DNA: THE CODE OF

LIFE
Miss Digala
Location of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) in a cell
■ There are THREE places in an eukaryotic cell where DNA may be found:
• Within the nucleus and is referred to as nuclear DNA
• In mitochondria (mitochondrial DNA or mt DNA)
• In chloroplasts (chloroplast DNA) in plant cell
■ Mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA are referred to as
extra-nuclear DNA as they are found outside the nucleus
Location of Nuclear DNA
■ The nuclear DNA is found tightly intertwined forming
the major part of chromosomes
■ In non-dividing cells, chromosomes are not visible,
but appear as a mass of tangled threads known as the
chromatin network.
■ Only when a cell starts dividing, does the chromatin
network shorten to become visible as chromosomes
■ A chromosome consists of a number of short lengths
of DNA molecules (genes) that are joined together
■ Histones are small proteins that help wrap and
condense the DNA
Brief History of the Discovery of the DNA molecule
■ No one has actually seen DNA, our knowledge of the structure of DNA comes from a theoretical model put
forward by the scientists James Watson and Francis Crick
■ Watson and Crick teamed up and carried out their research and two other scientists Rosalind Franklin and
her assistant Maurice Wilkins were also working in researching the structure of DNA
■ Franklin realized that DNA was some sort of double helix from X-ray diffraction pictures she took
■ Wilkins disliked Franklin and showed these X-ray diffraction pictures to James Watson, this helped Watson
in his own research
■ Watson and Crick continued their research and found out that DNA contained similar amounts of adenine
and thymine and also similar amounts of cytosine and guanine
■ These similar amounts of adenine and thymine and also cytosine and guanine gave the idea of
complementary base-pairing (adenine always pair with thymine and cytosine with guanine)
■ Another significant aspect of their findings was that complementary base pairing allows DNA to make
exact copies of itself (see DNA replication later)
■ In 1953 Watson and Crick put forward their model of DNA which indicated that it was a double helix with
complementary base-pairs
■ Franklin died of cancer in 1958, in 1962 Watson, Crick and Wilkins who provided important X-ray
diffraction pictures were awarded the Nobel Prize for their work
■ If Franklin was still alive, it is likely that she would have been the third person to share the Nobel prize with
Crick and Watson NOT Wilkins
 Structure of DNA
■ Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is made up of smaller units (monomers) called nucleotides
■ Nucleotides are building blocks of nucleic acids
■ A nucleotide consists of three parts:
• A phosphate portion
• A sugar molecule (deoxyribose sugar)
• A nitrogenous base
■ There are four nitrogenous bases in DNA:
• Adenine which pairs with thymine
• Guanine which pairs with cytosine
■ Thymine and cytosine are known as pyrimidines (they have a single ring structure)
■ Adenine and guanine are known as purines (they have a double ring structure)
■ Since cytosine only pairs with guanine and adenine only pairs with thymine, they are called complementary
base pairs
■ The base pairs are held together by weak hydrogen bonds so that a double stranded structure results
■ There are two hydrogen bonds between adenine and thymine and three between guanine and cytosine
■ The ladder-like DNA molecule twist so that one strand coils around the other to form a double helix
■ The double helix is further coiled around bead-like protein called histones
Role of DNA
■ Nuclear DNA:

• controls the functioning of the cell,

• controls protein synthesis and hence, the formation of proteins, hormones and
enzymes.

• stores hereditary information and transmits this information from one

generation to the next

■ In chloroplast and mitochondria, DNA controls protein synthesis

 Genes and non-coding DNA
■ Genes

• Genes are short segments of DNA that carry the genetic code for the information of a particular
trait/characteristic such as hair type, eye color, tallness etc

• Genes may also carry the code for a particular protein, Proteins consist of long chains of amino acids and
the sequence of the amino acids is unique to each protein molecule. Those segments of DNA that code for
the production of amino acids are called exons, while those that do not code for the production of amino
acids are known as introns

■ Non-coding DNA (introns)

• Non-coding DNA sequences are components of an organism’s DNA that do not encode protein sequence
or some other characteristic

• Some non-coding DNA is transcribed into functional non-coding RNA molecules (e.g t-RNA)

• The amount of non-coding DNA varies greatly among species (e.g. over 98% of the human genome is non-
coding DNA)
 DNA replication
■ DNA replication if the process by which DNA makes an identical copy of itself

■ DNA replication occurs just before cell division (mitosis and meiosis), it occurs during interphase

■ Significance of DNA replication

• As a result of DNA replication, each an every chromosome within the cell is able to make an identical
copy of itself

• This increases the number of chromosomes so that they can be shared between the cells resulting
from cell division

• It enables the nucleus of the cell to split into two in such a way that each new cell produced has the
same number of chromosomes

• In mitosis, it allows for the resulting cells to be identical to each other and to that of the parent from
which they arose because of the identical copies made of the chromosomes
Process of DNA replication
 DNA profiling/fingerprinting
■ What is DNA profiling?
• DNA profiling is a method of identifying an individual by comparing his/her
DNA profile with another know DNA fingerprint
• DNA fingerprints are not really ‘fingerprints’, they are actually a pattern of
black bars left on X-ray film when an extract of DNA is put through a special
biotechnological process

■ How is a DNA profile made?

• DNA fingerprinting can be done using, Body tissue, Human hair that has its roots attached, Body fluids such as
blood, semen or saliva
• The sample is broken up into small pieces and these segments of DNA are marked with radioactive probes and
exposed on X-ray film
• The pattern of black bars left behind on the X-ray film is the DNA profile
• If the DNA profiles produced from two different samples match, the two samples are probably from the same
person
 DNA profiling/fingerprinting
■ Uses of DNA fingerprinting
➢ Diagnosis of inherited disorders
• DNA profiling is used to diagnose inherited disorders such as cystic fibrosis, hemophilia and sickle cell
anemia in new-born and unborn children
• Early detection helps medical staff and parents to prepare themselves for proper treatment of the
child
➢ Developing cures for inherited disorders
• Researchers use look for DNA profile patterns in many people with and without the disorder giving the
advantage of designing an eventual genetic cure for those disorders
➢ Biological evidence
• Police laboratories now use DNA profiles from biological evidence left at crime scenes to track down
criminals
• If the DNA profile obtained from the biological evidence such as blood, semen stains, hair or items of
clothing matches that obtained from a suspect, then we can safely conclude that the evidence came
from the suspect
➢ Identification of relatives
• DNA profiling can be used to find out whether a particular person is the father of a child or not
• Can be used to trace siblings who have been separated at birth
• Can be also used to identify people who have died and where their bodies cannot be recognised
Advantages and Disadvantages of DNA profiling
 RNA (Ribonucleic acid)
■ Structure of RNA
• RNA is similar to DNA except that:
• it is a single-stranded structure
• it is not coiled
• the sugar in it is ribose (not deoxyribose)
• Thymine has been replaced by Uracil
■ Location of RNA
■ There are THREE types of RNA:
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) found in the ribosomes in the
cytoplasm of the cell
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) which is found in the nucleus
of the cell, but later moves out of the nucleus and attaches
to the ribosome in the cytoplasm
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) found in the cytoplasm of the cell
■ Function of RNA
• All three types play role in protein synthesis (see later)
 Comparison of DNA and RNA
■ Similarities between DNA and RNA
• Both contain sugar alternating with phosphate
• Both contain the nitrogenous bases adenine, guanine and cytosine
• Both play role in protein synthesis
■ Differences between DNA and RNA:
 Protein synthesis
■ Protein synthesis is a process whereby proteins are manufactured in a cell.
■ Proteins are made up of a long chain of small units (monomers) called amino acids
■ All enzymes and most hormones are protein nature.
■ A protein type is determined by the number and sequence of amino acids in the chain
■ DNA controls the
synthesis of proteins
as follows:
 The genetic code
■ The sequence of nitrogenous bases on DNA determines the sequence of the bases on mRNA

■ The sequence of bases on mRNA determines the order in which the tRNAs are going to be attached
to mRNA

■ The sequence of tRNAs determine the order in which the amino acids are going to combine

■ The sequence in which the amino acids combine determines which protein is going to be formed

■ We therefore say that DNA carries the genetic code to determine which protein is going to be formed