverage throughout the chapters.
We present a new section on “Reasons for Concern”
to organize the climate discussion in Chapter 7. The
record year of warmth for land-surface temperatures
was 2010, and it tied 2005, with 2007 and 2009 close
behind—new monthly temperature records for land
and ocean were set. The decade of 2001–2010 was the
warmest decade in the entire record. 2011 is on track
to set new records. As an integrative spatial science,
physical geography is well equipped to analyze re-
lated impacts to Earth’s systems. Elemental Geosystems
presents all aspects of climate change and has since
the first edition in 1995.
■ Elemental Geosystems continues to embed Internet
URLs within the text. More than 200 appear in this
edition. These allow you to pursue topics of interest
PREFACE xvii
in greater depth or to obtain the latest information
about weather and climate, tectonic events, floods,
and the myriad other subjects covered in the book.
These operate as active links in the eText edition of
Elemental Geosystems.
■ New to this edition is MasteringGeography™. The
Mastering on-line homework and tutoring system
delivers self-paced activities that provide individu-
alized coaching, focus on course objectives, and are
responsive to each student’s progress. The assignable
content for MasteringGeography for Elemental Geo-
systems includes all the end-of-chapter questions from
the text as well as all test bank questions. Instructors
also can assign activities built around geoscience ani-
mations, Thinking Spatially and Data Analysis activi-
ties, Encounter Geosystems Google Earth™ activities,
MapMaster™ interactive maps, and more. Students
have access within MasteringGeography to a text-
specific Study Area with study resources including a
Pearson eText version of Elemental Geosystems, geo-
science animations, satellite loops, author notebooks,
additional content to support materials for the text,
photo galleries, geography videos, In the News RSS
Feeds, web links, career links, physical geography case
studies, flashcards, glossaries, quizzes, and more—all
at www.masteringgeography.com.
The Elemental Geosystems Learning/
Teaching Package
The seventh edition provides a complete physical
geography program for you and your teacher.
For You, the Student:
■ MasteringGeography with Pearson eText for
Elemental Geosystems as described for you above.
■ Applied Physical Geography—Geosystems in the
Laboratory, eighth edition (ISBN: 0-321-73214-6)
by Charlie Thomsen and Robert Christopherson of
American River College. The new eighth edition is
the result of a careful revision and includes updated
topographic maps and hands-on geographic infor-
mation system (GIS) activities that use ArcExplorer,
Java Edition for Education. Twenty-one lab exercises,
divided into logical sections, allow flexibility in pres-
entation. Each exercise comes with a list of key terms
and learning concepts linked to the parent text. We
integrate Google Earth™ KMZ exercises, available
on www.mygeoscienceplace.com, so you can actually
experience and manipulate topographic maps in sim-
ulated 3D as you work problems. Our manual comes
with its own complete glossary. A complete Solutions
and Answers Manual, eighth edition, is available to
teachers for download.
■ Companion web site for instant access to Applied
Physical Geography: Geosystems in the Laboratory. The
web site for Applied Physical Geography: Geosystems in
the Laboratory provides on-line worksheets as well as
xviii PREFACE

KMZ files for all of the Google Earth™ exercises rearranging parts and chapters as desired. In addition to
found in the lab manual. The web site also contains the learning tools just described in the student section,
an earthquakes and tectonics exercise that you can ex- the following materials are available to assist you—Have
plore using ArcExplorer, Java Edition for Education. a great class!
■ Encounter Geosystems Workbook and Premium ■ Instructor Resource Manual (on-line download only)
Website (ISBN: 0-321-63699-6): Encounter Geosys-
by Charlie Thomsen. The Instructor Resource Manual,
tems provides rich, interactive explorations of physi-
intended as a resource for both new and experienced
cal geography concepts through Google Earth™.
teachers, includes lecture outlines and key terms, addi-
All chapter explorations are available in print format,
tional source materials, teaching tips, and a complete
as well as on-line quizzes, accommodating different
annotation of chapter review questions. Available
classroom needs. All worksheets are accompanied by
for download from www.pearsonhighered.com/irc,
corresponding Google Earth™ media files, available
and in the Instructor Resources area of Mastering-
for download as part of MasteringGeography, and, for
Geography™.
those who do not use MasteringGeography, also from ■ TestGen® Test Bank (on-line download only) by
www.mygeoscienceplace.com.
Charlie Thomsen. TestGen® is a computerized test
■ Goode’s World Atlas (0-321-65200-2): Goode’s World
generator that lets you view and edit Test Bank ques-
Atlas has been the world’s premiere educational atlas
tions, transfer questions to tests, and print tests in a
since 1923—and for good reason. It features over
variety of customized formats. This Test Bank includes
250 pages of maps, from definitive physical and po-
approximately 3,000 multiple-choice, true/false, and
litical maps to important thematic maps that illustrate
short answer/essay questions. New to this edition,
the spatial aspects of many important topics. The 22nd
all of the questions are correlated with the National
edition includes 160 pages of new, digitally produced
Geography Standards, textbook key concepts, and
reference maps as well as new thematic maps on glo-
Bloom’s Taxonomy to help you better map the assess-
bal climate change, sea-level rise, emissions, polar ice
ments against both broad and specific teaching and
fluctuations, deforestation, extreme weather events,
learning objectives. The Test Bank is also available
infectious diseases, water resources, and energy pro-
in Microsoft Word® and is importable into Black-
duction. Your author served on the Editorial Advisory
board and WebCT. Available for download from
Board for this 22nd edition of Goode’s.
www.pearsonhighered.com/irc, and in the Instructor
■ Dire Predictions (978-0-13-604435-2): Reports
Resources area of MasteringGeography™.
from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ■ Blackboard Test Bank (on-line download only). The
evaluate the risk of climate change brought on by
Blackboard Test Bank provides questions for import
humans. In just over 200 pages, this practical text
into the Blackboard Learning System www.pearson-
presents and expands upon the essential findings in
highered.com/irc.
a powerful summary. Scientific findings that provide ■ Instructor Resource Center on DVD (0-321-80344-
validity to the implications of climate change are pre-
2). The Instructor Resource Center on DVD provides
sented in clear-cut graphic elements, striking images,
everything you need, where you want it. It helps make
and understandable analogies.
you more effective by saving you time and effort. All
■ Television for the Environment Earth Report
digital resources can be found in one well-organized,
Geography Videos on DVD (0-321-66298-9).
easy to-access place, and include
This three-DVD set is designed so you can visual- ■ All textbook images as JPGs, PDFs, and Power-
ize how human activities have affected the environ-
Point® slides;
ment and explores ways that individuals can mitigate ■ Preauthored PowerPoint® presentations, which
damage and work toward recovery. Topics range from
outline the concepts of each chapter with embed-
poor land management and the devastation of river
ded art and can be customized by you to fit your
systems in Central America to the struggle for elec-
lecture requirements;
tricity in China and Africa. These 13 videos recognize ■ Classroom Response System “Clicker” questions
the efforts of individuals around the world to unite
in PowerPoint® format, which are correlated
and protect Earth systems.
against the National Geography Standards,
Bloom’s Taxonomy, and key learning concepts of
For You, the Teacher: the textbook;
Elemental Geosystems is designed to give you flexibility ■ TestGen® software, providing questions and

in presenting your course. The text is comprehensive in answers, for both Macs and PCs;
that it is true to each scientific discipline from which it ■ Electronic files of the Instructor Resource Manual

draws subject matter. This diversity is a strength of physi- and Test Bank; and
cal geography, yet makes it difficult to cover the entire ■ Instructor resource content available completely

book in a semester. Elemental Geosystems is organized to on-line via the Instructor Resources section of
help you customize your presentation. You should feel www.pearsonhighered.com/irc or in the Instruc-
free to use the text based on your specialty or emphasis, tor Resources area of MasteringGeography™.

■ Aspiring Academics: A Resource Book for Graduate
Students and Early Career Faculty (0-13-604891-9).
Drawing on several years of research, this set of essays
is designed to help graduate students and early career
faculty begin their careers in geography and related
social and environmental sciences. This teaching aid
stresses the interdependence of teaching, research,
and service in faculty work.
■ Teaching College Geography: A Practical Guide for
Graduate Students and Early Career Faculty (0-13-
605447-1). This two-part resource provides a start-
ing point for becoming an effective geography teacher
from the first day of class. Divided in two parts, Part
One addresses “nuts-and-bolts” teaching issues. Part
Two explores being an effective teacher in the field,
supporting critical thinking with GIS and mapping
technologies, engaging learners in large geography
classes, and promoting awareness of international
perspectives and geographic issues.
■ Practicing Geography: Careers for Enhancing
Society and the Environment (0-321-81115-1).
This National Science Foundation–funded project
brings together members of the geography commu-
nity to discuss workforce needs, expectations, and
core competencies in professional geography, profil-
ing the professional applications of and opportunities
in geography today.
■ AAG Community Portal for Aspiring Academics
and Teaching College Geography. This web site is
intended to support community-based professional de-
velopment in geography and related disciplines. Here
you find activities that can be used in workshops, grad-
uate seminars, brown bags, and mentoring programs
offered on campus or within an academic department.
Available at www.pearsonhighered.com/aag/.
Acknowledgments
I thank my family for believing in this work, especially
considering our next generation: Chavon, Bryce, Payton,
Brock, Trevor, Blake, Chase, Téyenna, and Cade. When
I look into our grandchildren’s faces, I see why we work
toward a sustainable future.
I give special gratitude to all the students during my
30 years of teaching at American River College, for it is in
the classroom crucible that the Elemental Geosystems books
are forged. Special continued thanks to Charlie Thomsen
for his creative work and collaboration on the Encounter
Geosystems book, the Applied Physical Geography lab manual,
work on the MasteringGeography™ media and assessments,
and ancillaries—it is a continuing honor to be his col-
league. Thanks and admiration go to the many authors
and scientists who published research that enriches this
work. Thanks for all the dialogue received from students
and teachers shared with me through e-mails from across
the globe.
I offer a special thanks to Ginger Birkeland, Ph.D.,
my new collaborator on this edition and previous devel-
opmental editor, for her essential work, attention to detail,
PREFACE xix
and geographic sense. She is truly a valuable colleague and
makes the future of the Geosystems franchise look bright as
we view the path ahead.
Thanks to all the colleagues who served as review-
ers on one or more editions of each book or who offered
helpful suggestions in conversations at our national and
regional geography meetings; and thanks to Richard
Crooker, Kutztown University; David Butler, Texas State
University; and Debra Sharkey, Cosumnes River College,
for special reviews for this edition. I am grateful for the
generosity of ideas and sacrifice of time. Here is a master
list of our reviewers on all the Geosystems textbooks.
Philip P. Allen, Frostburg State University
Ted J. Alsop, Utah State University
Ward Barrett, University of Minnesota
Steve Bass, Mesa Community College
Stefan Becker, University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh
Daniel Bedford, Weber State University
David Berner, Normandale Community College
Trent Biggs, San Diego State University
Franco Biondi, University of Nevada, Reno
Peter D. Blanken, University of Colorado–Boulder
Patricia Boudinot, George Mason University
Anthony Brazel, Arizona State University
David R. Butler, Southwest Texas State University
Mary-Louise Byrne, Wilfred Laurier University
Ian A. Campbell, University of Alberta–Edmonton
Randall S. Cerveny, Arizone State University
Fred Chambers, University of Colorado–Boulder
Muncel Chang, Butte College, Emeritus
Jordan Clayton, Georgia State University
Andrew Comrie, University of Arizona
C. Mark Cowell, Indiana State University
Richard A. Crooker, Kutztown University
Stephen Cunha, Humboldt State University
Armando M. da Silva, Towson State University
Dirk H. de Boer, University of Saskatchewan
Dennis Dahms, University of Northern Iowa
Shawna Dark, California State University–Northridge
Lisa DeChano-Cook, Western Michigan University
Mario P. Delisio, Boise State University
Joseph R. Desloges, University of Toronto
Lee R. Dexter, Northern Arizona University
Don W. Duckson, Jr., Frostburg State University
Daniel Dugas, New Mexico State University
Kathryn Early, Metropolitan State College
Christopher H. Exline, University of Nevada–Reno
Michael M. Folsom, Eastern Washington University
Mark Francek, Central Michigan University
Glen Fredlund, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee
Dorothy Friedel, Sonoma State University
William Garcia, University of North Carolina–
Charlotte
Doug Goodin, Kansas State University
Mark Goodman, Grossmont College
David E. Greenland, University of North Carolina–
Chapel Hill
xx PREFACE
Duane Griffin, Bucknell University
Barry N. Haack, George Mason University
Roy Haggerty, Oregon State University
John W. Hall, Louisiana State University–Shreveport
Vern Harnapp, University of Akron
John Harrington, Kansas State University
Blake Harrison, Southern Connecticutt University
Jason “Jake” Haugland, University of Colorado–Boulder
Gail Hobbs, Pierce College
Thomas W. Holder, University of Georgia
David H. Holt, University of Southern Mississippi
David A. Howarth, University of Louisville
Patricia G. Humbertson, Youngstown State University
David W. Icenogle, Auburn University
Philip L. Jackson, Oregon State University
J. Peter Johnson, Jr., Carleton University
Gabrielle Katz, Appalachian State University
Guy King, California State University–Chico
Ronald G. Knapp, SUNY–The College at New Paltz
Peter W. Knightes, Central Texas College
Jean Kowal, University of Wisconsin– Whitewater
Thomas Krabacher, California State University–
Sacramento
Hsiang-te Kung, University of Memphis
Richard Kurzhals, Grand Rapids Junior College
Steve Ladochy, California State University–Los Angeles
Charles W. Lafon, Texas A & M University
Paul R. Larson, Southern Utah University
Robert D. Larson, Southwest Texas State University
Elena Lioubimtseva, Grand Valley State University
Joyce Lundberg, Carleton University
W. Andrew Marcus, Montana State University
Brian Mark, Ohio State University
Nadine Martin, University of Arizona
Elliot G. McIntire, California State University–
Northridge
Norman Meek, California State University–San
Bernardino
Leigh W. Mintz,California State University–Hayward,
Emeritus
Sherry Morea-Oaks, Boulder, CO
Debra Morimoto, Merced College
Patrick Moss, University of Wisconsin– Madison
Lawrence C. Nkemdirim, University of Calgary
Andrew Oliphant, San Francisco State University
John E. Oliver, Indiana State University
Bradley M. Opdyke, Michigan State University
Richard L. Orndorff, University of Nevada–Las Vegas
Patrick Pease, East Carolina University
James Penn, Southeastern Louisiana University
Rachel Pinker, University of Maryland, College Park
Greg Pope, Montclair State University
Robin J. Rapai, University of North Dakota
Philip Reeder, University of South Florida
Philip D. Renner, American River College
William C. Rense, Shippensburg University
Leslie Rigg, Northern Illinois University
Dar Roberts, University of California–Santa Barbara
Wolf Roder, University of Cincinnati
Robert Rohli, Louisiana State University
Bill Russell, L.A. Pierce College
Dorothy Sack, Ohio University
Randall Schaetzl, Michigan State University
Glenn R. Sebastian, University of South Alabama
Daniel A. Selwa, U.S.C. Coastal Carolina College
Debra Sharkey, Cosumnes River College
Peter Siska, Austin Peay State University
Lee Slater, Rutgers University
Thomas W. Small, Frostburg State University
Daniel J. Smith, University of Victoria
Richard W. Smith, Hartford Community College
Stephen J. Stadler, Oklahoma State University
Michael Talbot, Pima Community College
Paul E. Todhunter, University of North Dakota
Susanna T.Y. Tong, University of Cincinnati
Liem Tran, Florida Atlantic University
Suzanne Traub-Metlay, Front Range Community
College
Alice V. Turkington, University of Kentucky
Jon Van de Grift, Metropolitan State College
David Weide, University of Nevada–Las Vegas
Forrest Wilkerson, Minnesota State University,
Mankato
Thomas B. Williams, Western Illinois University
Catherine H. Yansa, Michigan State University
Brenton M. Yarnal, Pennsylvania State University
Stephen R. Yool, University of Arizona
Don Yow, Eastern Kentucky University
Susie Zeigler-Svatek, University of Minnesota
After all these years, the strength of a publishing team
remains ever essential. Continuing thanks to President
Paul Corey for his leadership since 1990 and to Frank
Ruggirello, Senior Vice-President and Editorial Director
for Geosciences, for his vision. Thanks to my editor Chris-
tian Botting for his guidance and for the attention devoted
to my Geosystems texts, and to the geosciences staff, Crissy
Dudonis, Anton Yakovlev, Kristen Sanchez, and Bethany
Sexton, for their careful attention. Maya Melenchuk, Photo
Research Manager, is a great addition to the team and a help
to us. Thanks to Managing Editor Gina Cheselka, Project
Manager Shari Toron, and Vice-President of Development
Carol Trueheart for their skills and continuing support.
My appreciation to Pearson Art Project Manager
Connie Long and to Jay McElroy and to designers Mark
Ong and the late Randall Goodall for such skill in a com-
plex art program and book design. To Maureen McLaugh-
lin, Marketing Manager, and Nicola Houston, Marketing
Assistant, and the many sales representatives who spend
months in the field communicating the Geosystems
approach. And thanks to all the staff for allowing us to par-
ticipate in the entire publishing process—I call them our
“Geosystems Team.”
My thanks for production coordination to Vice-
President of Higher Education Cindy Miller of Ele-
ment LLC for our friendship and sustaining care through

six books. And my appreciation for Production Editor
Suganya Karrupasamy for her ability to respond to my
feedback as she oversees manuscript, copy editing, com-
plex compositing, and page proofs. With so many changes
in this edition, her skills make it work. To copy editor
Sherry Goldbecker, proofreader Jeff Georgeson, and
indexer Robert Swanson I give an author’s thanks for con-
tinuing quality work.
As you read this book you will learn from more than
350 content-specific, beautiful photographs made by my
wife Bobbé Christopherson. Her contribution to the suc-
cess of Geosystems is obvious and begins with the spec-
tacular cover photo and title-page photo and continues
through the text. In addition, Bobbé processed all the
photos and satellite imagery in this text. Please visit the
four photo galleries at the MasteringGeography™ web
PREFACE xxi
site and learn more from her camera work. Bobbé is my
colleague, expedition partner, and best friend.
Physical geography teaches us a holistic view of the
intricate supporting web that is Earth’s environment and
our place in it. Dramatic global change is under way in
human–Earth relations as we alter physical, chemical, and
biological systems. My attention to climate change sci-
ence and applied topics is in response to the impacts we
are experiencing and the future we are shaping. All things
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and violinists could not play two or more notes with ‘one bow.’
Neither did they endeavor to conquer the technical difficulties of
playing on the G string. They made practically no use of the fourth
string until the end of the century. In addition, the instruments were
badly constructed, equipped with strings of inferior quality and tuned
in a low pitch, all of which militated strongly against purity and
accuracy of intonation. Hans Gerle (a flute player of Nuremberg), in
his 'Musica Teutsch, auf die Instrument der grossen und kleinen
Geigen’ (1532), advised that intonation marks be placed on the
fingerboard, and this naïve advice was in use as late as the middle of
the eighteenth century.[45]

The same writer points out that instrumentalists in improvising their

parts were prone to vie with each other in demonstrating their ability
as contrapuntists, a perfectly comprehensible habit, which must have
affected instrumental music in the sixteenth century as badly as the
vagaries of coloratura singers affected operatic music in the
eighteenth.

Gerle’s book, incidentally, contained a number of German, Welsh,

and French songs, and a fugue for four violins. Among other early
books on the violin mention may be made of these:

S. Virdung: Musica getuscht, 1511.

Judenkönig: A truly artistic instruction * * * of learning upon

the lute and violin, 1523. (Contains 25 numbers for violin and
flute.)

Agricola: Musica Instrumentalis, 1528. (Here the author refers

to the vibrato as a device that ‘makes the playing more
sweet.’)

La Franco: Scintille di Musica, 1533.

Silvestro Ganassi: Regola Rubertina che insegna suon di

Viola d’arco, 1543.
 Ludovico Zacconi: Prattica di Musica, 1592 (Zacconi stated
here that the compass of the violin was g-ciii).

M. Prätorius: Syntagma Musicum, 1619.

Touching upon the use of the violin in the sixteenth century there is
extant a wealth of historical references. From one of these, for
example, we gather that at a public festival in 1520 viols were used
to accompany songs. We may assume their popularity in England
from the fact that they were used in the family of Sir Thomas More
(1530), an ardent music lover, and that during the reign of Edward VI
the royal musical establishment increased the number of its viols to
eight. Violins were used at public performances in Rouen in 1558; at
a fête in Bayonne for dance music in 1565, and in a performance of a
Mass at Verona in 1580. In the year 1572 Charles XI of France
purchased violins from Cremona and a little later ordered the famous
twenty-four violins from Andrea Amati. In 1579, at the marriage of the
Duke of Joyeuse, violins were used to play for dances, and
Montaigne in his Journal (1580) refers to a marriage ceremony in
Bavaria, where ‘as a newly married couple went out of church, the
violinists accompanied them.’ From this passage of Montaigne we
may infer that, in Germany at least, the popularity of violin music was
not confined to the upper classes. It must be remembered, however,
that the terms ‘viola,’ ‘violin,’ ‘viol,’ etc., were often applied
indifferently to stringed instruments of various kinds, and in view of
this inaccurate nomenclature historical references must be accepted
with a certain amount of reserve.

We know little of the music that was played on the violin before the
last decade of the sixteenth century. Violins, we are aware, were
employed in ensembles, in orchestras, and in unison with voices, and
in looking for violin music we have not necessarily to consider
compositions written especially for violin. By way of illustration we
may cite a collection of French Dances (1617), published for
‘instruments,’ presumably for all kinds of instruments, and a
collection of ‘Songs’ edited in Venice (1539) bearing the remark ‘to
sing and play,’ and indicating no special instruments. Probably much
of this sort of music was played by violin. Among examples of
specific writing for the violin there has come down to us previous to
1539 a Fugue (Fugato rather) for four violins, composed by Gerle. It
is in four parts: Discant (first violin), Alto (second violin), Tenor (viola)
and Bass ('cello), perhaps the earliest specimen of a composition for
string quartet. The style is purely vocal, as we may see from the
theme:

There is no suggestion of the violin idiom in the piece and it throws

no light on the development of violin music. Cortecci and Striggio in
1565 scored their intermezzi for two gravecembali, violins, flutes,
cornets, trombones, and several other instruments. D’Etrée, an oboe
player, wrote down the common lively tunes which had been
previously learned by ear and published them in 1564. As a practical
musician he undoubtedly considered also the violin. In the
performance of Beaulieu’s Circe (1581) ten bands were used and in
the first act ten violin players in costumes appeared. The famous
violinist, Beaujoyeaulx (an Italian in the service of Henry III whose
real name was Baltasarini), wrote ballets (1584), dances, festival
music, and other compositions, which were very successful at the
court. Doubtless he played them himself. Castiglione in his
Cortigiano mentions a composition as being written for 'quattro viole
da arco’ which almost seems to indicate another specimen of early
string quartet. Toward the end of the century we meet with the Balletti
of Gastoldi and of Thomas Morley, some of which are printed without
words and may have been intended for instrumental performances.
Still, they are vocal in character and do not exceed the compass of
the human voice. Besides these, there are other compositions and
collections of dances, etc., that may be considered musical material
for violinists of the time. Most of them, however, deserve no detailed
notice.

Up to 1587 the leading instrument of the orchestra was the Cornetto

(German ‘Zinke,’ an instrument of wood, not of metal). The earliest
instance where the Cornetto alternates with the violins in taking the
lead and where a part was inserted especially for violino is to be
found in Concerto di Andrea e Giovanni Gabrieli—per voci e
strumenti musicali, 1587. Some of G. Gabrieli’s compositions,
however, are still in vocal style, but some are decidedly instrumental
in character, as we may see from the following illustrations.

and

From a Sonata à 3 (1615).

and

(Note the last example, where the intentional contrast between piano
and forte is distinctly indicated.)

In 1593 Florentino Maschera, one of the celebrated organists of his

time, published a book of ‘Songs to play’ (Canzoni a sonar). The
work consisted of seventy-one pieces which had family names for
their titles, a custom that was often repeated in the first half of the
sixteenth century. It is important to note that these pieces were
printed in separate parts, so that they may be considered as the first
specimens of independent though not direct writing for the violin.
These canzoni were vocal in character and there was little that
suggested instrumental technique. The style was that of the vocal
compositions of the time—contrapuntal.

A genuine and daring innovator in the field of violin music was

Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643), who in some violin passages went
up as high as the fifth position. Besides broadening the technique of
the left hand, he demanded tremolos for dramatic effects in
accompanying recitative:

This passage from Combattimento di Tanceredi e Clorinda (1624)

offered so many difficulties to the musicians that at first they refused
to play it. As we shall see presently, however, Monteverdi was not the
first to introduce this effect (cf. p. 381). Another of his new effects
was the introduction of the pizzicato, which he marked thus: Qui si
lascia l’arco, e si strappano le chorde con duo diti, and afterwards
Qui si ripiglia l’arco. That Monteverdi expected violins to produce a
crescendo with the bow is apparent with the instruction Questa ultima
note va in arcato morendo. ‘Monteverdi with his two violins “alla
Francese” in the score of Orfeo (the first printed reference to the
violin as an orchestral instrument in the modern sense), probably
meant nothing more than that the violins were to be in the fashion of
the French, but in place of accompanying a dance, the character
indicated in the opera was accompanied by two violins in a particular
part of its music.’[46] In other violin pieces by Monteverdi, as in his
Scherzi musicali and Ritornelle (1607), we see his superiority to his
contemporaries, just as in his Sonata sopra Sancta Maria detratta,
etc. (1610), he showed plainly his desire to improve violin music.
 III
The first attempt at independent violin composition was made by
Biagio Marini (1590-1660), maestro di cappella in Santa Eufemia in
Brescia and a court concert-master in Germany, who may be
regarded as the first professional composer-violinist. In his early
compositions the violin parts were not difficult for the players. There
were mostly half and quarter notes in slow tempi, displaying the
quality of vocal compositions, and without much use of the G string.
Witness the following example from his Martinenga Corrente (1622):

A passage from his Il Priulino Balletto e Corrente (marked canto

primo, secondo, and basso)

is more instrumental in quality, though the second part of the Balletto

reveals again the character of vocal music. The whole may be played
on the A and E strings. More violinistic passages are to be found in
his sinfonia La Gardana; for example:

Marini’s dance compositions are characteristic of all dance music at

the beginning of the seventeenth century. Among them, however, is
one that possesses particular interest for us from the fact that it is the
first extant composition marked distinctly ‘for violin solo.’ It is entitled
La Romanesca per Violino Solo e Basso (ad libitum), and has four
sections, each consisting of two parts. The first section, Parte prima,
has six measures in the first and second part; the second section has
five measures in the first part and six in the second. The form of the
third section is not so clear as that of the previous ones, although, as
we may see from the basses, the composer endeavored to give
clear-cut melodies. The same may be said of the fourth section,
where the figures are in the bass. The third section—terza parte in
altro modo—with new melodic and rhythmic material, has the
character of a dance. The violin part moves in figures of eight, and
there are sustained notes in the bass. The first few measures of each
section will serve as illustration.

Section I

Section II

Section III

Section IV
In his technique Marini does not go beyond the first position;
consequently the fluency of the melody suffers many a break, for
when he reaches the limit of the first position, he continues the
melody an octave lower. Yet he is responsible for several technical
innovations for the violin. He was the first to mark the bowing (legato
playing) and to introduce—seven years before Monteverdi’s
Combattimento—the coloring effect of the tremolo, thus:

Tremolo con arco.

Other innovations are to be found in his Sonate e Sinfonie Canzoni

(1629) where in a Capriccio ‘two violins play four parts’ (due violini
sonano quattro parti), thus:

and a ‘Capriccio to be played on the violin solo with three strings

after the manner of a lyre’ (Capriccio per sonare il Violino solo con tre
corde a modo di Lyra).

Besides Marini there were others who seriously endeavored to write

in a distinctive violin idiom. Before considering them we may mention
here Paolo Quagliati, who in his Sfera armoniosa (1623) made the
violin accompany the voices and used it also as a solo instrument
with the accompaniment of the theorbo in a toccata of the same
opus. The violin part usually consisted of sustained tones that were
to be embellished by the players according to the custom of the time.
Quagliati himself was not a violinist and this fact serves to explain the
simple technique of his violin parts.

Four years later Carlo Farina, a Saxon chamber virtuoso and concert
master, who may be termed the founder of the race of violin
virtuosos, published a composition for the violin, called Capriccio
stravagante. Here he strove toward new and unusual violinistic
effects. The very title, ‘an extravagant caprice,’ explains his object.
While the piece shows little improvement in form, the technique is
noticeably advanced. Farina goes to the third position and points out
how the change of position should be executed. Besides broadening
violin technique Farina was among the first to venture into the field of
realistic ‘tone painting.’ For he tried to imitate the whistling of a
soldier, the barking of a dog, the calling of a hen, the crying of a cat,
the sound of a clarinet and the trumpet. Farina’s experiments in tone-
painting were, however, rather the product of a desire for sensational
novelty than of a legitimate seeking after artistic expression. He lacks
the genuine qualities of a true artist.

Although Farina did not use the G string, and did not go further than
the third position, he recognized the power of expression latent in the
violin. Besides rapid figures of sixteenth notes and considerable
variety in bowing there are double stops:

and a series of consecutive chords with the instruction that it should

be executed with the stick of the bow:
It was also his idea—not at all a bad one—to mark double stops with
figures:

The fact that he found it necessary to give instruction for the

execution of double stops and tremolos, and the production of the
required effects in his imitations indicates that these devices were
entirely new in violin playing.

According to Gerber he published besides the Capriccio, a collection

of 'Sonatas’ and 'Pavanes’ (1628), which, if they existed at all, are
entirely lost. Of his other compositions (Dances, Arias) we possess
the first violin parts containing the melody. He used the G clef and
the term ‘violino.’

The compositions of Marini, Quagliati and Farina represent the

beginnings of independent violin solo music. The first to write
sonatas for violin solo was the violinist-composer Giovanni Battista
Fontana (1630). His works, compared with the sonatas of Gabrieli,
show a marked improvement in violin technique; they are
characterized by the same polyphonic style, but they are not so
conclusively vocal in character. The following selections will show the
great improvement in violin technique; they virtually comprise the first
‘runs’ composed for the violin:

From a Sonata for Violin Solo.

or
or

or

Fontana strove toward a broader form and in doing so he took a part

in the evolution of the later sonata. But he was not capable of fluent
and even expression, hence the effect of his works on the whole is
stiff and dry. We should not forget, however, that he lived during the
period of transition from the old tonal systems to the new, and that,
while he endeavored to write in the new style, the old one had not
lost its hold upon him. The result was awkwardness in modulation
and a general vagueness and uncertainty.

About the same time (1629) another composer, Bartolomeo Mont’

Albano, published his Sinfonie for one and two violins (and
trombones, with the accompaniment of the organ). These pieces are
incoherent and lack inspiration and power. Their value is far below
that of Fontana’s compositions. Mont’ Albano is only worthy of
mention as showing that Fontana was not absolutely alone in his
attempts to improve violin music. It may be noticed that he called his
compositions Sinfonie, meaning nothing more nor less than Fontana
meant in his sonatas—a proof that the technical terms at that time
were not yet strictly defined.
Great improvement in technique is obvious in the works of Tarquinno
Merula (1633). He used the G string freely, demanded skips from the
G to the E string, also tremolos, changes of position:

and octave passages:

Mont’ Albano’s music was thought out rather than invented and it
would give little pleasure to the modern ear. In the history of the
development of violin music these early compositions should be
considered simply as efforts or studies to advance violin technique
and musical form.

While Merula helped the progress of left hand technique, Marco

Ucellini (1669) made more demands on the bow, writing rapid thirty-
second notes for certain tremolo effects in his sinfonia entitled La
gran Bataglia.

A more pleasing musical quality is to be found in the sonatas of

Massimiliano Neri, who was the first to make a distinction between
the Sonata da chiesa and the Sonata da camera. In his Sonate e
Canzoni a quattro and in his Sonate da suonarsi con vari strumenti,
Neri followed the path of Gabrieli in writing for as many as twelve
instruments. The frequent change of time and the restless rhythm are
also reminiscent of Gabrieli’s peculiarities. Although Neri’s structure
of phrases and periods is more normal, his modulation more fluent,
and his music on the whole more agreeable to the modern ear than
that of Fontana and Merula, his works still belong to the practical
experiments of violin music, and are without great intrinsic merits.
The same may be said of the sonatas of Biagio Marini whom we
have already discussed. He may be termed one of the originators of
the cyclical form of the modern sonata, since his sonatas were in four
movements. The first, usually in slow tempo, was followed by an
Allegro, this by a longer or shorter piece that led to the last
movement (Allegro). While his style was still distinctly polyphonic, the
development of his motives was considerably more pleasing.
Improvement in harmony and modulation is found in the Sonate da
chiesa and Sonate da camera of Giovanni Legrenzi (1655), who did
not otherwise accomplish much in forwarding solo violin music.

Turning to Germany, it is to be regretted that the works, which, to

judge by their titles, might have shed some light on the development
of early violin music, are irretrievably lost to us. They are
Auserlesene Violinen Exercitium aus verschiedener Sonaten nebst
ihre Arien, Balladen, Sarabanden, etc., and Musicalische
Tafelbedienung von fünf Instrumenten, als zwei Violinen, zwei Violen,
nebst den General Bass, by Wilhelm Furcheim (1674), concert-
master at Dresden. The most important figure, among the earliest
German composers for the violin from the standpoint of technical
advance, is evidently Jacob Walter. His twelve Scherzi da violino solo
are in the style of the Sonate da Camera (Suite) or in the form of
variations. Eight of them are called sonatas, and contain three or four
movements, mostly in the same key but in a variety of tempi. From a
musical point of view most of Walter’s compositions are unattractive,
as the form is stiff, the rhythm awkward, modulation poor, and the
melody heavy and clumsy. His importance lies exclusively in the
advanced claims his writings make upon execution, for he ascends
as far as and writes many difficult double stops, chords, and
arpeggios. Walter was also fond of imitating other instruments, birds,
echoes, and so forth. In a set of variations we meet with imitations of
the guitar by playing pizzicato, of the pipes by going up high on the E
string, of fanfares by playing on the G string. In another composition
the imitation of the call of the cuckoo was his chief purpose; but we
would hardly recognize the cuckoo’s call, had he not in every case
taken the pains to mark the imitation. In another instance, in Hortulus
Chelicus, he endeavored to imitate the voice of some other bird. This
work as a piece of art is more valuable, since here he attempted to
write a duet for one violin. Another composition that is characteristic
of Walter’s musical ideas is a Capriccio, where the C major scale is
used as basso ostinato in forty-nine variations, as though the
composer wanted to give as many kinds of motions and figures as he
could.
Stradivarius at Work: Antonio Stradivari.
Walter was not an innovator in the art of tone painting, for Farina had
tried the same devices seventy years before. Still he cannot be
dubbed a mere imitator of Farina, though he was without doubt
strongly influenced by the latter. Walter’s technique is much more
advanced than that of Farina, but at the same time he shows little
improvement in a purely musical way.

IV
There is an obvious advance in musical value in the Correnti e
balletti da camera a due violini, 1666; Balletti, Sonate, 1667, 1669;
Correnti e capricci per camera a due violini e violone, 1683, and
other instrumental pieces by Giovanni Battista Vitali, 'sonatore di
Violino di brazzo’ in the orchestra of Bologna. Vitali’s melodies
contain much more pleasing qualities than those of his
contemporaries. In regard to form, his sonatas, in which rapid
changes from quick to slow movements mark the various sections,
show the transition from the suite to the sonata da camera. Vitali was
one of those early inspired composers, whose greatest merit lies in
their striving toward invention and toward the ideal of pure absolute
music. In technique Vitali does not show any material progress.

Of particular importance is Tommaso Antonio Vitali, a famous

violinist of his time. Of his works, Sonate a tre, due violini e
violoncello, 1693; Sonate a due violini, col basso per l’organo, 1693,
and Concerto di sonate a violino, violoncello e cembalo, 1701, the
most famous and most valuable is his Ciaccona, which is very often
played on the concert stage by present-day violinists. The Ciaccona
is full of poetic moods and its short, pregnant theme shows deep
feeling and genuine inspiration, qualities which we find here for the
first time. The whole is a set of variations upon a short theme,
constituting a series of contrasting pictures. Noteworthy are the
harmony and the advanced treatment of modulation. The ornamental
figures, too, are derived from the logical development of the theme,
hence do not serve the sole purpose of providing the virtuoso with an
opportunity to display his technical skill.

The first representative virtuoso-composer was Giuseppe Torelli

(1658-1708), to whom is ascribed the invention of the concerto, that
is, the application of the sonata form of his time to concerted music.
In Torelli’s concertos the solo-violins were accompanied not only by a
bass as in the sonatas, but by a stringed band, to which sometimes
a lute or organ was added. The solo-violins in his ‘Concerti grossi’
(1686) usually played together, though not always. That he had the
virtuoso in mind when he wrote may be gathered from the following
examples:
In his concertos Torelli was the direct precursor of Corelli, Vivaldi,
and Handel. His influence, however, was not so intense as that of
Giovanni Battista Bassani (1657-1716), whose music had more unity
and definiteness and on the whole ranked very much higher
artistically. This, added to the fact that he was Corelli’s teacher, gives
him a prominent place in the history of violin music. While the single
movements of Bassani’s sonatas on the whole show little
improvement in form, the composer established a higher standard in
the evenness and uniformity of his figures, in the smoothness of his
modulation and chromatics, in rhythms that were far superior to
those of earlier composers, in phrasing that was clear, especially in
slow movements, and in the almost complete abandonment of the
‘fugal’ treatment. His influence upon Corelli is so evident that one
could hardly distinguish one of his later compositions from an early
sonata of his famous pupil.

A few examples of Bassani’s writing may be of interest:

Grave. From a Sonata for two Violins and Bass.

 Largo. From a Baletto e Corrente.

Gige

Sarabande. Presto

Before closing our account of the seventeenth century, reference

should be made to the prominent Antonio Veracini, the uncle and
teacher of Francesco Maria Veracini, whose sonatas are still played
by violinists today. Antonio Veracini’s sonatas, composed in the form
of the sonata da chiesa, do not lack a certain amount of beauty,
inspiration, and repose; they show, moreover, clearness, fluency and
roundness. His melodies are original, his modulations and
contrapuntal combinations good. While his Allegro movements show
no improvement in comparison with Bassani’s works, the Adagios
and Largos are of more independent finish.

There were numerous contemporaries, followers, and pupils of the

composers already discussed. Their works, however, were
academic, lacked individuality, and contained little that was worthy of
special consideration. The list of these minor composers includes
Laurenti, Borri, Mazzolini, Bononcini, Buoni, Bernardi, d’Albergati,
Mazzaferrata, Tonini, Grossi, Ruggeri, Vinacesi, Zanata, and others.

V
The first German composer of violin music of æsthetic value was
Heinrich Ignaz Franz von Biber (born 1638), a very prominent
violinist and composer of his time. Although frequently his form is
vague and his ideas often dry, some of his sonatas contain
movements that not only exhibit well-defined forms, but also contain
fine and deeply felt ideas and a style which, though closely related to
that of the best Italians of his time, has something characteristically
German in its grave and pathetic severity. His sonatas on the whole
are of a much higher artistic quality than those of his
contemporaries. His sixth sonata, in C minor, published in 1687, is a
genuinely artistic piece of work. ‘It consists of five movements in
alternately slow and quick time. The first is an introductory largo of
contrapuntal character, with clear and consistent treatment in the
fugally imitative manner. The second is a passacaglia, which
answers roughly to a continuous string of variations on a short, well-
marked period; the third is a rhapsodical movement consisting of
interspersed portions of poco lento, presto, and adagio, leading into
a Gavotte; and the last is a further rhapsodical movement alternating
adagio and allegro. The work is essentially a violin sonata with
accompaniment and the violin parts point to the extraordinary rapid
advances toward mastery. The writing for the instrument is decidedly
elaborate and difficult, especially in the double stops and
contrapuntal passages. In the structure of the movements the fugal
influences are most apparent and there are very few signs of the
systematic repetition of keys which in later times became
indispensable.’[47] It was characteristic of Biber that his ambition was
to create something original and that his works always showed
individuality. He was fond of variations and this form was not lacking
in any of his eight sonatas. Besides the variation form he frequently
used the form of gavotte and giga, which he began and ended with