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ECO-FRIENDLY
CORROSION INHIBITORS
ECO-FRIENDLY
CORROSION
INHIBITORS
PRINCIPLES, DESIGNING AND
APPLICATIONS
Edited by
Lei Guo
School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Tongren University, Tongren, China
Chandrabhan Verma
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Advanced Materials, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia
Dawei Zhang
University of Science & Technology Beijing, Beijing, China
Elsevier
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our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
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Publisher: Susan Dennis

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Cover Designer: Christian Bilbow
Typeset by Aptara, New Delhi, India

Contents
Contributors xi 3. Development process for eco-friendly

Preface xv corrosion inhibitors
MOHAMED RBAA, MOUHSINE GALAI, OMAR DAGDAG,
LEI GUO, BURAK TÜZÜN, ELYOR BERDIMURODOV,
Part 1 ABDELKADER ZARROUK, BRAHIM LAKHRISSI
Overview of industrial corrosion 3.1 Introduction 27

3.2 Process for development of eco-friendly synthesizing
and inhibition corrosion inhibitors 28
3.3 Process for development of eco-friendly extracting
1. General principles of industrial corrosion inhibitors 30
Conclusion 39
corrosion References 40
SHEERIN MASROOR
1.1
1.2
Introduction 3
Materials in industrial applications 3
Part 2
1.3 General principles or theories of industrial Industrial environments & corrosion
corrosion 4
1.4 Different types of corrosion in industries 5
inhibitors
1.5 Corrosion of metal in industries 10
References 12 4. Acidizing corrosion inhibitors
HAO LI, YUJIE QIANG, CHANDRABHAN VERMA
2. Corrosion prevention and
protection methods 4.1 Introduction of acidizing corrosion inhibitors 45
4.2 Acidizing inorganic corrosion inhibitor 46
SAMAN ZEHRA, MOHAMMAD MOBIN,
RUBY ASLAM 4.3 Acidizing organic corrosion inhibitor 46
4.4 New acidizing corrosion inhibitor 47
2.1 Introduction 13 Conclusion 52
2.2 Important considerations required for the corrosion References 53
prevention and control methods 14
2.3 Strategies of the corrosion prevention and control 5. Corrosion inhibitors used in alkaline
methods 18 environments
2.4 Methods of corrosion control 18 DAQUAN ZHANG, JUNYU YANG, PEI GAN, WENYUE ZHANG
Conclusion 25
Acknowledgment 26 5.1 Corrosion inhibitor used for alkaline metal-air
Useful books 26 battery 55
Useful websites 26 5.2 Corrosion inhibitors for rebar in concrete
References 26 reinforcement 64
v
vi Contents
5.3 Corrosion inhibitors in other alkaline media 65 8.5 Eco-friendly corrosion mitigation in the oil and
Summary and outlook 66 gas industry 116
Acknowledgments 67 8.6 Developing the corrosion inhibitor formulation 122
References 67 Conclusion 123
Useful links 124
6. Corrosion inhibitors in near neutral media References 124
K.R. ANSARI, AMBRISH SINGH, ABDULLAH K. ALANAZI,
M.A. QURAISHI 9. Vapor inhibitors for corrosion protection
K.R. ANSARI, AMBRISH SINGH,
6.1 Introduction 71 ABDULLAH K. ALANAZI, M.A. QURAISHI
6.2 Metals corrosion and their inhibition in a neutral
environment 72 9.1 Introduction 127
6.3 Heterocyclic corrosion inhibitors for neutral 9.2 Mechanism of VCI action 128
environments 72 9.3 Developed VCIs for ferrous and nonferrous
Acknowledgment 76 metals 130
References 76 9.4 Some important techniques used for corrosion
inhibition monitoring 133
7. Supramolecular corrosion inhibitors for 9.5 Advantages of VCIs 133
cooling water systems 9.6 Market growth 134
9.7 Methods of VCI application 134
BAOMIN FAN, HUA HAO
Acknowledgment 135
7.1 Introduction to supramolecular corrosion References 135
inhibitors 79
7.2 Preparation of supramolecular corrosion inhibitors 10. Inhibitors for microbiologically
via molecular recognition and self-assembly 82 influenced corrosion (MIC)
7.3 Assembly mechanism of the supramolecular LI FENG, HAILIN ZHU, XUEMEI MA, ZHIYONG HU,
corrosion inhibitor based on CDs 87 AMIR ZOMORODIAN
7.4 Characterizations of supramolecular corrosion
inhibitors 89 10.1 Introduction 137
7.5 Inhibition effect and mechanism of supramolecular 10.2 Microorganism species and MIC mechanism 138
corrosion inhibitors 99 10.3 MIC inhibitors 143
7.6 Supramolecular corrosion inhibitor used in Conclusion 149
industrial water treatment 105 References 150
Conclusions 109
Useful links 109 11. Corrosion inhibitors for Cu chemical
References 109 mechanical planarization (CMP)
BAIMEI TAN, LEI GUO, XINHUAN NIU, DA YIN, TENGDA
8. Corrosion inhibitors for oil and MA, SHIHAO ZHANG, CHENWEI WANG
gas systems
11.1 Benzotriazole (BTA) used for Cu CMP 155
BRAHIM EL IBRAHIMI
11.2 1,2,4-triazole (TAZ) used for Cu CMP 158
8.1 Well acidizing treatments in the oil and gas 11.3 2,2’-[[(methyl-1H-benzotriazol-1-yl) methyl]imino]
industry 111 diethanol (TT-LYK) used for Cu CMP 161
8.2 Materials used for well construction in the oil and 11.4 Other inhibitors used for Cu CMP 165
gas industry 112 11.5 The synergistic effects of mixed corrosion
8.3 Significance of corrosion and its associated agents inhibitor used for Cu CMP 165
in the oil and gas industry 113 Conclusions 167
8.4 Corrosion inhibitors and environmental Useful links 167
concerns 114 References 167
Contents vii
Part 3 15. Pharmaceutical drugs protecting metals

in aggressive environments
Modern environmentally friendly RUBY ASLAM, MOHAMMAD MOBIN, JEENAT ASLAM,
corrosion inhibitor systems AFROZ ASLAM
15.1 Introduction 229

12. Heterocyclic corrosion inhibitors with 15.2 Corrosion inhibitors 233
multianchoring groups 15.3 Drugs as corrosion inhibitor: Literature survey 234
15.4 Experimental validation 251
MOUHSINE GALAI, MOHAMED RBAA, K. DAHMANI,
BRAHIM LAKHRISSI, M. EBN TOUHAMI, LEI GUO 15.5 Limitations and future directions 252
Conclusions 257
12.1 Introduction 173 Acknowledgments 257
12.2 Corrosion inhibition review of quinoline Abbreviations 257
derivatives 175 Useful links 257
12.3 Example of a complete study on the use of two References 258
heterocyclic inhibitors 178
Conclusion 190 16. Plant extracts as environmentally
References 190 sustainable corrosion inhibitors I
XIN ZHANG, BOCHUAN TAN, WENPO LI
13. Pharmaceutical drugs as corrosion
inhibitors I 16.1 Preparation of plant extracts 263
HASSANE LGAZ, MUSTAFA R. AL-HADEETHI, RACHID SALGHI, 16.2 Experimental methods of plant extracts 265
HAN-SEUNG LEE 16.3 Mechanism of plant extracts 268
16.4 Recent advances of plant extracts 269
13.1 Introduction 195 16.5 Modification of plant extracts 274
13.2 General overview on drug synthesis and reuse 196 Summary and outlook 275
13.3 Application of drugs and expired drugs as References 277
corrosion inhibitors 199
Conclusions and future outlook 204 17. Plant extracts as environmentally
Acknowledgments 205 sustainable corrosion inhibitors II
References 205
ABHINAY THAKUR, HUMIRA ASSAD, SAVAŞ KAYA,
ASHISH KUMAR
14. Pharmaceutical drugs as corrosion
inhibitors II 17.1 Introduction 283
SHVETA SHARMA, RICHIKA GANJOO, 17.2 Prominent metrics for extract preparation 285
SHIMAA M. ELSAEED, ASHISH KUMAR 17.3 Plant extract as corrosion inhibitor 288
17.4 Mode of inhibitor adsorption on substrate 300
14.1 Introduction 211 17.5 Effect of temperature and concentration 301
14.2 Industrial applications of drugs as corrosion 17.6 Techniques to evaluate corrosion inhibition
inhibitors 211 efficiency 302
14.3 Experimental section 212 17.7 Advantage and disadvantages of green corrosion
Conclusion 222 inhibitors 305
Useful links 222 17.8 Future outlooks 305
References 223 Conclusion 306
Useful links 306
References 307
viii Contents
18. Amino acids and their derivatives as Conclusion 406

corrosion inhibitor Useful links 406
References 406
JEENAT ASLAM, RUBY ASLAM, AFROZ ASLAM
18.1 Introduction 311 21. Applications of nanomaterials

18.2 Classification and properties of amino acids 314 in corrosion inhibitors
18.3 Corrosion inhibition mechanism by amino YUQIN TIAN, QI CHEN, XIAOYA SUN, JIAJIA ZHU,
acids 314 RENHUI ZHANG
18.4 Literature survey on amino acids and their
derivatives 316 21.1 Introduction 411
18.5 Challenges and recent progress 319 21.2 Nanomaterials and nanocomposites 411
Conclusions 326 21.3 Nanoparticles as corrosion inhibitors 415
Abbreviations 326 21.4 Important issues related with anticorrosive
Websites related to the topic 326 nanomaterials 421
References 326 References 421
19. Ionic liquids as green and sustainable

corrosion inhibitors I Part 4
ELYOR BERDIMURODOV, ABDUVALI KHOLIKOV, KHAMDAM
AKBAROV, LEI GUO, NURBEK UMIROV, DAKESHWAR KUMAR
Emerging trends in corrosion
VERMA, MOHAMED RBAA, OMAR DAGDAG, RAJESH inhibition
HALDHAR, SAVAŞ KAYA
19.1 ILs as environmental-friendly corrosion 22. Modern testing and analyzing techniques

inhibitors 331 in corrosion
19.2 ILs are corrosion inhibitors for steel materials 333 CHONG ZHU, ZHAOSEN ZHOU, YANG ZHOU, BIN XIANG
19.3 ILs are corrosion inhibitors for copper 369
19.4 ILs are corrosion inhibitors for magnesium 22.1 Traditional used corrosion testing techniques 429
materials 374 22.2 Potential corrosion detection approaches 443
19.5 ILs are corrosion inhibitors for other metallic Conclusions 447
materials 378 References 447
19.6 Inhibition mechanism of ILs 382
Conclusions 382 23. Development of high temperature
Abbreviations 383
corrosion inhibitors
References 383
ABDOLREZA FARHADIAN, LEI GUO
20. Ionic liquids as green and sustainable 23.1 Introduction 451

corrosion inhibitors II 23.2 Plant extracts 452
RICHIKA GANJOO, SHVETA SHARMA, BHARMAL 23.3 Ionic liquids 461
A. SHABBIRBHAI, SHIMAA M. ELSAEED, 23.4 Amino acids 465
ASHISH KUMAR
23.5 Carbohydrates 466
23.6 Vegetable oils 472
23.7 Miscellaneous 475
20.2 ILs as corrosion inhibitors 394
Conclusions 478
20.3 Techniques for conducting corrosion experiments
Useful links 478
and deciphering the mechanism of corrosion 398
References 478
20.4 Contact angle measurements of ionic liquids 405
20.5 Mechanism for the corrosion inhibitive property
of ionic liquids 405
Contents ix
24. Smart corrosion inhibitor: Present status 26.3 Some electronic structure principles and rules for
and future scenario corrosion inhibition research 531
26.4 Molecular dynamics and Monte Carlo simulations
XINGWEN ZHENG, LEI GUO, DAWEI ZHANG
approaches in corrosion science 533
24.1 Introduction 485 26.5 The application of first-principles calculation
24.2 Controlled release inhibitor 486 approach 534
24.3 pH-responsive inhibitor 489 Conclusions 536
24.4 Ion exchange inhibitor 497 References 536
24.5 Other smart inhibitor 501
Summary and future scenario 502 27. Corrosion inhibition strategy:
References 502 Synergistic effects
PENG HAN, JIAWEI FAN, LINGHUI KONG, BUYUN ZHANG,
25. Controllable fabrication of carbon ZHIXUAN CHANG
dots based corrosion inhibitors with 27.1 Problems and challenges in the study of synergistic
fluorescence properties effect of corrosion inhibitors 539
YU ZHANG, BOCHUAN TAN, LEI GUO, MENGYUE ZHU 27.2 Advances of synergistic effect 543
27.3 Advances in theoretical research on synergistic
25.1 Corrosion inhibitor used for metal protection 505 effect of corrosion inhibitors 545
25.2 Introduction of carbon dots 508 27.4 Significance and prospect of synergistic effect of
25.3 Synthetic strategies of CDs 511 corrosion inhibitor 548
25.4 Corrosion inhibition performance of CDs 514 Abbreviations 549
Conclusions and outlook 521 References 549
Useful links 522
References 522
Index 553
26. Computational methods used in
corrosion inhibition research
SAVAŞ KAYA, AKPAN N. IKOT, ASHISH KUMAR, SELÇUK
ŞIMŞEK, MENGYUE ZHU, LEI GUO

26.2 Conceptual density functional theory
(CDFT) 529
Contributors
Khamdam Akbarov Faculty of Chemistry, National Brahim El Ibrahimi Department of Applied Chemis-
University of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, Uzbekistan try, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Ibn Zohr University,
Mustafa R. Al-Hadeethi Department of Chemistry, Aït Melloul, Morocco; Team of Physical Chemistry
College of Education, University of Kirkuk, Kirkuk, and Environment, Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Zohr Uni-
Iraq versity, Agadir, Morocco
Abdullah K. Alanazi Department of Chemistry, Shimaa M. Elsaeed Petroleum Applications Divi-
College of Science, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia sion, Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute (EPRI),
Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt
K.R. Ansari Center of Research Excellence in Corro-
sion, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Baomin Fan College of Chemistry and Materials
Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia Engineering, Beijing Technology and Business Uni-
versity, Beijing, China
Ruby Aslam Corrosion Research Laboratory, Depart-
Jiawei Fan Department of Materials Science and
ment of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering
Engineering, China University of Mining & Technol-
and Technology,Aligarh Muslim University,Aligarh,
ogy (Beijing), Beijing, China
India
Abdolreza Farhadian Department of Polymer &
Jeenat Aslam Department of Chemistry, College of
Materials Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Petro-
Science, Taibah University, Yanbu, Al-Madina, Saudi
leum Science, Shahid Beheshti University, GC, Tehran,
Arabia
Iran; Department of Petroleum Engineering, Kazan
Afroz Aslam Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Federal University, Kazan, Russian Federation
Science, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
Li Feng School of Chemical Engineering and Tech-
Humira Assad Department of Chemistry, Faculty of nology, North University of China, Taiyuan,
Technology and Science, Lovely Professional Uni- China
versity, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Mouhsine Galai Advanced Materials and Process
Elyor Berdimurodov Faculty of Chemistry, National Engineering, Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Tofaïl Univer-
University of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, Uzbekistan sity, Kenitra, Morocco
Zhixuan Chang Department of Materials Science Pei Gan School of Environmental and Chemical
and Engineering, China University of Mining & Engineering, Shanghai University of Electric Power,
Technology (Beijing), Beijing, China Shanghai, China
Qi Chen School of Materials Science and Engineer- Richika Ganjoo Department of Chemistry, Faculty
ing, East China JiaoTong University, Nanchang, of Technology and Science, Lovely Professional Uni-
People’s Republic of China versity, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Omar Dagdag Institute of Nanotechnology and Lei Guo School of Materials and Chemical Engineer-
Water Sustainability, College of Science, Engineering ing, Tongren University, Tongren, China
and Technology, University of South Africa, Johan- Rajesh Haldhar School of Chemical Engineering,
nesburg, South Africa Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, South Korea
K. Dahmani Laboratory of Organic, Inorganic Chem- Peng Han Department of Materials Science and Engi-
istry, Electrochemistry and Environment, Faculty of neering, China University of Mining & Technology
Sciences, Ibn Tofaïl University, Kenitra, Morocco (Beijing), Beijing, China
xi
xii Contributors
Hua Hao Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Mohammad Mobin Corrosion Research Laboratory,
Sciences, Beijing, China Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Engi-
Zhiyong Hu School of Chemical Engineering and neering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University,
Technology, North University of China, Taiyuan, Aligarh, India
China Xinhuan Niu School of Electronics and Information
Akpan N. Ikot Theoretical Physics Group, Depart- Engineering, Hebei University of Technology,
ment of Physics, University of Port Harcourt, Choba, Tianjin, China
Nigeria Yujie Qiang National Center for Materials Service
Savaş Kaya Sivas Cumhuriyet University, Health Safety, University of Science and Technology Beijing,
Services Vocational School, Department of Beijing, China
Pharmacy, Sivas, Turkey M.A. Quraishi Center of Research Excellence in Cor-
Abduvali Kholikov Faculty of Chemistry, National rosion, Research Institute, King Fahd University of
University of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, Uzbekistan Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Linghui Kong Department of Materials Science and Mohamed Rbaa Laboratory of Organic Chemistry,
Engineering, China University of Mining & Technol- Catalysis and Environment, Faculty of Sciences, Ibn
ogy (Beijing), Beijing, China Tofail University, Kenitra, Morocco
Ashish Kumar Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Rachid Salghi Laboratory of Applied Chemistry and
Technology and Science, Lovely Professional Uni- Environment, ENSA, University Ibn Zohr, Agadir,
versity, Phagwara, Punjab, India Morocco
Brahim Lakhrissi Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Bharmal A. Shabbirbhai Department of Chemistry,
Catalysis and Environment, Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Faculty of Technology and Science, Lovely Profes-
Tofail University, Kenitra, Morocco sional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Han-Seung Lee Department of Architectural Engi- Shveta Sharma Department of Chemistry, Faculty of
neering, Hanyang University ERICA, Sangrok-gu, Technology and Science, Lovely Professional Uni-
Ansan, Korea versity, Phagwara, Punjab, India
Hassane Lgaz Department of Architectural Engi- Ambrish Singh School of New Energy and Materi-
neering, Hanyang University ERICA, Sangrok-gu, als, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu,
Ansan, Korea Sichuan, China
Hao Li National Center for Materials Service Safety, Xiaoya Sun School of Materials Science and Engi-
University of Science and Technology Beijing, neering, East China JiaoTong University, Nanchang,
Beijing, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Materials People’s Republic of China
and Related Technologies, Zhejiang Key Laboratory
Baimei Tan School of Electronics and Information
of Marine Materials and Protective Technologies,
Engineering, Hebei University of Technology,
Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engi-
Tianjin, China
neering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo,
China Bochuan Tan School of Chemistry and Chemical
Wenpo Li School of Chemistry and Chemical Engi- Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
neering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China Abhinay Thakur Department of Chemistry, Faculty
Xuemei Ma School of Chemical Engineering and of Technology and Science, Lovely Professional Uni-
Technology, North University of China, Taiyuan, versity, Phagwara, Punjab, India
China Yuqin Tian School of Materials Science and Engi-
Tengda Ma School of Electronics and Information neering, East China JiaoTong University, Nanchang,
Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, People’s Republic of China
Tianjin, China M. Ebn Touhami Advanced Materials and Process
Sheerin Masroor Department of Chemistry, A.N. Engineering, Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Tofaïl Univer-
College, Patliputra University, Patna, Bihar, India sity, Kenitra, Morocco
Contributors xiii
Burak Tüzün Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Renhui Zhang School of Materials Science and Engi-
Science, Sivas Cumhuriyet University, Turkey neering, East China JiaoTong University, Nanchang,
Nurbek Umirov Faculty of Natural Sciences, Karshi People’s Republic of China
State University, Karshi, Uzbekistan Dawei Zhang University of Science & Technology
Chandrabhan Verma Interdisciplinary Research Beijing, Beijing, China
Center for Advanced Materials, King Fahd University Yu Zhang School of Chemistry and Chemical Engi-
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia neering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
Dakeshwar Kumar Verma Department of Chemis- Buyun Zhang Department of Materials Science and
try, Government Digvijay Autonomous Postgradu- Engineering, China University of Mining & Technol-
ate College, Rajnandgaon, Chhattisgarh, India ogy (Beijing), Beijing, China
Chenwei Wang School of Electronics and Informa- Xingwen Zheng School of Chemical and Environ-
tion Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, mental Engineering, Sichuan University of Science &
Tianjin, China Engineering, Zigong, China
Bin Xiang School of Chemistry and Chemical Engi- Zhaosen Zhou Analytical and Testing Centre of
neering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China Chongqing University, Chongqing University,
Junyu Yang School of Environmental and Chemical Chongqing, China; Henan Chemical Technician
Engineering, Shanghai University of Electric Power, College, Henan, China
Shanghai, China Yang Zhou Analytical and Testing Centre of Chongq-
Da Yin School of Electronics and Information Engineer- ing University, Chongqing University, Chongqing,
ing, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin, China China
Abdelkader Zarrouk Laboratory of Materials, Nan- Hailin Zhu School of Chemical Engineering and
otechnology and Environment, Mohammed V Uni- Technology, North University of China, Taiyuan,
versity, Faculty of Sciences, Rabat, Morocco China
Saman Zehra Corrosion Research Laboratory, Jiajia Zhu School of Materials Science and Engineer-
Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Engi- ing, East China JiaoTong University, Nanchang,
neering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, People’s Republic of China
Aligarh, India Chong Zhu School of Chemistry and Chemical
Daquan Zhang School of Environmental and Chemi- Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing,
cal Engineering, Shanghai University of Electric China
Power, Shanghai, China Mengyue Zhu School of Materials Science and Engi-
Wenyue Zhang School of Environmental and Chemi- neering, East China Jiaotong University, Nanchang,
cal Engineering, Shanghai University of Electric China
Power, Shanghai, China Amir Zomorodian Department of Engineering,
Shihao Zhang School of Electronics and Information University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United
Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Kingdom
Tianjin, China Selçuk Şimşek Sivas Cumhuriyet University,
Xin Zhang School of Chemistry and Chemical Engi- Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, Sivas,
neering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China Turkey
Preface
It is well-known that corrosion has a huge eco- inhibitors have been presented and their poten-
nomic, environmental, and sustainability tial applications in various industrial fields
impact on virtually all facets of metallic materi- were also discussed.
als, including power facilities, integrated cir- The book is divided into different parts,
cuits, chemical industries, desalination, bridges, where each part contains multiple chapters.
oil and gas pipeline, etc. Annual costs of corro- Part 1 “Overview of industrial corrosion and
sion and its consequences are estimated in the inhibition” covers topics such as general prin-
region of 3–5% of GDP for industrialized coun- ciples of industrial corrosion, corrosion preven-
tries of the world. Most of all, the disposal and tion, and protection methods, and the
further substitution of the damaged elements development process for ecofriendly corrosion
involve an additional consumption of energy inhibitors. Part 2 “Industrial environments &
and resources. To face and solve this challenge, corrosion inhibitors” entirely focuses on the
an increasing number of studies have focused application of corrosion inhibitor in acidizing,
on environmentally friendly, renewable, and alkaline, and near neutral media, as well as the
efficient corrosion inhibitors, which are promis- inhibitors for cooling water systems, oil and gas
ing alternatives to toxic corrosion inhibitors, in systems, and chemical mechanical planariza-
order to control corrosion damage in diverse tion. Part 3 “Modern environmentally friendly
corrosive environments. These materials range corrosion inhibitor systems” is specific about
from plant extracts to amino acids, expired the corrosion inhibitors based on pharmaceuti-
drugs, ionic liquids, carbohydrate polymers, cal drugs, plant extracts, amino acids, ionic
and zero-dimensional carbon quantum dots. liquids, nanomaterials, and synthetic com-
Although the subject of corrosion inhibition has pounds. Part 4 “Emerging trends in corrosion
been a conventional research topic over the past inhibition” gives a description of modern
few decades, more advanced knowledge is still testing and analyzing techniques in corrosion,
required to win the battle. A comprehensive the smart and high temperature corrosion
understanding of this phenomenon will guar- inhibitors, the synergistic inhibition strategy,
antee an improved design to reduce the dra- and computational methods used in corrosion
matic consequences. inhibition research.
In this regard, the present book aims to shed Overall, this book is written via a scientific
more light on the recent progress and advances summary of modern corrosion inhibitors, and
on the usage of green and sustainable inhibitors is prepared for graduate students, researchers,
to protect metallic materials against corrosion as well as practitioners in multiple industries
in different corrosive conditions, such as acidic, who require comprehensive knowledge of this
neutral, alkaline, and sweet/sour environ- aspect. The editors and contributors are well-
ments. A wide range of ecofriendly corrosion known scientists with many years of research
xv
xvi Preface
experience in corrosion inhibitors. Thank all the cal support for future research and innovation
hard-working project managers and acquisi- in the field of corrosion inhibition.
tions editor of this book for their enthusiasm
and help in the publishing process. We would Lei Guo
like to thank Elsevier for publishing this book, Chandrabhan Verma
which can provide theoretical basis and techni- Dawei Zhang
P A R T 1
Overview of industrial corrosion

and inhibition
1 General principles of industrial corrosion 3
2 Corrosion prevention and protection methods 13
3 Development process for eco-friendly corrosion inhibitors 27
C H A P T E R
1
General principles of industrial
corrosion
Sheerin Masroor
Department of Chemistry, A.N. College, Patliputra University, Patna, Bihar, India
1.1 Introduction warming and greenhouse emissions, all inter-

related phenomena. This chapter presents
The economic development of any region, important aspects of corrosion in industrial
state or country, depends not only on its natural infrastructure, its causes, impacts, control, pro-
resources and productive activities, but also on tection and prevention methods.
the infrastructure that account for the exploita-
tion, processing, and marketing of goods. Irriga-
tion systems, roads, bridges, airports, maritime, 1.2 Materials in industrial applications
land and air transport, school buildings, offices
and housing, industrial installations are affected Earthly materials always keep an important
by corrosion and therefore susceptible to dete- point which is for good development of any
rioration and degradation processes. economy we are living, that further be sustained
Corrosion is a worldwide crucial problem globally. The usage of metal depends upon the
that strongly affects natural and industrial envi- characteristic properties it is having and its
ronments. Today, it is generally accepted that important applications that it may be having in
corrosion and pollution are interrelated harmful society. Few were summarized below:
processes since many pollutants accelerate cor- In the line of any metal production from its
rosion and corrosion products, such as rust, also ore, multiple processes applied are mineral
pollute water bodies. Both are pernicious pro- mining, manufacturing with application along
cesses that impair the quality of the environ- with production of various solids, liquids, and
ment, the efficiency of the industry and the gases that are having great impact on the society
durability of the infrastructure assets. Therefore, and environment.
it is essential to develop and apply corrosion For specific industrial progress, in general the
engineering control methods and techniques. metal and materials are produced in such a way
Other critical problems, that impact on infra- that they will not affect the environment at
structure and industry are climate change, global greater level [1–7]. The metals or materials can
Eco-Friendly Corrosion Inhibitors

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-91176-4.00013-1 3 Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
4 1. General principles of industrial corrosion
be selected for production on the basis of their Processed Material → Different Application of
demand or consumption inducing in the market. Materials → Waste Material → Recycling of
There are many approaches to carry out these Materials.
things. The most general way is to research the In the basic steps involved for mineral
materials and apply them as per their use in extraction, the effluents of carbon, nitrogen,
recommended technology. It can also to be note sulfur and compounds such as NOx, SOx and
that the materials which are allowed to recycle COx may come from different machines and
mainly requires very less capital and energy equipment’s. These all fill the land and under-
consumption, alternatively needs more man- ground water. This contamination may also
power for basic processing. In addition, the cause severe corrosion of metals or alloys
price of pollution control mainly happens to be present in vicinity.
low as required for primary processing’s
[8–10].
Also, the costs of pollution control are lower 1.3 General principles or theories of
than those required for primary processing of industrial corrosion
minerals. Recycling becomes more intense, as
economies tend to be more sophisticated, since There are three general principles or theories
viable quantities of recycled material must be to be follow for corrosion to happen in any
available for reuse [11]. medium for metal or alloys:
Industries produce various things of our
Acid theory of corrosion
daily use during processes waste material is
Dry or chemical theory of corrosion
generated, these are those parts of material that
Galvanic or Electrochemical or Wet theory
was left aside, during the production steps.
of corrosion
They may be named as Effluent, having waste
that comes from the procedures attached to the Acid theory of corrosion:
technology in various step of production in This theory mostly explains corrosion for that
addition with main material. So many industrial metals or alloys which is in the vicinity of acid.
processes such as recovering metal from their As per this theory, metal (iron) is specifically
ore involves much technological steps which corroded by carbon-di-oxide, water (moisture)
may vary in different countries such as eco- and oxygen. Products of corrosion includes
nomic, financial aspects with regulatory laws. mixture of Fe (HCO3)2, Fe (OH)CO3 and Fe
This explains how environmental impacts vary (OH)3. The ongoing reactions for the corrosion
much around the globe. The refinement of metal are given below:
from depends upon its quality, i.e., if the ore
contains very low amount of metal and needs Fe + 2CO 2 + H 2 O + 1 2 O 2 → Fe ( HCO 3 )2
multiple steps to recover. This all increases the 2Fe ( HCO 3 )2 + H 2 O + 1 2 O 2 → 2Fe(OH)CO 3
cost of recovery and also needs huge amount of
+ 2CO 2 + 2H 2 O
raw mineral material. In addition of these things,
energy applied is also in much need. The other 2Fe ( OH ) CO 3 + 2H 2 O → 2Fe ( OH )3 + 2CO 2
processes involve mechanical or physical
removal of rock, transportation of material from This theory is supported by the analysis of
mines, concentration of ore at specific place. The rust that gives the test for CO2 ion.
flow chart for material cycle is given here: Dry or chemical theory of corrosion:
Raw Material Resource → Material Extrac- This type of corrosion mainly occurs on the
tion → Material Processes → Different Forms of surface of metal and happens due to reactions
Part 1 Overview of industrial corrosion and inhibition

of gases present in atmosphere such as oxygen, Wet or Electrochemical theory of corrosion This
halogens, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, hydro- form of corrosion may occur when the metal
gen sulphide, and fumes of chemicals along comes in contact with any form of conducting
with metal. liquid or when two dissimilar metals are immersed
There are three general types of dry corrosion or dipped partly in a solution. Here there is the
which are given below: formation of a galvanic cell on the surface of
metals. Some parts of the metal surface act as
Oxidation corrosion (reaction with oxygen)
anode while other acts as cathode. The chemical
Corrosion by other gases, such as Cl2, SO2,
present in the environment and humidity percent-
H2S, NOx
age acts as an electrolyte. The oxidation of anodic
Liquid metal corrosion
part takes place and it results in corrosion at
Oxidation corrosion (Reaction with oxygen): anode, while reduction takes place at cathode. The
As various metals directly make reactions in corrosion product is formed on the surface of the
presence of oxygen and in absence of moisture. metal between anode and cathode.
Examples are alkali and alkaline earth metals
that reacts with oxygen present at standard tem-
perature and generate oxides of corresponding 1.4 Different types of corrosion in
metals. In return metal oxides are in process of industries
making a thin film over metallic surface which
further protects metal to undergo corrosion. So, The basic corrosion involves some electro-
the metal oxide always plays a major role in the chemical reactions that lead to oxidation of
process of corrosion. metal atom into the metal ions releasing elec-
trons at anode; those electrons were further con-
M → M + ne − ( n = 1) (1.1) sumed at cathode during simultaneous
− − reduction reaction. This can be known by given
1 O 2 + 2e → O (1.2)
2
reactions:
The anodic corrosion reactions:
Combining Eq. 1.1 and 1.2.
2M + 1 2 O 2 → M 2 O Fe → Fe2 + + 2e −
Corrosion by gases such as Cl2, SO2, H2S, NOx Zn → Zn 2 + + 2e −

If the atmosphere is dry, so the gases like Cl2, The cathodic corrosion reactions:
SO2, H2S, NOx may react with metal and alloys
to form corrosion products which may be pro- 2H + + 2e − → H 2
tective or non-protective in nature. H 2 O + 1 2 O 2 + 2e − → 2OH −
Chlorine gas do react with silver (Ag) to form
silver chloride (AgCl) which may acts as protec- O 2 + 4H + + 4e − → 2H 2 O
tive layer. That specific site where metal atoms release
Liquid metal corrosion: electrons is called the anode while the site where
In different industries, metal in molten form electrons are consumed to the reducing species
which passes through metallic pipes happen to is called the cathode.
cause corrosion might be due to dissolution or Corrosion can be considered as an electro-
due to internal penetration. The metal like liquid chemical process where flow of electric current
mercury usually dissolves most other metals to along with the chemical reactions goes on simul-
form amalgams, which alternatively corrodes taneously. Some general types of corrosion are
them. given here:

1.4.1 General or uniform corrosion TABLE 1.1 Metal and their uses in society.
It is a kind of corrosion occurring in indus- S. Material/

No substance Specific property Uses
tries where the metal is degraded uniformly
over a wide area of the metal surface which 1. Metals or alloys Mechanically Infrastructure,
iron carbon hard jewelery,
leads to thinning of substance. Here the rate of
or stainless- decorative
corrosion is indisputably calculated. The mate- steel assets, coins,
rial, which mainly undergo uniform corrosion non-ferrous transportation,
are equipment’s, different machineries, and alloys aircraft, tanks
industrial structures that are made up of carbon 2. Polymers Low dense, Textiles, packag-
steel and cast iron. This deprivation due to plastic rubber corrosion ing, stationary,
uniform corrosion may be decreased by apply- resistant paint, construc-
tion, aircraft
ing pertinent maintenance and reformation
approaches. The various schemes involve use of 3. Ceramics glass Hard, Pottery, titles,
silica temperature, bricks, cements,
inhibitors, paint, coating, and cathodic protec-
alumina and corrosion glass, cutting
tion which remarkably diminishes uniform cor- metallic resistant tools, refractory
rosion. The easiest way to calculate rate of carbides furnaces
corrosion is by utilizing gravimetric/weight loss 4. Composites Hard with high Aircraft compo-
measurements and electrochemical techniques. strength, light nent, construc-
in weight tion, car bodies
1.4.2 Galvanic/bimetallic corrosion By this we can simply say, the anode is disman-
It occurs when the dissimilar metals or alloys tled but the cathode is sheltered.
are joined together via electric circuit in the com- As described earlier, a hydrogen film is
panionship of an electrolyte. Most important formed on the cathode or carbon rod that helps
example comes from a cell, where anode is made cathode to insulate from the electrolytic solution
from zinc which is placed in electrolyte carrying and further stops flow of current. This happens
ions of zinc. Further these zinc ions are dis- to stop corrosion, as the formation of hydrogen
solved in the provided electrolyte, so that the film on the cathode took place. Corrosion starts
exchange of hydrogen ions can occur. While the as soon as this layer if detach from the cathode.
ion’s flow through the electrolyte to produce In the case of cell or battery, the zinc case is
electric current via carbon rod which acts as easily attacked and the carbon is protected. This
cathode. At this position the hydrogen ions are causes any metal to be attacked if present in
mostly deposited over the surface of the carbon circuit and will not attacked when in circuit with
rod as hydrogen gas. In addition, if hydrogen another. By different experiments and researches
gas remains intact on the carbon rod it will act a table was made earlier, called as Galvanic
as an insulator, which terminates flow of current. Series wherein a metal present above can be
This is called as Polarization, which is formation attacked by another metal present below in list
of the film, while its removal is named as Depo- when present in common electrolytic environ-
larization. Here the current flow’s is from zinc ment like moist soil or water. The metal or alloys
anode to the electrolyte, to the carbon rod present above are more susceptible to corrosion
cathode and back to the metal zinc via external or less noble compared to below present in table,
wire which is connected to the battery. As the which are least susceptible to corrosion or con-
current starts flowing in this circuit, the zinc is sidered as more noble, the table is shown below
decreasing while the carbon remains unharmed. as Table 1.2.

TABLE 1.2 Metal or alloys present in Galvanic series. TABLE 1.3 Specific use of metal in industries.
S. No Metal or alloys S. No Metal Specific use
1. Magnesium or magnesium alloys 1. Silver Shielded coating in cables, contact
relays, and EMI gaskets
2. Zinc
2. Gold Coating /foil, circuits, miniature
3. Aluminum 2S
circuits
4. Cadmium
3. Magnesium Alloys of radar antenna, brackets
5. Aluminum 17ST Anodic or
corroded end 4. Iron Machinery components, magnetic
6. Steel or iron shielding, magnetic coating,
7. Cast iron disk
8. Chromium-iron (active) 5. Aluminum Armor equipment, mounting

frames, brackets
9. Ni-Resist
6. Copper Cables, tablets, circuits, nuts and
10. 18-8 Stainless steel (active) bolts, RF packaging
11. 18-8-3 Stainless steel (active) 7. Cadmium Sacrificial protective coating on

iron and electrical connectors
12. Hastelloy A 8. Nickel Coating layer for copper and gold
13. Hastelloy B components, electromagnetic
interference applications
14. Brass
9. Tin Corrosion protection of welding,
15. Copper electrical connectors, RF
16. Bronzes shielding filter, automatic
switching mechanism, welding,
17. Copper-nickel alloy
binding
18. Monel
19. Silver solder
Cathodic or develops this corrosion. Where the creviced area
20. Nickel (passive) behaves as anode, while left over surface/larger
protected end
21. Inconel (passive) area/bulk solution acts as cathode. This further
22. Chromium-iron (passive) enhances the corrosion reactions taken place
23. 18-8 Stainless steel (passive) around crevice. If any salt is added to the acidic
24. 18-8-3 Stainless steel (passive)
conditions, corrosion accelerates. Example is Fili-
form corrosion. This corrosion in industries can be
25. Silver
corrected by designing specifically for use and
26. Graphite avoiding sharp corners. Regular ablution of
27. Gold deposits and nonstagnant solution may be helpful
28. Platinum to decrease crevice corrosion.
1.4.3 Crevice corrosion 1.4.4 Pitting corrosion

This specific type of corrosion which occurs in It’s a unique type of corrosion where there is
industries occurs in machineries where different formation of small pin holes at various places.
kind of parts are made having different geome- Harsh perforation of the material causes leakage.
tries like joints, threaded, bolted or any irregular Generally, the material-environment duo can
shape. The interaction between metal and non- make defensive passive film on the case copy
metal such as under the spacers or gaskets also may suffer this corrosion. In turn the existence

of halide anions such as chlorides and thiosul- austenitic steel at higher temperature which
fate ions may enter the suspected area and ranges from 482-760°C, there is formation of
bruise the passive layer and cause pin hole cor- chromium carbide Cr23C6 along the grain bound-
rosion. Pits become aggressively acidic with aries. That causes overall depletion of chromium
elevated concentration of chloride compared to and hence lost corrosion resistance. The ongoing
bulk mixture. The reactions of pitting corrosion process is called as Sensitization. This process
are so similar to that of crevice corrosion. This is generally occurs in industries at the time of
very common in industries. We can eliminate welding operations, solution annealing and
this corrosion by selecting pitting resistant stress relieving processes. Intergranular corro-
alloys. Researchers can check failure due to sion can also be called best as Weld Decay
pitting by knowing Pitting Resistance Equiva- because sensitization is occurring at the heat
lent (PRE) Index by given formula: affected zones (HAZ) which were developed in
between weld joints. The intergranular corro-
PRE = 1 × % Chromium + 3.3 ×
sion of austenitic steel can be eliminated by
% Molybdenum + 16 × % Nitrogen.
putting strong carbide formers and also by
Some values of PRE index of some metal are:
decreasing carbon content in stainless steel
AISI 316 stainless steel = 25.6.
<0.03% (e.g., 304L/316L).
AISI 304 = 18.
Some engineered alloys have the given 1.4.6 Stress corrosion cracking
decreasing order such as:
Ti> Hastelloy C or Chlorimet> Hastelloy F, Here the metal or alloy can be affected by
Durimet 20> Type 316 stainless steel> Type 304 brittle cracking which are caused by majorly
stainless steel. three factors such as:
Tensile stress: It can be due to two forms
either operational or residual stresses in the
1.4.5 Intergranular corrosion metal / materials or alloys. This all occurs
It involves type of corrosion where there is as a result of the metal formation, creation
involvement of preferential attack on alloys and welding processes.
which are in contact with certain environment Susceptible materials: This is not applicable
along the grain boundaries. This clearly happens to all kinds of metal or materials as pure
due to micro segregation of impurities and dif- metals are mostly susceptible to this
ferent alloying elements present in grain’s corrosion type. While some metal or alloys
boundaries of any equipment used in industries. are susceptible to specific environment. For
The incentive for this kind of corrosion is the example: Austenitic stainless steels are
generation of potential difference in between greatly resistant for developing SCC when
grain boundary and the grain matrix, which they are kept in ammoniacal environment.
further develops galvanic cell in the vicinity of Susceptible environment: These are some
electrolytes. The movement of corrosion is from specific environments which generally
grain boundaries from the edge to the thickness cause Stress Cracking Corrosion of the
or middle. This all-causes disintegration of metal mostly used in industries. For
metal and hence strength is lost. Mainly the example, if stainless steels are used in
equipment’s or instruments made from nickel, chloride containing environment are crack
aluminum alloys and austenitic stainless steels prone but not when used in acids such as
may suffer from intergranular corrosion in the sulfuric acid, nitric acid, acetic acid or
industries. If we talk especially corrosion of pure water.

The cracks develop during this corrosion may 1.4.8 Erosion corrosion
run along preferential routes such as along grain
boundary called as Intergranular Stress Corro- It is a general term that relates to a corrosion
sion Cracking (IGSCC) or may be transversely process caused by the relative motion of the
around grain boundary, which further called as flowing fluids and materials surface. The usual
Trans granular Stress Corrosion Cracking effect of the EC is localized attack which emerges
(TGSCC). as gullies, grooves, rounded holes, and waves
The corrosion happening here can also be etc. The most affected equipment’s by this kind
prevented by the replacement of austenitic stain- of corrosion in general industries are impellers,
less steels BY austenitic-ferritic (duplex) stain- under water components, steam turbine blades,
less steels, which have remarkably low bends, inlets pipes in different tanks, pumps and
susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking com- cyclones. Destruction of metal is Destruction of
pared to previous one. Applying compressive metal is quick as the running liquid discard the
stresses and coating would also help to reduce protective corrosion layer formed over the metal
SCC. surface, which further exposes the fresh metal
surface alternatively more prone to corrosion
with accelerated rate. In addition, the corrosive
1.4.7 Corrosion fatigue suspended products which are added to the
aggressive medium or fluid cause extensive
Corrosion fatigue (CF) is propensity of alloys coarse-grained action over metal surface leading
used in industries or engineering applications. to enhanced corrosion rate.
It got fracture because of the presence of colle- In the industries the situation becomes worse
gial effects of cyclic loading and aggressive by the process of Cavitation (kind of erosion
environment. The collapse starts occurring at corrosion) which is formed by unanticipated
places of stress levels present on material or at crumble of vapor bubbles in a liquid and ema-
the tolerance limits. It is a crucial deterioration nating impact over metal surface. The collapsing
process which is highly responsible for the of bubbles may be having high value of more
damage caused in industries such as nuclear or than 1500 MPa which is adequate for the micro-
steam power systems, aircrafts, marine struc- structural swapping in the underlying material
tures, bridges, pipelines and gas turbines. The surface.
damage caused by corrosion fatigue mat occur Due to regular cavity deficit passive film for-
in four steps: deformation caused by cyclic mation is strenuous and hence metal cessation
plastic, initiation of microcrack, growth of small is elevated. Specifically in industries the liquid
crack and propagation of macrocrack. The use or processed fluid accommodates rigid solid
of different mediums and present environment particles which serves and accelerates corrosive
for specific work in industries promotes corro- reactions by their harsh actions. Special design-
sion fatigue due to various factors (frequency, ing and application of coatings to the suspected
stress ratio, electrode potential or stress inten- components are useful methods to prevent
sity range). Corrosion fatigue generally moves erosion and cavitation corrosion.
in the trans granular manner and does not show
divarication which is important characteristics
feature of stress corrosion cracking. Corrosion
1.4.9 Selective leaching
fatigue can be best reduced by eliminating the It is very specific in industries where the
stress on the industrial materials or can be erosion of one constituent of an alloy in presence
accomplished by changing the architecture and of certain electrolyte may result due to electro-
heat treatment. chemical reactions. The main reason for this

corrosion to occur is the creation of large elec- thermal expansion with frequent cycling. There
trode potential of constituents of alloy such as is development of fatigue cracks in the
zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) in brass alloy or in components.
between iron (Fe) and graphite (C) in grey cast
iron.
The metal or element which has lower elec- 1.4.11 Microbiologically influenced
trode potential as a choice corrodes first and corrosion
diffuse in the electrolyte or liquid. While the one This corrosion often infuriated by the pres-
which has higher electrode, potential remains ence of microorganisms and so secondarily
secured cathodically. The most customary alloys control the reactions of corrosion. Mostly places
vulnerable to corrosion are Silicon bronze of sewage, under bridges, buried structures and
(desiliconification), Tin bronze (destannifica- water operated equipment’s where the microor-
tion), Brasses (dezincification), Grey cast ganism may be sheltered are influenced struc-
irons (graphitic corrosion), Aluminum tures for this corrosion. As those microorganisms
bronze (dealuminification) and Copper-Nickels are having propensity to excel in presence or
(denickelification). absence of oxygen environment done by popu-
If we see on the percentage basis, the process larly known as aerobic and anaerobic bacteria.
of dezincification occurs in brasses having more The aerobic bacteria are sulfur oxidizing bacte-
than 15% of zinc, as zinc is chemically very ria (thiobacillis / thiooxidans) which oxidizes
active element with very low standard electrode the elemental sulfur or sulfur hearing compound
potential, valued -0.763 while electrode poten- to sulfuric acid thus reduces the pH of the envi-
tial of copper is much higher with value +0.337. ronment. Likewise anaerobic or sulfate reducing
So, the difference between these two potentials bacteria (deslfuricans) which reduces sulfate to
is the driving force for dezincification of brasses. sulfide that influences the hydrogen evolution
The metal in industries starts corroding with and accelerates metal oxidation (anodic reac-
cessation of zinc-to-zinc ion (Zn = Zn2++ 2e−) tion). The most accepted way to reduce micro-
quitting behind the network of copper. biologically influenced corrosion is to apply
coating comprising enamel, plastic tape and
asphalt. The other way is addition of corrosion
1.4.10 Fretting corrosion
inhibitors such as germicides (Chlorinated com-
This kind of corrosion is amalgamation of pounds) that can be supplied to the corrosive
simple corrosion and abrasive wear. It can be systems.
speeded by the correlative motion of approach-
ing surfaces in aggressive medium. The relative
motion between the exposed surfaces detaches 1.5 Corrosion of metal in industries
shielded films and may ends in enhanced corro-
sion. It has been noted that generally corrosion The components or equipment’s present in
products are eroding in nature and their exist- machine that helps to function them are
ence in the aggressive fluid may increase the extremely susceptible to corrosion as they are in
confiscation of protective films. This corrosion use for long time. This causes failure of compo-
mostly affects the industrial equipment’s related nent of the things in use. The components are
to aeroplane, ships and automobile assemblies made with high density are made light by
or the places where periodical loading is accom- making their sections thin. This all causes
plished. Fretting corrosion can be more promi- increase in corrosion. Furthermore, the corro-
nent at places of vibration in blade system and sion rates of devices or equipment’s used in

1.5 Corrosion of metal in industries 11
industries are enhanced to maximum when they moisture bimetallic or galvanic corrosion occurs.
are encountered with harsh or aggressive envi- Keeping in view of these kinds of locations, the
ronments such as deserts, moist places, tropical following precautions must be greatly to take in
or sub-tropical environments mainly for things account:
in military use. Aircraft and submarine systems
Appropriate design: Here the exposed
are highly affected. Music player instruments on
metal or alloys are so made that the area of
the other hand are severely affected when
the more noble cathodic metal or alloy must
exposed to fuggy environments having chlo-
be substantially smaller compared to the rea
rides. This all happens in shipping those instru-
of more active anodic metal. So, the most
ments from manufacturing place to customer’s
expected way to reduce the area of cathode
location.
is to apply coating or suitable paint over it.
The formation of very thin layer made from
Suitable Coating: The area in contact of
corrosion reactions alter the electrical properties
metal with each other can be coated with
of the instruments, such as capacity, resistance
appropriate metal.
of electronic systems. Many cases has been
Insinuation of dissimilar metals: There
reported in electrical manufacturing industries
must be an interpose in linking different
which causes alteration in inbuild circuits, fit-
metals in a metal compatible packaging.
tings, connectors, nichrome resistors along with
Clinching interfaces: All interfaces must be
micro-electronic components which have been
properly sealed to avoid admittance of
glazed with metallic films. There are reported
moisture.
cases where small amounts of moisture have
Proper setting: Mostly electronic devices
caused corrosion in tablets with printed circuits,
must be placed in hermetically sealed
nichrome resistors, fittings, electrical connectors
arrangement.
and a wide range of components, and micro-
electronic components, which have been coated
with metallic films [12–13]. 1.5.1 Corrosion of metal by water
The corrosion of components in different The water is most essential component of any
industries may occur at various stages such as: country’s manufacturing/industrial promotion.
The multiple application of water is to act as
Manufacturing
coolant for equipment and machineries. Total
Storage
quantity of liquid or water used by each country
Shipping
are almost different and depends on the percent-
Services
age of industrial development. In the previous
Important factors to initiate corrosion is the time for the United States like country, the con-
development of moisture, pollutants, sweeping sumption of water was around hundred billion
of organic solvents or presence of elements such liters per day. Further these countries have opted
as chlorides, fluorides, sulfides or nitrogen to reuse the water system by the application of
compounds. right treatment channel for its purification.
The input of pollutants for single machinery is Water is always considered as an aggressive
diverse like flux remnants used for welding, environment for various metals and alloys, by
vapors from electrolytic baths, micro plastics, vola- which they may encounter with corrosion which
tile organic adhesives from nearby environment. is an electrochemical process.
Industrial applications need various metal, The water may come from natural resources,
out of them many remains in contact with each such as lakes, rivers, springs, or well which can
other, at those places due to presence of easily corrode metal or alloys used in industries.

The most important equity of water is that some [10] F. Smaïli, V.S. Vassiliadis, D.I. Wilson, Optimization of
degree of material present in earth crust and cleaning schedulesin heat exchanger networks subject
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the formation of green rust compounds during
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[5] Z.L. He, X.E. Yang, P.J. Stoffella, Trace elements in agro- Kingdom, Vol. November 6 (2006) 362–366.
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Elem. Med. Biol. 19 (2–3) (2005) 125–140. Carrillo, Corrosion of metals at indoor conditions in the
[6] R.A. Goyer, Toxic effects of metals, in: CD Klaassen electronics manufacturing industry, Anti-Corrosion
(Ed.), Cassarett and Doull’s Toxicology: The Basic Methods and Materials; Bradford 54 (6) (2007) 354–359.
Science of Poisons, McGraw-Hill Publisher, New York, DOI:10.1108/00035590710833510.
2001, pp. 811–867. [19] B. Valdez, M. Schorr, M. Quintero, R. Garcia, N. Rosas,
[7] N. Herawati, S. Suzuki, K. Hayashi, I.F. Rivai, K.H. Effect of climate change on durability of engineering
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C H A P T E R
2
Corrosion prevention and
protection methods
Saman Zehra, Mohammad Mobin, Ruby Aslam
Corrosion Research Laboratory, Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of
Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
2.1 Introduction Corrosion has a significant impact both eco-

nomically and environmentally on almost all the
Corrosion is a naturally occurring process world’s infrastructure. This includes highways,
which is defined as the degradation or deterio- bridges, automobiles, pipelines, chemical pro-
ration of a substance and/or its properties, cessing, water/wastewater systems, and the
usually a metal, over a period of time due to military [3]. Corrosion costs more than $ 1.8 tril-
environmental exposure [1]. This is an exergonic lion per year globally. Studies done in China,
process as the metal tends toward the lowest Japan, the United Kingdom, Europe, and South
possible energy state. Corrosion is a naturally America have shown corrosion costs similar to
occurring process defined as the degradation or the United States. This corrosion problem trans-
deterioration of a substance and/or its qualities, lates into 3–4% of the GDP of industrialized
typically a metal, over time as a result of envi- nations worldwide. Corrosion is so prevalent
ronmental exposure [2]. As the metal tends to and manifests itself in such diverse forms in our
the lowest possible energy state, this is an exer- industrialized society that its occurrence and
gonic process. As a result, when metals are associated costs can never be eliminated [4].
mixed with oxygen and water to create oxides, The environment to which metals are exposed
they have a natural propensity to return to their consists of the entire surroundings in contact
lowest energy state (corrosion products). These with the metal. The major factors used to
corrosion products are the final state of pro- describe the environment are the physical state
cessed metals that degrade over time when of the environment, either gas, liquid or solid;
exposed to the elements. Thus, the life cycle chemical composition, which includes constitu-
from mined and processed ores to industrial ents and concentrations; and temperature [5].
products and eventually back to their natural These three factors have a significant influence
state is as shown in Fig. 2.1. on the rate of corrosion. However, additional
Eco-Friendly Corrosion Inhibitors

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-91176-4.00023-4 13 Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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CHAPTER XIV
Preaching in Four Asiatic Languages
I N other chapters are given the facts concerning the beginnings

and development of the English work in Rangoon. The beginning
among the natives is of equal interest to the inquirer after missionary
information. When a mission without resources begins operations in
a foreign country, it may be supposed that it would be very modest in
its undertaking. But in the case of Methodism in Burma, and some
other parts of Southern Asia as well, rightly or wrongly, it has
pursued exactly the opposite course. With a mere handful of
workers, including missionaries and their helpers, our people have
from the beginning undertaken about every kind of mission work
possible. Within two weeks from the time Bishop Thoburn landed in
Rangoon he had organized an English Church of seventy members
and probationers, and from the membership thus brought together
there were volunteer workers raised up to preach among peoples of
three different native languages. As the streets were always
thronged with these people, it was always easy to get a
congregation. This hopeful beginning was in perfect keeping with the
theory of missions long in vogue in a large portion of India—that from
these self-supporting English Churches there would be raised up the
workers who would evangelize the heathen peoples around them.
William Taylor was the great apostle of this policy, and most of the
Methodist missions not included in the North India Conference were
founded on this theory by him and those that caught his spirit.
This theory has fatal defects we now know, but it was believed
and put to the test in the way indicated; and while it did not succeed
in accomplishing all that it was hoped at the beginning, it did
accomplish more than any other theory of missions has done in the
same time in proportion to the number of missionaries employed,
while its expenditure of mission money for years was almost nothing.
This movement carried Methodism into every city in Southern Asia
that had a considerable English-speaking population. It gave us
English Churches in all these centers. Our methods aroused other
missions to do more for these people than they had ever done
before. More than this, it committed us to general mission work over
this area, and that with no outlay of mission money until safe
foundations were laid in all the centers occupied.
Moved by this impulse and flushed with the warmth of a great
revival, these laymen in Rangoon began to preach in Tamil, Telegu,
and Hindustani. It will be noticed that all these are languages of India
proper, indicating that these English-speaking laymen had
themselves come from India, and so were familiar with the
languages of the native immigrants to Burma. But most of our
English-speaking laymen were from Madras or the Telegu country,
so that the preaching in Tamil and Telegu were continued; but for a
long time we were unable to keep a layman interested who could
preach in Hindustani, and it was discontinued, except at irregular
intervals.
There were converts from among the heathen Tamil and Telegu
people from the start. They were baptized, and later on some Church
organizations were formed and some schools kept for the children of
these people. Preaching was kept up in the English Church and at
half a dozen other places in Rangoon; in Dalla, across the Rangoon
River from Rangoon, among the coolies in the mills, and in the jungle
villages, and in Toiurgoo, and later in Pegu on the railway. The
Tamils and the Telegus were generally found together, and we could
sometimes get a layman who could preach in both languages,
though generally we had to engage different preachers.
As time went on we learned several important facts about these
people and this work that we did not know at first. We very soon
discovered that we lost heavily among our converts by these
immigrants returning to their own land, and that our people were not
so distributed in India that they could care for them in their native
land on their return. But this continual loss made it out of the
question to hope for much permanency in this kind of work. Another
weakness was that the men did not bring their families with them.
And while we got the men converted, they were still connected with
heathen relatives in India to whom they would return. But the
immediate weakness was in the fact that there were few women and
children to complete the Christian families and Christian
communities. So family life, school, and Sunday-school work was not
possible.
As the work extended somewhat, we were met by the fact that
we must depend on paid agents, and could not hope to go beyond a
very narrow limit by unpaid volunteer preaching and subpastoral
care. Applicants for such places were not wanting. Many of these
men in course of years applied, and in turn were found, with few
exceptions, wholly unfit for permanent responsibility. In the case of
the Tamils especially, this was true. The breakdown of this class of
mission employees was nearly complete. This was due to two
causes. The one seems to be in the Tamil race itself. They do seem
to lack the element of reliability generally in everything that has not
the highest monetary value attainable as its goal. It is astonishing
how many of these employees failed us at this point. There was the
further difficulty, in that we had to employ the men who drifted into
Burma as the dislodged members of other missions in India, who
were either unwilling to accept the regulations of their own missions,
or were not of its better material. We seldom employed a man
without certificate of character, and we imported some agents under
special recommendation; but our experience with them was
generally unsatisfactory for the highest interest of the mission. But I
am happy to record that some were very true and reliable.
But the greatest weakness was on our part, in being unable to
give the missionary supervision necessary to insure the highest
success. We have never been strong enough to give a missionary to
this work among immigrants to Burma. Without this close missionary
supervision, we can not hope to succeed largely. Then we did not
have the money to extend the work largely so as to acquire the
momentum, and that would place at our disposal enough candidates
to enable us to sift them and employ only the most worthy. But a
great deal of good has been done with a very little outlay of money,
and this work will be continued, though only incidental to the larger
mission plans. We must make the Burmese people our real
objective.
For reasons already given, we have been slow in taking up work
among the Burmese people. These reasons were in brief, too few
missionaries to spare even one man or woman to make the
beginning, and for years no missionary appropriation at all was made
to Burma. When a little money was given us, we made the best use
of it. But we did baptize Burmese before we had any missionary
appropriations or missionary to these people. Some inquirers from
several miles out on the Pegu River came into Rangoon, and sought
out our missionaries. Bishop Thoburn being in Rangoon at the time,
a boat was secured and a party made up to visit the village and
investigate this new opening. The village was found, and the bishop
preached, with a young Eurasian girl as his interpreter. The interest
created was considerable, and before the day was over several
candidates were baptized. The initial step could not be followed up
as we could wish, but two years later I arrived in Burma, and after
some months was able to visit this village and the surrounding
country. It was a great joy to find some of these converts still true to
all they knew of the gospel. One of them could read the Bible, and
he had a copy of the good Book and some good tracts. Later on in
this region, but a little further from Rangoon, we had our first
considerable awakening among the people.
In Rangoon we had one Burmese boys’ school, which for two or
three years gave promise of much usefulness. These boys came
from the country and city, and were bright young lads from nine to
fifteen years of age. They were instructed in the secular studies, and
at the same time taught the Bible. A Sunday-school was kept up
also. If this school could have been well cared for under a missionary
who knew the language, it could have become largely useful and
permanent. It finally was broken up by the Burmese teacher going
wrong. But if a trained missionary had been in charge, another
teacher could have been employed and the school sustained. During
the continuance of this school there were a number of boys baptized
in the school, and that with their relatives’ knowledge, and there was
no special opposition to it. Bishop Thoburn was much impressed
with this fact, as such an occurrence in one of the schools in India
among the Hindu or Mohammedan boys would have broken up the
school. In all the schools we have had, mostly in large villages in the
district, the same accessibility to the young Burman has been found.
Among the missions which have become strong enough to found
a good school or system of schools, they find not only that the
Burmese are ready to send their boys and pay the fees according to
the Government school code, but that these same schools are the
best missionary agencies, both for the conversion of the Burmese
and the Christian training of prospective preachers and teachers. For
the latter, years under immediate Christian training are
indispensable. As Buddhism is founded on a system of monastic
schools, where the boys are indoctrinated in the teachings of that
faith, it would seem that any policy which looks to the overthrow of
Buddhism should contemplate replacing these Buddhist schools with
Christian schools. And when we find the Buddhists themselves
seeking education in Christian schools, and willing to pay good fees
for the privilege, the prospect for the Christian schools becoming the
greatest auxiliary of evangelism is very encouraging. It is my
conviction that no nonchristian country in the world presents the
prospect of extensive usefulness of the Christian system equal to
Burma.
So eager were we to begin mission work among the Burmese,
that we took up with whatever opening presented itself. So sure were
we that we would not get the ear of the home Church, and so get the
necessary funds really to establish the Burmese mission work, that
we were ready to accept whatever the field offered that promised to
give us access to the Burmese people.
Our first opportunity was thrust upon us. We embraced it with
perhaps too much eagerness. But this is a question raised in the
light of subsequent experience which no man could foresee. In the
early part of 1893, I received a message from the deputy
commissioner of the Pegu District, saying that he was opening a
large tract of newly-drained rice land to settlement and cultivation in
his district, and if I would start a colony of Burmese cultivators on it,
he would put at the disposal of the mission from two to three
thousand acres of land. This was a very singular proposition, as I
had never seen that official but once, and had never been in that part
of his district, and had not planned such an undertaking. I went up
and made a hurried investigation of the region, and found it a part of
a large plain that for a short time each year had too much water for
even rice cultivation, which grows in water often a foot deep. The
Government felt certain its new drainage canals, dug at considerable
expense, would drain this plain. And as its soil was the most fertile
possible, and covered with a light grass, which would easily yield to
the ordinary native plow, it seemed desirable to co-operate with the
district officials, and take up a large section of the land. The deputy
commissioner offered to put at our disposal three thousand acres of
land, for which we were to have a title as soon as we put it under
cultivation. Having no mission money of any account to go on in the
conventional method of founding a mission, it does not at all seem to
be wondered at that this inviting offer of land was looked upon as a
providential way of founding an industrial mission.
Just at this time, in a thickly-populated part of the district, some
forty miles away, a company of twenty-eight Burmans, whom I had
not seen before, sought me out, and asked me to help them get
some land. Taken with the offer of the land by the district officer, it
seemed a rare opportunity to get forward with our mission.
The season being far advanced, it was imperatively necessary to
act quickly because these Burmans had to make their arrangements
for the year, and the opportunity to get this land or any other so well
situated we thought would never come again. This combination of
urgent features led us to take the land and make the venture at
once.
There was a great deal of planning to launch such a scheme. We
did not want to be involved financially. We did want to lay a good
foundation of evangelism and to establish schools. The plan finally
adopted was that we were to aid the Burmans in their dealings with
the Government, and in selling their rice. We were to furnish schools
for their children and to preach to them. But we were not to become
financially involved, either for the running expenses of the colony, or
for the tax due the Government. The plan was one of mutual
helpfulness. To this plan all parties cheerfully agreed.
It was nearly time for the rains to begin when the papers were
secured allowing us to move upon the land. Meantime a good many
of the people who would have gone with us a month earlier dropped
out during the delay in getting the land. But we succeeded in
gathering one hundred and twenty people, and moved on to the land
about the first of May. We still had time to build a village out of the
bamboo poles and thatch, out of which these cultivators’ houses are
always made. This was rather a hopeful beginning, and we had
assurance of twice as many people to follow.
Just at this time we met with an example of the careless
disregard of a financial obligation often found in the Burman. His cool
indifference to a promise, however well secured, is frequently
refreshing in its audacity. The Burmans were to furnish all the cattle
to work the land. We were to lay out no money whatever on the
business features of the colony. Four head men of the colony had
been recognized by the deputy commissioner. They had pledged two
hundred cattle security for the tax due on the land. Their cattle would
have been entirely sufficient to cultivate at least a thousand acres
the first year. But when the houses were built and the colony began
business, it became clear that only a small number of these cattle
were really in the hands of the colonists. Their explanation was that
many of the men having most cattle dropped out, as the
uncertainties of getting the land for the crop remained over the
venture. This we learned later was true in part. More of them had
dropped out because they did not want to put in all their cattle, while
some of the colonists had none, or only a few, and they were heavily
mortgaged.
But these men had pledged to the Government, officially, cattle
which they did not possess. In this they deceived us, a not very
difficult matter, as we were new to the country and unacquainted with
the characteristics of the Burmese people. But if we were deceived,
the deputy commissioner had more reason to regret having been
duped, as he was an officer in the province for many years, and
supposed he knew the Burman. He also drew up the revenue bond
which they signed. He indeed planned and extended this bond,
entirely apart from the revenue regulations, I believe. Therefore,
when we reproached ourselves in not being as farsighted as we
should have been, we still could shield our humiliation behind the
much greater defeat of the pet measure of this official.
If we had been willing simply to save the mission from all
financial obligations, and retreat from the enterprise without any
dishonor, we could have done so when we learned that these
Burmans were unable to carry out their part of the contract. But it
would have been equivalent to the utter collapse of the enterprise.
While we were in no way financially obligated to meet what they had
failed to meet under our general agreement, yet in my mind I have
never been convinced that it would have been the wisest thing to do,
even if we could have foreseen the final outcome, which we did not
at that time even suspect. Then every honorable man must give his
character to the enterprise he launches.
Our second surprise came only a few weeks later. I had secured
money outside of mission funds, for we had none of the latter, and
bought sufficient cattle for the colony. This was beyond all our
agreement. The men began work well enough, and soon had a
promising beginning of cultivation. As the young rice began to show
in the fields, the water which had been slowly rising over the plain
during the increasing rains suddenly covered all the fields to a
dangerous depth. A foot of extra water will not hurt much if it goes
down within two or three days. But this flooding of our land covered a
score of square miles of the country. Then it slowly dawned on us
that the Government engineers’ drainage system was a failure, and
with it our colony was doomed. We had depended upon the work of
the engineers, and their canals could not carry off the water, and we
were the sufferers. The colony slowly melted away while the water
remained.
Let it be noted that though the Burmans failed us, and some of
our acutely sympathetic friends have assured us all these years that
this failure of the Burmese character was inevitable, yet it was the
failure of the work of the Government engineers that destroyed our
colony. The Burmans were at work until the floods came, and they
remained weeks after all ordinary hope of making a crop was gone;
while the failure of the drainage scheme developed early, and the
whole plain remained flooded for six years until supplementary
canals were dug. If we failed by overconfidence in the adroit
Burman, we failed with double effect when we trusted to the skill of
the Government engineers.
A very unpleasant incident occurred about the time the colony
was drowned out. The deputy commissioner, who had gone out of
his way to induce us officially to enter upon this colony scheme,
turned against us in a very unaccountable way. He misrepresented
our undertaking to his superiors. He accused us of exacting
oppressive terms of the Burmans, when the exact opposite was true.
We had gone far beyond all our agreement with them, and gave
them better terms than any other people ever gave to any cultivator
in Burma. In the end it was easy enough to show wherein this
unwise official was wholly in error. But it was not until his official
opposition had wrought its work on scattering the colony, and had
made success in recognition impossible. This episode is an
unpleasant matter to record. I would omit it entirely if it did not bear a
vital relation to the defeat of a missionary enterprise. But I am glad to
be able to say that he is the only official of British blood who ever
gave our mission or missionaries in Burma during my experience
there any annoyance or ungenerous treatment in a business way.
The officials have been courteous gentlemen always, and I have
been much in business transactions with all classes of them for a
decade. Our missionaries of long experience in other parts of the
empire have been delighted in making much the same report.
While the colony was broken up and scattered in a way that
forebade us to hope for any good to result from our undertaking, it
was not really so bad as we believed at the time. We had not
baptized any of the colonists, though a number of them had
indicated that they wished baptism in the early beginnings of the
colony. When they scattered abroad in the country doubtless they
made reports very discouraging. But we have much reason to know
that there came to be quite a general feeling that we had sought the
good of the people. There have been many evidences of this, but
that which is clearest proof, is that every year since Burmans in the
same neighborhood have urged us to undertake some such
enterprise again. But there were other evidences.
The colony was begun in April, 1893, and was abandoned
entirely by the end of the year. Just at this time Rev. G. J. Schilling
and wife came to us to take up the Burmese work. I had been the
only man among our small band of missionaries for nearly three
years. My assistants were supplies picked up in the country. I got
very weary often with the heat and much work. But I was often worn
greatly for lack of counsel in the responsibilities of the mission. There
have always been some of the truest friends among the laymen in
Rangoon, but naturally they can not take the responsible care of the
mission. The coming of Mr. and Mrs. Schilling was a great joy to me
and all our lady missionaries.
A little incident occurred the second day after the arrival of our
friends, which shows the playful side of missionary life. They arrived
in the afternoon, and early next morning I took Mr. Schilling with me
a day’s journey by steam launch through one of Lower Burma’s
many tidal creeks to a village where we had some Christians. We
were so busy we did not allow the new missionary even a day to look
around the city of Rangoon, but hurried him immediately into the
district. I had the journey planned, and could not delay the trip for
pressure of work in the city.
At six o’clock in the evening we arrived at the village of
Thongwa, a place of five thousand people. After some three hours’
looking about the town we were tired, and as always in Burma when
taking exercise, very much heated. I proposed a swim in the river to
cool us down so we could sleep. Mr. Schilling, being a strong
swimmer, plunged out into the stream, and did not pause till he
reached the opposite side of the river. I, being a very moderate
swimmer, remained near the shore. But I was impressed with the
dark river lined with palm-trees on a moonless night, with no light
except from the stars and a faint glimmer from the lamps of the
village. I wondered at the temerity of my fellow-missionary on this,
his first night in a tropical country! Perhaps I was not wholly innocent
in the practical joke I attempted. Just as I heard a splash on the
opposite side of the stream I called out, “Brother Schilling, I forgot to
tell you that there are alligators in this river.” There was a splash, a
plunge, and heavy breathing of a swimmer exerting all his power in
the haste to recross the stream. I was amused at the effect of this bit
of information on the missionary recruit. But his amusement arrived
only as an afterthought. His first efforts were all spent in getting to
my side of the river. He reasoned, “In haste there is safety.” When he
recovered his breath he told me that just as I shouted “alligator” he
had stepped on some slippery member of the tribe that lives in the
muddy ooze of all tropical tidal creeks, and to his imagination the
word “alligator” made that squirming creature a very real menace to
his personal safety. There were alligators in the stream, but they
were several miles further down and, as far as I knew, quite
harmless.
Another experience which befell some of us some months before
this had features about it too grim for humor, but which may be
recorded to show the reality of life in a tropical land. Shortly after the
colony was flooded, I made one of my visits to the people. Several
times I had to travel in a small boat, a dug-out log. To return to
Rangoon I took to the stream after nightfall, and traveled within a
mile or two of the railway, and then, the current of the stream
becoming too swift for the oarsman, we took to the water, and waded
against the current until we reached the station. The particular
occurrence occurred when the water was at its highest over an area
many miles. The occasion of my making these journeys at night was
that I could catch a train bringing me to Rangoon in the morning for
my many duties there. As the whole country was flooded, we
undertook to guide our boat thirteen miles from the colony to the
railway all over an overflowed, treeless plain. Our party consisted of
a young Swiss I had in charge of the colony, a Malay servant of the
Swiss, who acted as steersman, and a Telegu, a very lazy man, who
would not row, and so got a free ride, grudgingly allowed by myself.
The Swiss and I had to do all the rowing, no easy task through the
protruding elephant grass, which rose several feet above the water
in some places. In addition, I undertook to pilot the boat, the open
hollow-log canoe, always difficult to keep bottom downward. Without
any object to serve as a guide, my own sense of locality, as we had
no compass, being my only resource, the downpour of rain every
half-hour—all made a combination of circumstances calculated to fill
us with doubts as to our success in reaching the railway at all, while
the dark hours of the night passed slowly on. We had no light with
us, and at times it was exceedingly dark; but the moon showed its
half-filled face occasionally. Late in the night we came near to some
abandoned grass hut. As an unusually heavy storm was
approaching, revealed to us by the beating of the rain on the quiet
water of the plain, we concluded to steer our unstable craft in
through the open doorway of the hut. There were several feet of
water in the hut and on the adjacent fields. As the hut was large
enough to accommodate our boat and the roof was intact, we hoped
to have shelter until the rain had passed.
We had our misgivings, because we feared the snakes, driven
from the grass of the plain by the water, would be finding quarters in
the house. This proved to be a very true surmise. We had just got
into the house, when our free passenger, the Telegu, took out his
matchbox and a cigar and prepared to smoke. I thought I could use
that match to better advantage, and demanded it. As the match
flashed and then burned steadily for a moment, we searched the
thatch sides and roof and bamboo supports for snakes. We were not
disappointed. Here and there were the glistening coils of snakes
tucked away; but our greatest nervous shock came on looking
immediately over our heads, when we were startled to see a very
large snake coiled on top of the rafter, while the glistening scales of
his whitish belly were only two or three feet above some of our
heads. We immediately prepared to leave this place in possession of
its venomous occupants. Softly we moved lest we shake snakes into
our boat. The Swiss was very eager to avoid colliding with a post
and shaking a snake into the boat, especially as we were all
barefooted, having removed our shoes.
We took to the storm again, the worst of that weary wet night,
thankful to have escaped keeping company with the snakes. About
one o’clock at night we found the railroad, and rested until the train
came. I look back on that night’s experience with vivid recollections.
The long piloting of the boat without guide of any kind for thirteen
miles, and then to have made our exact destination, was no ordinary
achievement, of which I have always had some pride. The
experience with the snakes in the abandoned house seen by the
flash of a match makes a memory too vivid to avoid an inward
squirming to this day. These disconnected experiences are given to
break the monotony of prosaic account of mission work, and to
indicate to the reader that there are realities in journeyings about the
inhabited parts of a tropical country calculated to impress the
memory.
Mr. Schilling’s coming to us was very timely. He began Burmese
very soon, in which Mr. Robertson joined him. We at once planned to
open a station for a missionary outside of Rangoon. We selected
Pegu, a town on the railway fifty-six miles from the capital city, and
on the road to Mandalay. We chose this town because it was the
nearest station to our broken-up colony, from which also we could
work another region which had been given to the people for the
colony, and from whence we could reach half a hundred villages of
Burmans unsought by any missionary. We needed a town, also,
where we could have a physician for the missionary’s family. A place
was desired where land and missionary buildings could be secured
economically.
Large Image at Pegu
Mr. Schilling was supported by the vigorous missionary Church

of Montclair, New Jersey. They paid his passage and his salary, and
for the mission house. So prompt was their response and so
generous, that the mission was very greatly uplifted. Mr. Robertson
lived with Mr. Schilling, and they both made rapid progress in
learning the language. In a few months inquirers began to be found.
Some lapsed Christians were picked up, and they tried to work them
into some Christian usefulness. Before the end of the year they were
beginning to preach in the vernacular. Altogether our prospect of
doing mission work among the Burmese was becoming promising,
and we were all filled with cheer.
Within a little more than a year each of these brethren was doing
aggressive evangelistic work. Mr. Schilling remained at Pegu, and
traveled somewhat widely in the regions east and north. Mr.
Robertson was given the district south of Pegu and east of Rangoon.
He lived at Thongwa, the village where our Burmese work was first
undertaken in a systematic way. Mr. Robertson had married Miss
Haskew, of Calcutta.
Mr. Schilling, at the suggestion of some of the Burmese who had
been with us in the colony enterprise, organized a new movement to
build a village near the place where we had formerly located, but not
subject to floods, into which the Christians and their families would
move, separating the Christian community and providing a school for
their children. About one hundred and fifty people came to the
village, and a simple church was built and a school begun. Quite a
number of these people were with us in the original enterprise, and
they and their friends had had some Christian instruction. Mr.
Schilling preached earnestly to the village, and baptized about thirty
people in a few months’ time. So we came to have a visible Christian
community in the wake of our colony scheme, and that within two
years of our first beginning. If, as we are accustomed to say, we
failed in the colony, still but for the colony we would not have been in
that region at all. If we had not founded the colony, we would not
have had a village. We are encouraged this much, that though we
failed in our unusual departure in this region for reasons stated, we
had more to show at the end of the two years from the failure than
the most successful enterprise on the conventional mission lines that
I know of in Burma has had during an equal length of time at the
beginning of their history. If we count the money invested, the same
comparison holds good.
The village still exists, and though it has suffered many
vicissitudes, due in part to the nature of pioneer mission work, and
partly to lack of continuous missionary direction, yet we have contact
with the entire community of that region, and within the last year and
a half our missionary in charge has baptized a number of converts in
the village and community.
Before a year from the time he took up his residence in
Thongwa, Mr. Robertson’s health failed seriously, and he had to give
up his labors and go to the hills of India. This was in 1896. At first we
thought he would soon be with us again; but this was not to be. He
has been kept in India by the exigencies of his health at first, and
latterly by the exigencies of the work. The Thongwa circuit has been
supplied as best we could do it to this day, and has never had
continuous missionary residence or supervision such as is needed. It
has had only such attention as could be given it by men whose
hands were more than full elsewhere.
During 1896 two young men were sent out by individuals who
wished to do a generous thing for missions through a representative.
Mr. Krull arrived in April, and Mr. Swann came in October. Much was
hoped from this arrangement. The young men were religious, and
faithful in their efforts. A mistake had been made in both cases, in
that neither man was educated sufficiently to enable him to master a
foreign tongue, or to meet the responsibility of leadership. After a few
months the supporter of Mr. Swann declined to pay the small salary
he had agreed upon, and the young man had to retire from the field,
as he was not sent out by the Mission Board. Mr. Krull continued as
an auxiliary mission agent for nearly five years, for which he
contracted, and his friend loyally supported him to the end. Then, he
being convinced that he was not adapted to do the work of a
missionary, returned and began secular work. However, he still has
responsibilities as a local preacher.
These young men were not qualified for the work for which they
were chosen. In this they were not to blame, as they could not have
understood the needs of a mission field. They were not selected by a
Mission Board. But the whole experience is added to like experience
elsewhere in proof that the best way to aid missions is through
regular channels, or through men whose judgment has been proven
in responsible positions.
Mr. Schilling’s health was impaired during 1897, and early in
1898 he and his family returned to America. So within two years we
lost two missionary families from our ranks, greatly to the distress of
those that remained, and the detriment of the entire work. Our
promising beginnings among the Burmese suffered most.
For a year we awaited re-enforcements. Early in 1899, Rev. Mr.
Leonard and wife were sent to us from India. Mr. Leonard at once
moved into the mission-house at Pegu. Without delay he began the
study of the Burmese language, and as he had high linguistic ability,
he acquired a working use of the language. Before the end of the
year he was preaching without an interpreter, and was doing some
necessary translation.
One of the first steps towards putting the Burmese work on a
better foundation was the beginning of a school for the boys of our
Burmese Christians. For years I had hoped to see this done. Pegu
had been chosen for the residence of a missionary partly with this
end in view, as it is accessible, is free from some of the evils of a
great city like Rangoon, and simple habits of life can be maintained
more easily. The last is most important. Expensive habits are so
easily learned and so difficult to unlearn, that we can not be too
careful about the training of the children of our Christian community.
This school was begun with about six boys, and soon grew to an
attendance of twenty. Some of these paid full school fees. Their
instruction was the best. They were given regular lessons in secular
subjects and daily Bible instruction. Much of the latter was committed
to memory. It would surprise some of our Sunday-schools and some
of our Christian people to find how carefully the Bible is taught in
mission schools. Mr. Leonard did most thorough work in this matter,
and we hope in this school to prepare for future service promising
boys. Those who know what it means to work with the only material
available in the beginning of a mission can appreciate our solicitude
for enough properly-trained workers. These preachers and teachers
so much needed must come from our own schools.
Mr. Leonard has been very successful in getting access to the
Burmese. He baptized more than one hundred converts from
Buddhism during 1900. This shows how accessible the Burmese
people are. If it were true that the Burmese have been exceptionally
hard to reach hitherto, it is not so now. We have access to all classes
of them, and we are positive of winning them to Christ and of
founding our Church among them just as rapidly as we can be re-
enforced to do this work. Mr. Leonard has twice the territory to look
after that one missionary should have.
Our latest work to be done is that among the Chinese. We were
led into this work by two circumstances. In Rangoon we found a few
Chinese Christians who were not looked after by anybody, and to
these were added some of our own Chinese converts from Malaysia
and some from China. As Rangoon and Burma are the natural
termini of the immigrants from China by sea and overland, we have a
large Chinese population in Rangoon, and this same population is
very evenly distributed in all important villages of the province. These
Chinamen marry Burmese women, so that they become identified
with the Burmese people. As we aimed at the conversion of the
Burmese, it was easy to begin preaching for those that were
Christians, and to fortify the foundation of our mission to the
Burmese.
As in other work, we had to employ just such preachers as we
could pick up. But in 1897 we secured a young man trained by Dr.
West, of Penang, who has done faithful preaching in Rangoon and
vicinity. There have been some thirty baptisms since he came to us.
This work is so important that it must be done by somebody. There is
a demand for as great a school for these people as we have founded
in Singapore or Penang. But its support is not in sight.
CHAPTER XV
A Unique Enterprise
I N March, 1897, the Rangoon Orphanage was removed to the

Karen Hills, east of Tomgoo, and established on an industrial
basis, where it has been maintained these four years under the new
plan, and it has become the “Unique Institution of the East,” as one
discerning official called it.
When one starts an enterprise that is entirely new he is called
upon for his reason for doing so. So long as he proceeds exactly as
other people, he needs no apology. But in all conservative countries
to go contrary to “custom” is to invite criticism, even if one’s efforts
are an advance on the established order. One curse of India is that
its people are enslaved by “custom;” and some of these customs are
very bad, and most of them are wholly unprogressive. Custom has
bound chains on the people, and they have worn these chains so
long that they have come to love their bonds better than liberty. In
most matters “change” is undesired, and to announce that a plan is
“new” is enough to condemn it hopelessly with many, and to start a
thousand tongues to attack it.
It has been shown elsewhere how pitiably situated are the poor
of European descent in all parts of Southern Asia, there is a greater
percentage of these poor dependent on some form of public or
private charity than among any people I know of in any land.
Perhaps in no country do the social customs do more to unfit the
poor to help themselves. I am persuaded also that very much of the
charity of the country, of which there is a great deal, is unwisely, if
not harmfully, bestowed. Rangoon, for instance, like all Indian cities,
has a charitable society made up of ministers and officials, which
dispenses a great deal of relief. Studying its methods as a member
for six years, I became convinced that, while very much good was
done, the system pauperized a relatively large number of people,
who should have been self-sustaining.
In this general dependent condition of a large part of these
people, there is the ever-present and acute distress of poor or
abandoned children, for which there have been established many
Orphanages and schools. All managers of these Orphanages are
appealed to by indolent or destitute parents to give free schooling,
including board and clothing, to their children. The truly orphaned, or
the abandoned, children are always touching our sympathies, and
appealing irresistibly to us for aid. The number of children born in
wedlock, as well as out of legal bonds, who are abandoned by
parents or legal relatives, is astonishingly large. The result of all
these combinations is to fill our Orphanages; for the innocent child
must not be allowed to suffer all the consequences of others’ sins.
So the “Orphanages” are found everywhere to care for these
children of European descent, whether they be Anglo-Indian or
Eurasian.
The founding of the Methodist Orphanage in Rangoon has been
noted elsewhere. In managing this Orphanage for a number of years
after the custom of the country, I became convinced that while the
amount of relief and protection given to child-life during its earlier
years was exceedingly great, there was a very serious defect in the
system of conducting all such institutions. I have intimated elsewhere
how little ordinary work is done by anybody of European extraction in
the whole of Southern Asia. This applies generally to the schools,
including even the Orphanages. Everything that can be done by
servants is delegated to them. It may surprise many American
readers to know that “orphanages” and “homes” for Eurasians in
India depend on the work of servants, and very little on the inmates,
much as other establishments of the country. This, too, not only in
those things where the work is beyond the power of boys and girls to
do, but in many kinds of work which it is considered “improper” or
“undignified” for them to engage in.
It is considered right and proper for the girls to learn to sew, in
addition to learning their lessons, and sometimes to arrange their

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Contributors xi 3. Development process for eco-friendly

Part 1 ABDELKADER ZARROUK, BRAHIM LAKHRISSI

Overview of industrial corrosion 3.1 Introduction 27

Part 3 15. Pharmaceutical drugs protecting metals

15.1 Introduction 229

18. Amino acids and their derivatives as Conclusion 406

18.1 Introduction 311 21. Applications of nanomaterials

19. Ionic liquids as green and sustainable

19.1 ILs as environmental-friendly corrosion 22. Modern testing and analyzing techniques

20. Ionic liquids as green and sustainable 23.1 Introduction 451

26.1 Introduction 527

Overview of industrial corrosion

1.1 Introduction warming and greenhouse emissions, all inter-

Eco-Friendly Corrosion Inhibitors

Part 1 Overview of industrial corrosion and inhibition

Corrosion by gases such as Cl2, SO2, H2S, NOx Zn → Zn 2 + + 2e −

Part 1 Overview of industrial corrosion and inhibition

It is a kind of corrosion occurring in indus- S. Material/

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8. Chromium-iron (active) 5. Aluminum Armor equipment, mounting

11. 18-8-3 Stainless steel (active) 7. Cadmium Sacrificial protective coating on

1.4.3 Crevice corrosion 1.4.4 Pitting corrosion

Part 1 Overview of industrial corrosion and inhibition

Part 1 Overview of industrial corrosion and inhibition

Part 1 Overview of industrial corrosion and inhibition

Part 1 Overview of industrial corrosion and inhibition

Part 1 Overview of industrial corrosion and inhibition

Part 1 Overview of industrial corrosion and inhibition

2.1 Introduction Corrosion has a significant impact both eco-

Eco-Friendly Corrosion Inhibitors

I N other chapters are given the facts concerning the beginnings

Mr. Schilling was supported by the vigorous missionary Church

I N March, 1897, the Rangoon Orphanage was removed to the

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