(eBook PDF) Physical Universe 15th

Edition
Go to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-physical-universe-15th-edition/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

The Physical Universe 17th Edition Konrad Krauskopf -

eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/the-physical-universe-ebook-
pdf-2/

The Physical Universe Sixteenth Edition Konrad

Krauskopf - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/the-physical-universe-ebook-pdf/

(eBook PDF) The Physical Universe 16th Edition by

Konrad Krauskopf

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-the-physical-
universe-16th-edition-by-konrad-krauskopf/

(Original PDF) Physical Geology 15th Edition by Charles

http://ebooksecure.com/product/original-pdf-physical-
geology-15th-edition-by-charles/
(eBook PDF) Introduction to Physical Anthropology 15th
Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-introduction-to-
physical-anthropology-15th-edition/

(eBook PDF) Lifetime Physical Fitness and Wellness 15th

Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-lifetime-physical-
fitness-and-wellness-15th-edition/

(eBook PDF) Lifetime Physical Fitness and Wellness 15th

Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-lifetime-physical-
fitness-and-wellness-15th-edition-2/

Physical Geology, 15th Edition Charles C. Plummer -

eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/physical-geology-15th-edition-
ebook-pdf/

An Introduction to Physical Science 15th Edition James

Shipman - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/an-introduction-to-physical-
science-ebook-pdf/
Contents vii

4.2 Energy Supply and Consumption 94 Important Formulas 173

4.3 Climate Change 97 Multiple Choice 173
4.4 Carbon Dioxide and the Greenhouse Exercises 175
Effect 100
Fossil Fuels 104
4.5 Liquid Fuels 105
6 Electricity and Magnetism 180
4.6 Natural Gas 107 Electric Charge 181
4.7 Coal 109 6.1 Positive and Negative Charge 181
Alternative Sources 113 6.2 What Is Charge? 183
4.8 A Nuclear World? 113 6.3 Coulomb’s Law 185
4.9 Clean Energy I 116 6.4 Force on an Uncharged Object 186
4.10 Clean Energy II 118 Electricity and Matter 187
4.11 Energy Storage 123 6.5 Matter in Bulk 187
4.12 Biofuels 126 6.6 Conductors and Insulators 187
4.13 Comparison of Electricity Sources 129 6.7 Superconductivity 189
Strategies for the Future 130 Electric Current 191
4.14 Conservation 130 6.8 The Ampere 191
4.15 What Governments Must Do 132 6.9 Potential Difference 192
Important Terms and Ideas 136 6.10 Ohm’s Law 195
Multiple Choice 136 6.11 Electric Power 196
Exercises 138 Magnetism 199
6.12 Magnets 199
6.13 Magnetic Field 201
5 Matter and Heat 140 6.14 Oersted’s Experiment 201
6.15 Electromagnets 203
Temperature and Heat 141 Using Magnetism 204
5.1 Temperature 141 6.16 Magnetic Force on a Current 205
5.2 Heat 143 6.17 Electric Motors 206
5.3 Metabolic Energy 145 6.18 Electromagnetic Induction 207
Fluids 147 6.19 Transformers 210
5.4 Density 147 Important Terms and Ideas 213
5.5 Pressure 148 Important Formulas 213
5.6 Buoyancy 151 Multiple Choice 213
5.7 The Gas Laws 153 Exercises 216
Kinetic Theory of Matter 157
5.8 Kinetic Theory of Gases 157
5.9 Molecular Motion and Temperature 158
7 Waves 219
5.10 Heat Transfer 159 Wave Motion 220
Changes of State 160 7.1 Water Waves 220
5.11 Liquids and Solids 160 7.2 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves 221
5.12 Evaporation and Boiling 161 7.3 Describing Waves 222
5.13 Melting 162 7.4 Standing Waves 224
Energy Transformations 165 Sound Waves 225
5.14 Heat Engines 166 7.5 Sound 225
5.15 Thermodynamics 167 7.6 Doppler Effect 227
5.16 Fate of the Universe 170 7.7 Musical Sounds 228
5.17 Entropy 171 Electromagnetic Waves 230
Important Terms and Ideas 172 7.8 Electromagnetic Waves 230
viii Contents

7.9 Types of EM Waves 232 Matter Waves 303

7.10 Light “Rays” 235 9.5 De Broglie Waves 303
Wave Behavior 236 9.6 Waves of What? 304
7.11 Reflection 236 9.7 Uncertainty Principle 305
7.12 Refraction 236 The Hydrogen Atom 307
7.13 Lenses 240 9.8 Atomic Spectra 307
7.14 The Eye 244 9.9 The Bohr Model 308
7.15 Color 245 9.10 Electron Waves and Orbits 310
7.16 Interference 248 9.11 The Laser 312
7.17 Diffraction 249 Quantum Theory of the Atom 315
Important Terms and Ideas 253 9.12 Quantum Mechanics 316
Important Formulas 254 9.13 Quantum Numbers 317
Multiple Choice 254 9.14 Exclusion Principle 319
Exercises 256 Important Terms and Ideas 320
Important Formulas 320
8 The Nucleus 259 Multiple Choice 320
Exercises 322
Atom And Nucleus 260
8.1 Rutherford Model of the Atom 260
8.2 Nuclear Structure 261
10 The Periodic Law 325
Elements and Compounds 326
Radioactivity 263
10.1 Chemical Change 326
8.3 Radioactive Decay 264
10.2 Three Classes of Matter 327
8.4 Half-Life 267
10.3 The Atomic Theory 329
8.5 Radiation Hazards 268
The Periodic Law 331
Nuclear Energy 271
10.4 Metals and Nonmetals 331
8.6 Units of Mass and Energy 271
10.5 Chemical Activity 332
8.7 Binding Energy 272
10.6 Families of Elements 333
8.8 Binding Energy per Nucleon 273
10.7 The Periodic Table 334
Fission And Fusion 274 10.8 Groups and Periods 335
8.9 Nuclear Fission 275 Atomic Structure 338
8.10 How a Reactor Works 277 10.9 Shells and Subshells 339
8.11 Reactor Accidents 280 10.10 Explaining the Periodic Table 340
8.12 Plutonium 282
Chemical Bonds 342
8.13 Nuclear Fusion 282
10.11 Types of Bond 342
Elementary Particles 285 10.12 Covalent Bonding 343
8.14 Antiparticles 286 10.13 Ionic Bonding 346
8.15 Fundamental Interactions 288 10.14 Ionic Compounds 347
8.16 Leptons and Hadrons 289 10.15 Atom Groups 348
Important Terms and Ideas 291 10.16 Naming Compounds 349
Multiple Choice 292 10.17 Chemical Equations 350
Exercises 293 Important Terms and Ideas 351
Multiple Choice 352

9 The Atom 296

Exercises 354

Quantum Theory of Light 297 11 Crystals, Ions,

9.1 Photoelectric Effect 297 and Solutions 357
9.2 Photons 298
9.3 What Is Light? 300 Solids 358
9.4 X-Rays 301 11.1 Ionic and Covalent Crystals 359
Contents
11.2 The Metallic Bond 360
11.3 Molecular Crystals 362
Solutions 364
11.4 Solubility 364
11.5 Polar And Nonpolar Liquids 367
11.6 Ions in Solution 369
11.7 Evidence for Dissociation 371
11.8 Water 372
11.9 Water Pollution 375
Acids and Bases 377
11.10 Acids 377
11.11 Strong and Weak Acids 378
11.12 Bases 379
11.13 The pH Scale 380
11.14 Salts 380
Important Terms and Ideas 382
Multiple Choice 382
Exercises 384
12 Chemical Reactions
Quantitative Chemistry 387
12.1 Phlogiston 387
12.2 Oxygen 389
12.3 The Mole 391
12.4 Formula Units 392
Chemical Energy 395
12.5 Exothermic and Endothermic
Reactions 395
12.6 Chemical Energy and Stability 396
12.7 Activation Energy 399
Reaction Rates 400
12.8 Temperature and Reaction Rates 401
12.9 Other Factors 401
12.10 Chemical Equilibrium 403
12.11 Altering an Equilibrium 404
Oxidation And Reduction 405
12.12 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 405
12.13 Electrochemical Cells 407
Important Terms and Ideas 410
Multiple Choice 410
Exercises 412
13 Organic Chemistry
Carbon Compounds 416
13.1 Carbon Bonds 416
13.2 Alkanes 417
13.3 Petroleum Products 418
ix
Structures Of Organic Molecules 421
13.4 Structural Formulas 421
13.5 Isomers 422
13.6 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons 424
13.7 Benzene 425
Organic Compounds 427
13.8 Hydrocarbon Groups 427
13.9 Functional Groups 428
13.10 Polymers 431
Chemistry of Life 437
13.11 Carbohydrates 437
13.12 Photosynthesis 439
13.13 Lipids 440
13.14 Proteins 441
13.15 Soil Nitrogen 443
13.16 Nucleic Acids 445
13.17 Origin of Life 446
Important Terms and Ideas 448
Multiple Choice 448
Exercises 450
386
14 Atmosphere
and Hydrosphere 453
The Atmosphere 454
14.1 Regions of the Atmosphere 454
14.2 Atmospheric Moisture 458
14.3 Clouds 459
Weather 462
14.4 Atmospheric Energy 462
14.5 The Seasons 465
14.6 Winds 466
14.7 General Circulation of the Atmosphere 467
14.8 Middle-Latitude Weather Systems 470
Climate 478
14.9 Tropical Climates 478
14.10 Middle- and High-Latitude Climates 479
14.11 Climate Change 479
The Hydrosphere 483
14.12 Ocean Basins 483
14.13 Ocean Currents 485
Important Terms and Ideas 487
Multiple Choice 488
Exercises 490
415
15 The Rock Cycle 493
Rocks 494
15.1 Composition of the Crust 494
15.2 Minerals 495
x Contents
15.3 Igneous Rocks 497
15.4 Sedimentary Rocks 498
15.5 Metamorphic Rocks 500
Within the Earth 502
15.6 Earthquakes 502
15.7 Structure of the Earth 504
15.8 The Earth’s Interior 509
15.9 Geomagnetism 511
Erosion 512
15.10 Weathering 512
15.11 Stream Erosion 514
15.12 Glaciers 516
15.13 Groundwater 518
15.14 Sedimentation 519
Vulcanism 523
15.15 Volcanoes 523
15.16 Intrusive Rocks 527
15.17 The Rock Cycle 529
Important Terms and Ideas 530
Multiple Choice 530
Exercises 532
16 The Evolving Earth
Tectonic Movement 536
16.1 Types of Deformation 536
16.2 Mountain Building 538
16.3 Continental Drift 539
Plate Tectonics 542
16.4 Lithosphere and Asthenosphere 542
16.5 The Ocean Floors 543
16.6 Ocean-Floor Spreading 544
16.7 Plate Tectonics 545
Methods of Historical Geology 553
16.8 Principle of Uniform Change 553
16.9 Rock Formations 554
16.10 Radiometric Dating 557
16.11 Fossils 559
16.12 Geologic Time 560
Earth History 562
16.13 Precambrian Time 563
16.14 The Paleozoic Era 564
16.15 Coal and Petroleum 566
16.16 The Mesozoic Era 568
16.17 The Cenozoic Era 571
16.18 Human History 573
Important Terms and Ideas 576
Multiple Choice 577
Exercises 579
17 The Solar System 581
The Family of the Sun 582
17.1 The Solar System 583
17.2 Comets 584
17.3 Meteors 587
The Inner Planets 590
17.4 Mercury 590
17.5 Venus 591
17.6 Mars 594
17.7 Is There Life on Mars? 596
17.8 Asteroids 598
The Outer Planets 601
17.9 Jupiter 601
17.10 Saturn 604
17.11 Uranus, Neptune, Pluto, and More 606
The Moon 609
17.12 Phases of the Moon 610
17.13 Eclipses 611
17.14 Lunar Surface and Interior 612
17.15 Evolution of the Lunar Landscape 617
17.16 Origin of the Moon 617
Important Terms and Ideas 618
535 Multiple Choice 619
Exercises 621
18 The Stars 623
Tools of Astronomy 624
18.1 The Telescope 624
18.2 The Spectrometer 627
18.3 Spectrum Analysis 627
The Sun 629
18.4 Properties of the Sun 629
18.5 The Aurora 631
18.6 Sunspots 632
18.7 Solar Energy 634
The Stars 636
18.8 Stellar Distances 636
18.9 Variable Stars 637
18.10 Stellar Motions 638
18.11 Stellar Properties 639
Life Histories of the Stars 640
18.12 H-R Diagram 640
18.13 Stellar Evolution 642
18.14 Supernovas 644
18.15 Pulsars 646
18.16 Black Holes 646
Important Terms and Ideas 649
Multiple Choice 649
Exercises 651
Contents xi

Extraterrestrial Life 675

19 The Universe 653 19.11 Exoplanets 675
Galaxies 654 19.12 Interstellar Travel 677
19.13 Interstellar Communication 678
19.1 The Milky Way 654
19.2 Stellar Populations 657 Important Terms and Ideas 679
19.3 Radio Astronomy 657 Multiple Choice 679
19.4 Galaxies 659 Exercises 681
19.5 Cosmic Rays 662 Math Refresher A-1
The Expanding Universe 664
The Elements A-10
19.6 Red Shifts 664
19.7 Quasars 666 Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions and
Odd-Numbered Exercises A-11
Evolution Of The Universe 667
19.8 Dating the Universe 667 Photo Credits C-1
19.9 After the Big Bang 668
19.10 Origin of the Solar System 673 Index I-1
Preface

Creating Informed Citizens

The aim of The Physical Universe is to present, as simply and clearly as possible, the
essentials of physics, chemistry, earth science, and astronomy to students whose main
interests lie elsewhere.
Because of the scope of these sciences and because we assume minimal prepara-
tion on the part of the reader, our choice of topics and how far to develop them had to
be limited. The emphasis throughout is on the basic concepts of each discipline. We
also try to show how scientists approach problems and why science is a never-ending
quest rather than a fixed set of facts.
The book concentrates on those aspects of the physical sciences most relevant to
a nonscientist who wants to understand how the universe works and to know some-
thing about the connections between science and everyday life. We hope to equip
readers to appreciate major developments in science as they arrive and to be able to
act as informed citizens on matters that involve science and public policy. In particu-
lar, there are serious questions today concerning energy supply and use and the con-
tribution of carbon dioxide emissions to climate change. Debates on these questions
require a certain amount of scientific literacy, which this book is intended to provide,
in order that sensible choices be made that will determine the welfare of generations
to come. Past choices have not always benefited our planet and its inhabitants: it is up
to us to see that future choices do.
“[Krauskopf/Beiser’s The Physical Universe provides] a good coverage of the basic
physical sciences. It gives the basic principles of the different physical sciences and
builds real content knowledge. (In contrast, so many texts now tend to “discuss”
topics rather than developing an understanding of basic principles.) It has sufficient
real-world applications to make the text interesting to the students. I like the way
timely, controversial topics are discussed.”
—Linda Arney Wilson, Middle Tennessee State University

Scope and Organization

There are many possible ways to organize a book of this kind. We chose the one that
provides the most logical progression of ideas, so that each new subject builds on the
ones that came before.
“This textbook has more of what we teach in Physical Science than any other book
on the market. The improvement of each revision is great. . . . I have used four
editions of this textbook because it is well written; the multiple-choice questions and
the end-of-the-chapter questions and problems provide numerous opportunities for
the student to apply concepts discussed in each chapter. Numerous illustrations are
provided for the more visual learner.”
—Etta C. Gravely, NC A&T University

xii
Preface xiii

Our first concern in The Physical Universe is the scientific method, using as illus-
tration the steps that led to today’s picture of the universe and the earth’s place in
it. Next we consider motion and the influences that affect moving bodies. Gravity,
energy, and momentum are examined, and the theory of relativity is introduced. Then
we examine the many issues associated with the energy that today’s world consumes in
ever-increasing amounts and the accompanying environmental consequences. Matter
in its three states now draws our attention, and we pursue this theme from the kinetic-
molecular model to the laws of thermodynamics and the significance of entropy. A
grounding in electricity and magnetism follows, and then an exploration of wave phe-
nomena that includes the electromagnetic theory of light. We go on from there to the
atomic nucleus and elementary particles, followed by a discussion of the quantum
theories of light and of matter that lead to the modern view of atomic structure.
“This was my favorite chapter [Chapter 1]. It was also my students’ favorite.
It generated a great deal of discussion and it motivated the students. . . . I was
extremely impressed with how this text introduced the scientific method and then
used that methodology to discuss one of the “Great Debates” in scientific history,
Geocentric vs. Heliocentric. My students not only learned how the method is applied,
but they enjoyed the banter of which view made sense. In fact, I received a number of
emails where students went out on their own to do further investigation. . . . It also
set the stage for more engaging conversation about the world around them.”
—Leroy Salary, Jr., Norfolk State University
The transition from physics to chemistry is made via the periodic table. A look at
chemical bonds and how they act to hold together molecules, solids, and liquids is fol-
lowed by a survey of chemical reactions, organic chemistry, and the chemistry of life.
“The authors do a great job of explaining the historical relevance of the periodic
table and they give an excellent introduction of the definition of what is chemistry
by painting a clear picture of how to relate atoms and elements to compounds and
chemical reactions.”
—Antonie H. Rice, University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff
Our concern next shifts to the planet on which we live, and we begin by inquiring
into the oceans of air and water that cover it. From there we proceed to the materials of
the earth, to its ever-evolving crust, and to its no-longer-mysterious interior. After a sur-
vey of the main events in the earth’s geological history we go on to what we know about
our nearest neighbors in space—planets and satellites, asteroids, meteoroids, and comets.
Now the sun, the monarch of the solar system and the provider of nearly all our
energy, claims our notice. We go on to broaden our astronomical sights to include the
other stars, both individually and as members of the immense assemblies called gal-
axies. The evolution of the universe starting from the big bang is the last major sub-
ject, and we end with the origin of the earth and the likelihood that other inhabited
planets exist in the universe and how we might communicate with them.
“This is one of the best chapters [Chapter 18] on stars in a text of this level that I have
read. It addresses the various aspects of the stars (size, distance, evolution, etc.) in an
easy to understand manner. It also provides information concerning the history of
the current knowledge of stars.”
—Wilda Pounds, Northeast Mississippi Community College
Website
A website (www.mhhe.com/krauskopf ) has been established that contains additional
material of various kinds, such as more complex examples and expansions of some
topics treated only briefly in the book. The glossary is now in the website.
xiv Preface

Mathematical Level
The physical sciences are quantitative, which has both advantages and disadvantages.
On the plus side, the use of mathematics allows many concepts to be put in the form
of clear, definite statements that can be carried further by reasoning and whose pre-
dictions can be tested objectively. Less welcome is the discomfort many of us feel
when faced with mathematical discussions.
The mathematical level of The Physical Universe follows Albert Einstein’s pre-
scription for physical theories: “Everything should be as simple as possible, but not
simpler.” A modest amount of mathematics enables the book to show how science
makes sense of the natural world and how its findings led to the technological world
of today. In general, the more complicated material supplements rather than domi-
nates the presentation, and full mastery is not needed to understand the rest of the
book. The basic algebra needed is reviewed in the Math Refresher. Powers-of-ten
notation for small and large numbers is carefully explained there. This section is self-
contained and can provide all the math background needed.
How much mathematics is appropriate for a given classroom is for each instruc-
tor to decide. To this end, a section is included in the Instructor’s Manual that lists
the slightly more difficult computational material in the text. This material can be
covered as wished or omitted without affecting the continuity or conceptual coverage
of a course.
“The author has done a wonderful job balancing the verbal and mathematical
explanations. The clear, well-labeled diagrams included to assist understanding
mathematical expressions are excellent.”
—Paul A. Withey, Northwestern State University of Louisiana

New To This Edition

Because the organization of the previous edition worked well in the classroom, it was
not altered.
The entire book was brought up to date and new material was added where
appropriate, in many cases at the suggestion of reviewers of the previous edition.
Twenty-four new sidebars and 29 illustrations are new to this edition, with 14 other
illustrations revised. New sections and sections with significant revisions are as follows:
Chapter 1 The Scientific Method Section 1.12 The SI System was revised with
more detail on significant figures.
Chapter 2 Motion In Section 2.12 Circular Motion centripetal acceleration was
introduced. Section 2.14 Artificial Satellites was updated and now also includes the
equation for escape speed.
Chapter 3 Energy Section 3.5 Conservation of Energy was revised for greater
clarity and now includes an introduction to the work-energy theorem as well as more
detail on various forms of energy. A new Section 3.6 Mechanical Advantage analyzes
various simple machines with examples.
Chapter 4 Energy and the Future The entire chapter was revised with updates on
population pressure, climate change, fossil fuel reserves, alternative energy sources, and
conservation efforts. New information is provided on coal, shale oil and gas, transport
fuels, nuclear energy and energy storage. A new Section 4.13 Comparison of Electric-
ity Sources was added that considers the economics and carbon dioxide emissions of
electricity sources. Section 4.15 What Governments Must Do was updated to include
the latest efforts at international agreements aimed at moderating climate change.
Chapter 5 Matter and Heat Section 5.7 The Gas Laws was revised with a worked
example on the ideal gas law. Section 5.9 Molecular Motion and Temperature now
has graphs that show how molecular speeds vary temperature and molecular mass
together with a discussion of how these variations affect planetary atmospheres.
Preface xv

Chapter 6 Electricity and Magnetism Section 6.7 Superconductivity has been

expanded to include more on superconductor applications. Section 6.16 Magnetic
Force on a Current has been updated with new information on maglev trains.
Section 6.19 Transformers has been revised with a closer look at how they function
and more information on the U.S. power grid.
Chapter 8 The Nucleus Section 8.5 Radiation Hazards has been revised with
updated information on radiation and health, including typical dosages from medical
x-rays and other sources together with the consequences of excessive exposures. Sec-
tion 8.10 How a Reactor Works includes a look at modern reactor technology and a
sidebar on nuclear waste disposal. There is also a new Section 8.11 Reactor Accidents
with recent information on Fukushima and a sidebar on radioactive contamination
of the environment after such events.
Chapter 10 The Periodic law The periodic table has been updated in Section 10.7.
Section 10.8 Groups and Periods includes new information and a new sidebar on rare
earth metals. Section 10.12 Covalent Bonding has a new discussion with illustrations
of molecular orbitals and a new sidebar on free radicals.
Chapter 11 Crystals, Ions, and Solutions Section 11.8 Water has been updated
with recent data on supply and consumption.
Chapter 12 Chemical Reactions Section 12.5 Exothermic and Endothermic
Reactions had been revised to use measurements expressed in moles. Section 12.6
Chemical Energy and Stability includes a new worked example and a new illustration
on energy changes. Section 12.7 Activation Energy now includes a worked example
and a sidebar on airbags.
Chapter 13 Organic Chemistry Section 13.4 Structural Formulas has a new
sidebar on hybrid orbitals with illustrations, and Section 13.5 Isomers has a new side-
bar on isomers in biology. Section 13.6 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons has been updated
with new sidebars on ethene and on multiple bonds. Section 13.7 Benzene includes
a new illustration of bonding in the benzene molecule. Section 13.10 Polymers has
more information on polythene and a new table of recycling codes. Section 13.13
Lipids has been revised with more material on the health aspects of saturated and
unsaturated fats, hydrogenation, cholesterol, and lipoproteins.
Chapter 14 Atmosphere and Hydrosphere Section 14.11 Climate Change
includes two new illustrations and an update on CO2 levels. Section 14.13 Ocean
Currents has been revised with additional material on gyres and pollution.
Chapter 15 The Rock Cycle Section 15.6 Earthquakes has been updated together
with a new map of predicted earthquake activity in the United States.
Chapter 16 The Evolving Earth Section 16.10 Radiometric Dating was expanded
based on reviewer feedback. Section 16.18 Human History contains new information
on the evolution of humans and what has been discovered about our recent cousin
species.
Chapter 17 The Solar System Section 17.4 Mercury has been revised with addi-
tional information on the planet’s crust and core, and the sidebar on the Messenger
spacecraft mission has been updated. Section 17.7 Is There Life on Mars? has a new
sidebar on the latest Mars rover, Curiosity. Section 17.12 Phases of the Moon has a
new sidebar on Climate Change and the Moon, and the predicted solar and lunar
eclipse data in Section 17.13 Eclipses was updated.
Chapter 18 The Stars Section 18.1 The Telescope has been updated with accounts
of new and planned giant telescopes, some in space. Modern terms are now used
for various stellar properties throughout the chapter. Section 18.12 H-R Diagram
includes a revised Hertzsprung-Russell diagram.
xvi Preface

Chapter 19 The Universe Section 19.3 Radio Astronomy has been updated
with plans for new radiotelescopes. Section 19.4 Galaxies has an expanded treat-
ment of dark matter with attention to why it is believed to make up most of the
matter in the universe. Section 19.8 Dating the Universe includes a new sidebar
What We Will Never Know. Section 19.11 Exoplanets and Section
19.13 Interstellar Communication have both been updated with new
information.
1 The Scientific Method
“Chapter 4 is a now-necessary application of what these students are
IX Cr
ystalline
re of the fi
sphere. Primum M
xed stars. The
obile learning about energy, chemistry, and the evolving earth and our
Sphe Zodi
VIII ac
VII Sph
ere
here
of Satur
of Jupite
n
responsible use of scientific knowledge and technological enhancements to
VI S p r
V Sph
e re
here
of Mars
of the S
human life.”
IV Sp un
CHAPTER OUTLINE AND GOALS here of Venu
III Sp
Some of the notable findings and ideas this I I Sp
h e re o f Merc
s
ur y —Roxanne R. Lane, Northwestern State University of Louisiana, Natchitoches
chapter introduces are indicated (•) for each of the
here
section below: I Sp Mo
on
Earthly
Paradise
How Scientists Study Nature
1.1 The Scientific Method Purgatory
ere
Four Steps
• What the scientific method is.
• The difference between a law and a
isphter
emf wa
Fire
The Learning System
H
o
Air

theory.
• The role of models in science.
1.2 WhyMotion
Describing Science Is Successful
Science Is a Living Body of Knowledge,
29
A variety of aids are provided in The Physical Universe to help the reader
Hemis rth

Not a Set of Frozen Ideas

of E a

• Why the The

scientific methodformula
is so success-
Distance previous can
be rewritten in two ways. Suppose we want to
ful in understanding the natural world.
know how far a car whose average speed is v goes in a time t. To find out, we must Frame of Reference
master the text.
ph

v 5 dSystem e the Math

er

The Solar
solve /t for a distance d. According to one of the rules of algebra (see
1.3 A Survey of the Skyof this book), a quantity that divides one side of an equation can When we say something is mov-
Refresher at the back
ing, we mean that its position
d

Everything Seems to Circle the North Hell

oo

be shifted to multiply the other side. Thus

Star Je r relative Wto something else—the
d_ usa ark of reference—is chang-
frame
Chapter Opener An outline provides a preview of major topics,
• Why Polaris seems almost stationary in
v 5 ___ l em e D The choice of an appropriate
the sky. t Thing.
• How to distinguish planets from stars frame of reference depends on
becomes
without a telescope. Medieval picture of the universe.
the situation. In the case of a car,
1.4 The Ptolemaic System
The Earth as the Center of the Universe
• How the ptolemaic system explains the
d_
v 5 ___
t
Universal Gravitation
for instance, the obvious frame of
1.11 The Discovery of Neptune
reference is the road it is on.
Another Triumph for the Law of Gravity
showing at a glance what the chapter covers. Notable findings and ideas
astronomical universe. vt 5 1.8
d What Is Gravity? In other cases things may
1.5 The Copernican System
whichAisSpinning
the same asThat Circles the Sun
Earth
• How the copernican system explains
A Fundamental Force
• Why gravity is a fundamental force.
1.9 Why the Earth Is Round
• The role of the scientific method in
not be asohitherto
finding straightforward.
use the earth as our frame of ref-
Howerence,
Many of theWhat
sun and planets move
If we
unknown planet.
the chapter introduces are listed in order by section.
the astronomical system. d 5 vt The Big Squeeze 2-2 1.12 relative
The SI System
to us in complicated
• What keeps the earth from being All Scientists Use These Units
1.6 Kepler’s Laws paths, as in Figs. 1-5 and 1-7.
How the Planets Actually Move
Distance 5 (speed)(time)
a perfect sphere. • How to go from one system of units to
On the other hand, if we use the
• The significance of Kepler’s laws.
Time In another situation we might want to Up
1.7 Why Copernicus Was Right
moving
1.10 The Tides

at a certain speed to cover a certain distance.

Evidence Was Needed That Supported
know how Twice
and Down
In other
• The origin
long aitDay
takes something
words, we know v and
of the tides.
another.
Theas
•sun
earth
useour frameprefixes
of metric of reference,
for smallthe
and the other planets move
large quantities.
and Illustrations The illustrations, both line drawings and photographs,
d andHiswant to While the time t. What we do here• The
find Contradicting is solve d 5between
difference spring
vtt for the and t. From
time •relative to it infigures
What significant simplearepaths,
and howasto
Model
basic algebra
Ptolemy’sweModel
neap tides and how it comes about.
know that something that multiplies one side of an equation can be
shifted to divide the other side. What we do, then, is shift the v in the formula d 5 vt
• How parallax decides which system
provides the best explanation for what
incalculate withNewton
Fig. 1-8. them. was able to
interpret these motions in terms
of the gravitational pull of the
are full partners to the text and provide a visual pathway to understand-
to divide the d:
we see.

d5vt
sun, whereas he would not have
been able to discover the law of
gravity if he had used the earth as 1
ing scientific observations and principles for students unaccustomed to
which is the same as
d_ 5 t
___
v
his frame of reference.
abstract argument.
kra1392X_ch01_001-026.indd 1
d
t 5 __ 2-3 07/08/12 1:40 PM
v
distance
Time 5 _______
speed Worked Examples A full grasp of physical and chemical ideas
Example 2.1 includes an ability to solve problems based on these ideas. Some stu-
How far does a car travel in 6 hours when its average speed is 40 km/h?
Solution dents, although able to follow the discussions in the book, nevertheless
We put v 5 40 km/h and t 5 6 h into Eq. 2-2 to find that (Fig. 2-2)

d 5 vt 5 40 ___
We see that, since h/h 5 1, the hours cancel out to give just kilometers in the answer.
10
B I O G R A P H Y
When Columbus made his first voy-
age to the New World Copernicus
was a student in his native Poland.
kra1392X_ch02_027-061.indd 29
In the years that followed intellec-
tual as well as geographical horizons
receded before eager explorers. In
1496 Copernicus went to Italy to
learn medicine, theology, and astron-
omy. Italy was then an exciting place
to be, a place of business expansion
and conflicts between rival cities,
great fortunes and corrupt govern-
ments, brilliant thinkers and inspired
artists such as Leonardo da Vinci and
Michelangelo.
After 10 years in Italy Copernicus
returned to Poland where he prac-
ticed medicine, served as a canon in
the cathedral of which his uncle was
the bishop, and became involved in
(
h )
km (6 h) 5 240 ___
( )
km (h) 5 240 km
h
may have trouble putting their knowledge to use in this way. To help
them, detailed solutions of typical problems are provided that show
Figure 2-2 A car whose average
speed is 40 km/h travels 240 km in
6 hours. how to apply formulas and equations to real-world situations. Besides
the worked examples, answers and outline solutions for half the end-of-
Chapter 1 The Scientific Method
chapter exercises are given at the end of the text. Thinking through the
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543)
model solutions should bring the unsolved even-numbered problems
currency reform, but much of his time
was devoted to developing the idea
that the planets move around the sun
within reach. In addition to its role in reinforcing the understanding of
physical and chemical ideas, solving problems can provide great plea-
07/08/12 2:12 PM
rather than around the earth. The idea
was not new—the ancient Greeks were
aware of it—but Copernicus went fur-
ther and worked out the planetary
orbits and speeds in detail. Although
a summary of his results had been
sure, and it would be a shame to miss out on this pleasure. The worked
circulated in manuscript form earlier,
not until a few weeks before his death
was Copernicus’s De Revolutionibus
examples in the text are not limited to problems—nearly half of them
Orbium Coelestium published in book
form.
Today De Revolutionibus is recog-
nized as one of the foundation stones
show how basic ideas can be used to answer serious questions that do not
of modern science, but soon after
its appearance it was condemned by
the Catholic Church (which did not
impact on astronomy until Kepler
further developed its concepts over a
involve calculations.
lift its ban until 1835) and had little half century later.

the daily rising and setting of celestial objects, not the motions of these objects. The
apparent shifting of the sun among the stars is due to the earth’s motion in its orbit.
As the earth swings around the sun, we see the sun changing its position against the
background of the stars. The moon’s gradual eastward drift is mainly due to its orbital
Bringing Science to Life
motion. Apparently irregular movements of the planets are really just combinations
of their motions with our own shifts of position as the earth moves.
The copernican system offended both Protestant and Catholic religious lead-
ers, who did not want to see the earth taken from its place at the hub of the universe.
Biographies Brief biographies of 40 major figures in the development
The publication of Copernicus’s manuscript began a long and bitter argument. To us,

Leap Years
A day is the time needed for the
earth to make a complete turn on
its axis, and a year is the time it
needs to complete an orbit around
the sun. The length of the year is
slightly less than 365 days and
6 hours. Thus adding an extra day
to February every 4 years (namely
those years evenly divisible by 4,
which are accordingly called leap
years) keeps the seasons from
shifting around the calendar.
The remaining discrepancy
adds up to a full day too much
every 128 years. To take care of
most of this discrepancy, century
years not divisible by 400 will not
be leap years; thus 2000 was a leap
year but 2100 will not be one.
kra1392X_ch01_001-026.indd 10
growing up with the knowledge that the earth moves, it seems odd that this straight-
forward idea was so long and so violently opposed. But in the sixteenth century good
of the physical sciences appear where appropriate throughout the text.
arguments were available to both sides.
Consider, said supporters of Ptolemy, how fast the earth’s surface must move to
complete a full turn every 24 h. Would not everything loose be flung into space by
The biographies provide human and historical perspectives by attaching
this whirling ball, just as mud is thrown from the rim of a carriage wheel? And would
not such dizzying speeds produce a great wind to blow down buildings, trees, plants?
The earth does spin rapidly, replied the followers of Copernicus, but the effects are
faces and stories to milestones in these sciences.
counterbalanced by whatever force it is that holds our feet to the ground. Besides, if
the speed of the earth’s rotation is a problem, how much more of a problem would
be the tremendous speeds of the sun, stars, and planets if they revolve, as Ptolemy
thought, once a day around a fixed earth?
Sidebars These are brief accounts of topics related to the main text. A
1.6 Kepler’s Laws
How the Planets Actually Move sidebar may provide additional information on a particular subject, com-
Fortunately, improvements in astronomical measurements—the first since the time
of the Greeks—were not long in coming. Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), an astronomer
working for the Danish king, built an observatory on the island of Hven near Copen-
ment on its significance, describe its applications, consider its historical
hagen in which the instruments were remarkably precise (Fig. 1-9). With the help
of these instruments, Tycho, blessed with exceptional eyesight and patience, made
thousands of measurements, a labor that occupied much of his life. Even without the
background, or present recent findings. Twenty-four new ones have been
added for this edition.
07/08/12 1:40 PM
Preface
“The textbook does a nice job of covering contemporary topics, which is a way to
keep non-science majors interested. I also like the biographies and have sometimes
assigned students to go deeper into someone’s biography and report to class.
Somehow, making these scientists become ‘real’ for the students makes them enjoy
the course more. I also like to show them how some of the topics covered in the course
are fairly recent, how there are things we still do not understand. It is important for
them to know that science is alive and continues to develop its body of knowledge.”
—Ana Ciereszko, Miami Dade College
End-of-Chapter Features
Important Terms and Ideas Important terms introduced in the
chapter are listed together with their meanings, which serves as a chapter
summary. A list of the Important Formulas needed to solve problems
based on the chapter material is also given where appropriate.
Exercises An average of over a hundred exercises on all levels of dif-
ficulty follow each chapter, almost a fifth of them new. They are of three
kinds, multiple choice, questions, and problems:
• Multiple Choice An average chapter has 41 Multiple-Choice exer-
cises (with answers at the back of the book) that act as a quick, pain-
less check on understanding. Correct answers provide reinforcement
and encouragement; incorrect ones identify areas of weakness.
• Exercises Exercises consist of both questions and problems arranged
according to the corresponding text section. Each group begins with
questions and goes on to problems. Some of the questions are meant
to find out how well the reader has understood the chapter mate-
rial. Others ask the reader to apply what he or she has learned to
new situations. Answers to the odd-numbered questions are given
at the back of the book. The physics and chemistry chapters include
problems that range from quite easy to moderately challenging. The
ability to work out such problems signifies a real understanding of these subjects.
kra1392X_ch01_001-026.indd 25
Outline solutions (not just answers) for the odd-numbered problems are given at
the back of the book.
“The multiple-choice exercises and the questions and problems are a very nice
feature of this book and it is definitely above average. . . . There is a good balance
between the conceptual versus computational questions.”
—Omar Franco Guerrero, University of Delaware
McGraw-Hill ConnectPlus™ Physical Science
ConnectPlus offers an innovative and inexpensive electronic textbook integrated
within the Connect online homework platform. ConnectPlus Physical Science pro-
vides students with online assignments and assessments and 24/7 online access to an
eBook—an online edition of the The Physical Universe text.
With ConnectPlus Physical Science, instructors can deliver assignments, quizzes,
and tests online.
• All of the Exercises from The Physical Universe 15E text are presented in an auto-
gradable format and tied to the text’s learning objectives. Exercises are formatted
in either multiple-choice or open-ended numeric entry, with a variety of static
and randomized, algorithmic versions.
• Questions and Interactive Problems from the Student Study Guide are also avail-
able in an auto-gradable format.
xvii
Exercises 25
22. Of the following, the longest is 24. The measurements of a room are given as length 5 5.28 m
a. 1000 ft
b. 500 m
c. 1 km
d. 1 mi
23. A person is 180 cm tall. This is equivalent to
and width 5 3.1 m. Since (5.28)(3.1) 5 16.368, the room’s
area is correctly expressed as
a. 16 m2 c. 16.4 m2
a. 4 ft 6 in.
b. 5 ft 9 in.
c. 5 ft 11 in.
d. 7 ft 1 in.
b. 16.0 m2 d. 16.368 m2
Exercises
1.2 Why Science Is Successful complete circuit; (c) the eastward drift of the moon rela-
1. What role does “common sense” play in the scientific tive to the stars that takes about 4 weeks for a complete
circuit.
method?
2. What is the basic distinction between the scientific
method and other ways of looking at the natural world?
16. What do you think is the reason scientists use an ellipse
rather than a circle as the model for a planetary orbit?
3. What is the difference between a hypothesis and a law?
Between a law and a theory?
4. Scientific models do not correspond exactly to reality.
17. The average distance from the earth to the sun is called
the astronomical unit (AU). If an asteroid is 4 AU from
the sun and its period of revolution around the sun is
8 years, does it obey Kepler’s third law?
Why are they nevertheless so useful?
5. According to the physicist Richard Feynman, “Science is
the culture of doubt.” Does this mean that science is an
1.7 Why Copernicus Was Right
18. As the earth revolves around the sun, some stars seem
unreliable guide to the natural world? to shift their positions during the year relative to other
1.3 A Survey of the Sky stars. How is this effect (called parallax) explained in the
6. What does a year correspond to in terms of observations
of the sun and stars? 1.8
ptolemaic system? In the copernican system?
What Is Gravity?
19. Why is gravity considered a fundamental force whereas
7. You are lost in the northern hemisphere in the middle of
nowhere on a clear night. How could you tell the direc-
tion of north by looking at the sky? 1.9
the force a bat exerts on a ball is not?
Why the Earth Is Round
8. In terms of what you would actually observe, what does 20. What, if anything, would happen to the shape of the earth
it mean to say that the moon apparently moves eastward
among the stars?
if it were to rotate on its axis faster than it does today?
1.10 The Tides
9. What must be your location if the stars move across the
1.5
sky in circles centered directly overhead?
The Copernican System
21. What is the difference between spring and neap tides?
Under what circumstances does each occur?
22. The length of the day has varied. When did the longest
10. How do leap years fit into the ptolemaic system? Into the
copernican system?
11. From observations of the moon, why would you conclude
day thus far occur?
23. The earth takes almost exactly 24 h to make a complete
turn on its axis, so we might expect each high tide to
that it is a relatively small body revolving around the earth
rather than another planet revolving around the sun?
12. The sun, moon, and planets all follow approximately the
occur 12 h after the one before. However, the actual time
between high tides is 12 h 25 min. Can you account for
the difference?
same path from east to west across the sky. What does
this suggest about the arrangement of these members of
the solar system in space?
24. Does the sun or the moon have the greater influence in
causing tides?
1.12 The SI System
13. What is the basic difference between the ptolemaic and
copernican models? Why is the ptolemaic model consid-
ered incorrect?
25. In the following pairs of length units, which is the
shorter: inch, centimeter? Yard, meter? Mile, kilometer?
26. A European driving from Paris to Brussels finds she has
14. Ancient astronomers were troubled by variations in the
brightnesses of the various planets with time. Does the
ptolemaic or the copernican model account better for
covered 291 km. How many miles is this?
27. The world’s tallest tree is a sequoia in California 368 ft
these variations? high. How high is this in meters? In kilometers?
15. Compare the ptolemaic and copernican explanations
for (a) the rising and setting of the sun; (b) the eastward
28. The diameter of an atom is roughly 104 times the diam-
eter of its nucleus. If the nucleus of an atom were 1 mm
drift of the sun relative to the stars that takes a year for a across, how many feet across would the atom be?
07/08/12 2:46 PM
xviii Preface

Instructors can edit existing questions or author entirely new problems. Track indi-
vidual student performance—by question, assignment or in relation to the class
overall—with detailed grade reports. Integrate grade reports easily with Learning
Management Systems (LMS) such as WebCT and Blackboard. And much more.
By choosing ConnectPlus Physical Science, instructors are providing their stu-
dents with a powerful tool for improving academic performance and truly mastering
course material. ConnectPlus Physical Science allows students to practice important
skills at their own pace and on their own schedule. Importantly, students’ assessment
results and instructors’ feedback are all saved online—so students can continually
review their progress and plot their course to success.
As part of the ehomework process, instructors can assign chapter and section
readings from the text. With ConnectPlus, links to relevant text topics are also pro-
vided where students need them most—accessed directly from the ehomework
problem!
The ConnectPlus eBook:
• Provides students with an online eBook, allowing for anytime, anywhere access
to The Physical Universe textbook to aid them in successfully completing their
work, wherever and whenever they choose.
• Includes Community Notes for student-to-student or instructor-to-student note
sharing to greatly enhance the user learning experience.
• Allows for insertion of lecture discussions or instructor-created additional exam-
ples using Tegrity (see page xxi) to provide additional clarification or varied cov-
erage on a topic.
• Merges media and assessments with the text’s narrative to engage students and
improve learning and retention. The eBook includes animations and inline
assessment questions.
• Pinpoints and connects key physical science concepts in a snap using the power-
ful eBook search engine.
• Manages notes, highlights, and bookmarks in one place for simple, comprehen-
sive review.
With the ConnectPlus companion site, instructors also have access to PowerPoint lec-
ture outlines, the Instructor’s Manual, PowerPoint files with electronic images from
the text, clicker questions, quizzes, animations, and many other resources directly
tied to text-specific materials in The Physical Universe.
Students have access to a variety of self-quizzes, key term matching exercises,
animations, web links, additional worked examples, and expansions of some top-
ics treated only briefly in the text. The
Glossary is now on the website, and
important new developments in the
physical sciences will be described on
the website as they are reported.
See www.mhhe.com/krauskopf to
learn more and register.

McGraw-Hill LearnSmart™
McGraw-Hill LearnSmart™ is avail-
able as a stand-alone product as well as
an integrated feature of McGraw-Hill
Connect® Physical Science. It is an adap-
tive learning system designed to help
students learn faster, study more effi-
ciently, and retain more knowledge for
greater success. LearnSmart assesses a
student’s knowledge of course content
Preface xix

through a series of probes, pinpointing concepts the student does not understand.
This innovative study tool also has features that allow instructors to see exactly what
students have accomplished and a built-in assessment tool for graded assignments.
Visit the following site for a demonstration. www.mhlearnsmart.com

CourseSmart eBook
CourseSmart is a new way for faculty to find and review eBooks. It’s also a great option
for students who are interested in accessing their course materials digitally and sav-
ing money. CourseSmart offers thousands of the most commonly adopted textbooks
across hundreds of courses from a wide variety of higher education publishers. It is
the only place for faculty to review and compare the full text of a textbook online,
providing immediate access without the environmental consequences of requesting a
print exam copy. At CourseSmart, students can save up to 50% off the cost of a print
book, reduce their impact on the environment, and gain access to powerful Web tools
for learning, including full text search, notes and highlighting, and email tools for
sharing notes between classmates. For further details, contact your sales representa-
tive or go to www.coursesmart.com.

Create
Visit www.mcgrawhillcreate.com today to register and experience how McGraw-Hill
Create™ empowers you to teach your students your way.
With McGraw-Hill Create™, www.mcgrawhillcreate.com, instructors can easily
rearrange text chapters, combine material from other content sources, and quickly
upload their own content, such as course syllabus or teaching notes. Content can
be found in Create by searching through thousands of leading McGraw-Hill text-
books. Create allows instructors to arrange texts to fit their teaching style. Create also
allows users to personalize a book’s appearance by selecting the cover and adding
the instructor’s name, school, and course information. With Create, instructors can
receive a complimentary print review copy in 3–5 business days or a complimentary
electronic review copy (eComp) via email in minutes.

Complete Set of Assets for Instructors and Students

Presentation Tools
Build instructional materials wherever, whenever, and however you want!
Accessed from your textbook’s website, an online digital resource containing
photos, artwork, and other images can be used to create customized lectures, visually
enhanced tests and quizzes, compelling course websites, or attractive printed support
materials. All assets are copyrighted by McGraw-Hill Higher Education, but can be
used by instructors for classroom purposes. The visual resources in this collection
include:
• Art Full-color digital files of all illustrations in the book can be readily incor-
porated into lecture presentations, exams, or custom-made classroom materials.
In addition, all files are pre-inserted into PowerPoint slides for ease of lecture
preparation.
• Photos The photos collection contains digital files of photographs from the text,
which can be reproduced for multiple classroom uses.
• Tables and Worked Examples Tables and Worked Examples that appear in the
text have been saved in electronic form for use in classroom presentations and/or
quizzes.
• Animations Numerous full-color animations illustrating important processes
are also provided. Harness the visual impact of concepts in motion by incor-
porating these animated examples in classroom presentations or online course
materials.
xx Preface

Also residing on your textbook’s website are:

• PowerPoint Lecture Outlines Ready-made presentations that combine art and
lecture notes are provided for each chapter of the text.
• PowerPoint Slides For instructors who prefer to create their lectures from
scratch, illustrations, photos, tables, and worked examples from the text are pre-
inserted by chapter into PowerPoint slides.

Computerized Test Bank Online

A comprehensive bank of test questions is provided within a computerized test bank
powered by McGraw-Hill’s flexible electronic testing program EZ Test Online (www
.eztestonline.com). EZ Test Online allows you to create paper and online tests or
quizzes in this easy to use program!
Imagine being able to create and access your test or quiz anywhere, at any time
without installing the testing software. Now, with EZ Test Online, instructors can
select questions from multiple McGraw-Hill test banks or author their own, and then
either print the test for paper distribution or give it online.
Test Creation
• Author/edit questions online using the 14 different question type templates.
• Create printed tests or deliver online to get instant scoring and feedback.
• Create questions pools to offer multiple versions online—great for practice.
• Export your tests for use in WebCT, Blackboard, PageOut, and Apple’s iQuiz.
• Compatible with EZ Test Desktop tests you’ve already created.
• Sharing tests with colleagues, adjuncts, TAs is easy.

Online Test Management

• Set availability dates and time limits for your quiz or test.
• Control how your test will be presented.
• Assign points by question or question type with drop-down menu.
• Provide immediate feedback to students or delay until all finish the test.
• Create practice tests online to enable student mastery.
• Your roster can be uploaded to enable student self-registration.

Online Scoring and Reporting

• Automated scoring for most of EZ Test’s numerous question types.
• Allows manual scoring for essay and other open-response questions.
• Manual rescoring and feedback is also available.
• EZ Test’s grade book is designed to easily export to your grade book.
• View basic statistical reports.

Support and Help

• User’s Guide and built-in page-specific help.
• Flash tutorials for getting started on the support site.
• Support Website—www.mhhe.com/eztest.
• Product specialist available at 1-800-331-5094.
• Online Training: http://auth.mhhe.com/mpss/workshops/.

Personal Response Systems

Personal Response Systems (“Clickers”) can bring interactivity into the classroom or
lecture hall. Wireless response systems give the instructor and students immediate feed-
back from the entire class. Wireless response pads are essentially remotes that are easy
to use and engage students, allowing instructors to motivate student preparation, inter-
activity, and active learning. Instructors receive immediate feedback to assess which
Preface xxi

concepts students understand. Questions covering the content of The Physical Universe
text and formatted in PowerPoint are available on The Physical Universe website.
“I require students to use eInstruction’s remotes. I use the remotes to measure
whether students have mastered some of the important concepts. . . . I find them very
useful—they give me immediate feedback—they allow daily attendance to be taken
quickly and rather painlessly.”
—Robert J. Backes, Pittsburg State University
“I use the website materials to prepare all my lectures in PowerPoint, since I develop
my lectures to my liking. All tests are prepared using the test bank provided by the
publisher. . . . These materials have tremendously lightened my workload. I haven’t
had to re-invent the wheel so to speak. I can change my exams every semester and
shuffle my answers from class to class. Well done.”
—Colley Baldwin, Medgar Evers College, CUNY

Student Study Guide

Another helpful resource can be found in The Physical Universe Student Study Guide.
With this study guide, students will maximize their use of The Physical Universe text
package. It supplements the text with additional, self-directed activities and comple-
ments the text by focusing on the important concepts, theories, facts, and processes
presented by the authors. The Student Study Guide ISBN 0-07-777813-8 can be cus-
tomized to your course and is available through McGraw-Hill Create™. Questions and
Interactive Problems from the Student Study Guide are also assignable in Connect-
Plus in an auto-gradable format.

McGraw-Hill Tegrity
McGraw-Hill Tegrity is a service that makes class time available all the time by auto-
matically capturing every lecture in a searchable format for students to review when
they study and complete assignments. With a simple one-click start-and-stop pro-
cess, instructors capture all computer screens and corresponding audio. Students
replay any part of any class with easy-to-use browser-based viewing on a PC or Mac.
Educators know that the more students can see, hear, and experience class resources,
the better they learn. With McGraw-Hill Tegrity students quickly recall key moments
by using McGraw-Hill Tegrity’s unique search feature. This search helps students
efficiently find what they need, when they need it across an entire semester of class
recordings. Help turn all students’ study time into learning moments immediately
supported by the class lecture.
To learn more about McGraw-Hill Tegrity, watch a 2-minute Flash demo at
http://tegritycampus.mhhe.com.

Disclaimer
McGraw-Hill offers various tools and technology products to support The Physical
Universe textbook. Students can order supplemental study materials by contacting
their campus bookstore, calling 1-800-262-4729, or online at www.shopmcgraw-hill
.com. Instructors can obtain teaching aids by calling the McGraw-Hill Customer Ser-
vice Department at 1-800-338-3987, visiting our online catalog at www.mhhe.com,
or by contacting their local McGraw-Hill sales representative.
As a full-service publisher of quality educational products, McGraw-Hill does
much more than just sell textbooks. We create and publish an extensive array of print,
video, and digital supplements to support instruction. Orders of new (versus used)
textbooks help us to defray the cost of developing such supplements, which is substan-
tial. Local McGraw-Hill representatives can be consulted to learn about the availability
of the supplements that accompany The Physical Universe. McGraw-Hill representa-
tives can be found by using the tab labeled “My Sales Rep” at www.mhhe.com.
xxii Preface

Acknowledgments
Comments from users have always been of much help in revising The Physical
Universe. Detailed reviews of its fourteenth edition by the following teachers were
especially valuable and are much appreciated:
David Arrington, Troy University David K. Kern, Whatcom Community
Arun Bansil, Northeastern University College
Angela Bickford, Northwest Missouri Alexander Konopelko, Pittsburg State
State University University
Joanne Budzien, Frostburg State University Richard Lahti, Minnesota State
Debra L. Burris, University of Central University—Moorhead
Arkansas Jay D. Mancini, Kingsborough
Brian Campbell, Southwestern Oklahoma Community College
State University Rahul Mehta, University of Central
Gerry Clarkson, Howard Payne Arkansas
University Maureen Murphy, Huntingdon College
Marc Cullison, Connors State College Kurt H. Myrmel, Pasco-Hernando
John Edwards, Piedmont Technical Community College
College Edgar Newman, Coastal Carolina
Kimberly Hamilton-Wims, Northwest University
Mississippi Community College Gabriel Niculescu, James Madison
Qifang He, Arkansas State University
University—Beebe David Peitz, Wayne State College
Lindsay Headley, Wayne State College R. Setoodeh, Milwaukee Area
Damian A. Hillman, Miles College Tech—Milwaukee
Preston Jones, University of Minh Truong, Fontbonne University
Louisiana—Monroe Todd Young, Wayne State College

Nancy Woods of Des Moines Area Community College compiled the Videolists
in the Instructor’s Manual for The Physical Universe. Linda Kondrick of Arkansas
Tech University was of great help in checking the exercises and their answers while
preparing the online homework versions of the exercises. I am grateful to all of them.
Thanks are due to the various ancillary authors. Steven Carey of the University
of Mobile wrote the Student Study Guide to accompany the text. The following con-
tributed to the many online resources: Charles Hughes of the University of Central
Oklahoma wrote the daily concept quizzes; Robert Schoch of Boston University
authored the multiple-choice quizzes; S. Raj Chaudhury of Christopher Newport
University contributed the clicker questions; and Arun Bansil of Northeastern Uni-
versity revised the PowerPoint lecture outlines. Katie Burns, Arkansas State Univer-
sity, authored feedback for the Connect online homework content, while also offering
many helpful suggestions for improving our content. Sylvester Allred, Northern
Arizona University; Adam I. Keller, Columbus State Community College; Arthur
C. Lee, Roane State Community College; Trent McDowell, University of North Carolina
at Chapel Hill; Jessica Miles; Michael D. Stage, Mount Holyoke College; Gina
S. Szablewski, University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee; and Erin Whitteck helped write
and review learning goal-oriented content for LearnSmart for The Physical Universe.
Finally, I want to thank my friends at McGraw-Hill, especially Mary Hurley and
April Southwood, for their skilled and dedicated help in producing this edition.

Arthur Beiser
Preface xxiii

Meet the Authors

Konrad B. Krauskopf was born and raised in Madison, Wisconsin, and earned a B.S.
in chemistry from University of Wisconsin in 1931. He then earned a Ph.D. in chem-
istry at the University of California in Berkeley. When the Great Depression made
jobs in chemistry scarce, Professor Krauskopf decided to study geology, which had
long fascinated him. Through additional graduate work at Stanford University, he
earned a second Ph.D. and eventually a position on the Stanford faculty. He remained
at Stanford until his retirement in 1976. During his tenure, Professor Krauskopf
also worked at various times with the U.S. Geological Survey, served with the U.S.
Army in occupied Japan, and traveled to Norway, France, and Germany on sabbatical
leaves. His research interests included field work on granites and metamorphic rocks
and laboratory study on applications of chemistry to geologic problems, especially
the formation of ore deposits. In later years, Professor Krauskopf spent time work-
ing with various government agencies on the problem of radioactive waste disposal.
Professor Krauskopf passed away on May 8, 2003.
Arthur Beiser, a native of New York City, received B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees
in physics from New York University, where he later served as Associate Professor of
Physics. He then was Senior Research Scientist at the Lamont Geological Observa-
tory of Columbia University. His research interests were chiefly in cosmic rays and
in magnetohydrodynamics as applied to geophysics and astrophysics. In addition to
theoretical work, he participated in a cosmic-ray expedition to an Alaskan peak and
directed a search for magnetohydrodynamic waves from space in various Pacific loca-
tions. A Fellow of The Explorers Club, Dr. Beiser was the first chairman of its Com-
mittee on Space Exploration. He is the author or coauthor of 36 books, mostly college
texts on physics and mathematics, 14 of which have been translated into a total of 26
languages. Two of his books are on sailing, The Proper Yacht and The Sailor’s World.
Figure 13-21 is a photograph of Dr. Beiser at the helm of his 58-ft sloop; he and his
wife Germaine have sailed over 130,000 miles, including two Atlantic crossings and a
rounding of Cape Horn. Germaine Beiser, who has degrees in physics from the Mas-
sachusetts Institute of Technology and New York University, is the author or coau-
thor of seven books on various aspects of physics and has contributed to The Physical
Universe. She is the editor of a cruising guide to the Adriatic Sea.
This page intentionally left blank
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 During the seventeenth century the opera was invented and
ardently cultivated in Italy. With the adoption of the new lyric style
of recitative and aria, much greater scope was possible for artistic
instrumental music than ever before. The violas and other bowed
instruments were brought into prominence, and in the course of the
seventeenth century formed the basis of the orchestra. Yet, during
the latter half of the sixteenth century considerable use was made of
instrumental accompaniment in church music. In the choir, directed
by Orlando Lasso, in Munich, from 1569 till 1595 there were twelve
bass singers, fifteen tenors, thirteen altos, twenty sopranos, and
thirty instrumentalists. The Dresden band had ninety-three wind
and percussion instruments, and only thirteen stringed instruments.
The curious character of some of these combinations is indicated in
the clearest possible way on the title-page of Prætorius’ “Syntagma
Musicum.” Here we see three separate choruses, each accompanied
by a separate organ. In the first of these (at the left of the illustration)
the voices are supported by stringed instruments, in the second (at
the right), by reed instruments, and in the third, by trombones and
bassoon.
Hand in hand with the development of orchestral accompaniment,
the seventeenth century witnessed a wonderful development of
organ and clavier playing. In this also Italy took the lead. The first
great artists in organ playing were Italians; the most prominent of
whom were Claudio Merulo and Giovanni Gabrieli, appointed
organists at St. Mark’s in Venice in 1551 and 1557. A noted disciple of
this Venetian organ school was the Netherlander, Jan Pieters
Sweelinck, who studied under Zarlino and Cyprian de Rore. Later he
was the teacher of various German organists, among whom was
Samuel Scheidt (1587–1654). The “father of true organ playing,”
Girolamo Frescobaldi (1587–1640), organist of St. Peter’s in Rome,
wielded even greater influence on Germany through his famous
pupils, Caspar Kerl and Jacob Froberger. Various forms of
composition, whose names suggest their Italian origin, became
common in Germany at this time; such as the capriccio, the canzona,
the toccata and the ricercata. In all these forms fugal imitation is
predominant, and the modern fugue begins to take determined
shape. Pachelbel (1653–1706), a pupil of Kerl, was the first to
combine the various advantages of both the German and Italian
schools, and his works also mark the establishment of the modern
tonal system. He made important advances in fugal art. We of to-day
recognize the wonderful artistic consistency of Bach’s master-works
in the fugue form. We note that they are composed of various
sections which include separate developments of a principal theme,
and that these sections are connected by episodical passages of a
character similar to that of the rest of the composition. But we are
apt to lose sight of the fact that this perfection of form was of very
gradual growth. Pachelbel was the first to feel the necessity of
attaining such artistic unity by careful attention to these details of
construction. His successful endeavors to individualize and to group
his ideas give a hitherto unknown clearness of form to his organ
fantasias and toccatas. In his fantasias especially he employs rich
figurations, but always with the evident purpose of making such
ornamentation naturally grow out of the thematic material of the
work, and all is carefully designed with reference to the nature of the
instrument. His contemporary, Johann Adam Reinken, who died in
1732, at the age of ninety-nine, was, as composer and player, a
veritable virtuoso. Sebastian Bach made two journeys to Hamburg
for the purpose of hearing this master play. But, among all the
predecessors of Bach in this branch, the most prominent was
Dietrich Buxtehude, organist at Lübeck from 1669 to 1707. In all
respects he elevated the art of organ composition and organ playing.
The structure of his themes shows the greatest appreciation of the
peculiar character of the instrument. Two years before Buxtehude’s
death Bach became his pupil, and the influence of Buxtehude[23] is
seen in the earlier organ compositions of Bach.
Clavier, or clavichord, composition was of later growth. At first,
indeed, the same principles were applied to both instruments. The
earlier English and Italian clavier masters used the various forms of
organ composition with little regard for the different construction of
the instruments. But as time went on the less ponderous of the two
instruments became the exponent of the gayer moods, as
represented by various forms of the dance. Under French masters,
especially, the clavier began to have a style of its own. The clavier
suite, or partita, was the favorite form, and consisted of a succession
of dance movements. The name sonata, now of such definite
meaning in connection with chamber music, was at first represented
by short Venetian organ pieces. Subsequently, in the seventeenth
century, the sonata was a composition for one or more violins with
clavier. This originated in Italy under Corelli and others, and was
imitated in England by Purcell, and in Germany by Biber and others.
The first application of the name sonata to a solo for clavier was
made by Johann Kuhnau, Bach’s predecessor as cantor of the St.
Thomas School at Leipzig. His “Fresh Clavier Fruits; or, Seven
Sonatas of good Invention and adapted to the Clavier,” shows by its
title that this branch of composition was receiving some attention at
a time which has been wholly eclipsed by the splendor of the
succeeding period.
From this rapid sketch of the progress of organ and clavier music
during this period, which produced but few works that have
survived, we see how steady was the development of the art which
became grand and ultimate in the works of Sebastian Bach, and how
intimate was this master’s connection with the musical activity of his
time. A similar review of the course of the opera and the oratorio will
enable us to trace the growth of certain other art forms which took
definite shape before the dawn of Germany’s musical greatness.
We have already spoken of the important influence exerted by the
folk-song on the German church music of the sixteenth century.
Hassler was the first to attain a blending of the folk-song style with
that of older counterpoint. He was aided in his striving by a study of
the Italian madrigals and villanelle. His dance-songs are especially
rich in melodic feeling, and show that in the art of melodic phrasing
he followed closely in the footsteps of the Italians. With the
development of the instrumental accompaniment early in the
seventeenth century there came certain changes of style. The ever-
increasing tendency of the time to allow the melody to stand forth
more prominently began to modify the nature of the harmonic
setting. The songs of Jeep (1582–1650), and of his rival, Valentin
Hausmann, show degeneracy, while the songs of Adam Krieger
(1634–66) and Johann Krieger (1652–1736) are noble examples of
the new style. The melodies of Johann Krieger are particularly
charming, and show strong rhythmical character and real artistic
power. He employs simple harmonies, yet shows more freedom and
naturalness in modulation than any of his predecessors.
We perceive in the music of these German masters the universal
sway which Italian opera already began to exercise. The opera—as
the special article on Italian music fully describes—had its beginning
in Italy just at the dawn of the seventeenth century. “Mysteries” and
“liturgical dramas”—both of them crude stage representations of
episodes in biblical history—had been common in Germany long
before this time; and the church musicians—Isaak, Senfl, Walther,
Lasso and others—had worked to some extent in this field. But it was
not until the great Monteverde (1568–1643) had embodied in his
operatic works the results obtained by the Bardi society of
connoisseurs, and not until Carissimi had done similar service for
the oratorio, that the new principles began to take root and develop
in Germany. Johann Kapsberger, a composer, who resided at Rome
from 1610 to 1630, was the first German to adopt, to a considerable
extent, the new ideas concerning vocal composition. But there soon
arose in Germany a number of composers who cultivated the new
style, especially the oratorio, without losing their German
characteristics. Johann Gottlieb Staden (1581–1636), for instance,
was a Nuremberg composer of operettas. He had for his motto in art,
“Italians know not all, for Germans, too, have thoughts.” The works
of Staden show that the Germans from the outset had a tendency to
characterize the personages of the drama by the accompanying
music. Unfortunately the music of the first serious opera, “Dafne,” by
Heinrich Schütz, the words of which were translated from the text of
Rinuccini, has been lost. Although a considerable amount of creative
energy was bestowed on “Singspiele” and operas, especially by
amateurs, it was not until theatres were established in Germany that
the opera enjoyed a cultivation equal to that of the oratorio and
church music.
The experiment of a permanent theatre was first made at
Hamburg in 1678. The determined zeal of Gerhard Schott, an
influential jurist of that city, made the attempt successful, and as
long as he lived the opera did not lack encouragement. This period
embraces over sixty years. The first performance at this theatre was a
musical play by Johann Theile (1646–1724), who had been under the
instruction of Schütz in Weissenfels and a former choir-master in
Gottorp. This sacred, allegorical work was succeeded by a number of
similar pieces by the same composer. Other successful masters of the
same period were Franck, Strungk, the celebrated violinist; also
Förtsche, Conradi and Kusser. The last-mentioned composer was
appointed conductor in 1693, and was a worthy forerunner of Keiser.
 HEINRICH SCHÜTZ

Reinhard Keiser was twenty-one years old when, in 1694, he was

appointed director of the Hamburg opera. He was a man of
undoubted genius. His productivity as a composer was immense. His
works number about one hundred and twenty operas, many of which
contain, in addition to choruses, recitatives, etc., no less than forty
airs. In all his serious operas there was no spoken dialogue. His
works were very popular throughout Germany. His activity was not
confined to the stage, for he composed church music, passion music
and cantatas. He had a rare and seemingly inexhaustible gift of
melody, and his recitatives are masterly, but his music lacks the
breadth and massive strength of his successor, Handel. “All that
Keiser wrote,” says Mattheson, “was uncommonly easy to sing, and
was so easily caught by the ear that one enjoys it without feeling any
respect or intense admiration for it.” Keiser lacked earnestness, and
did not exert an enduring influence for good on the Hamburg opera.
He was willing to lend his art to the most trivial and nonsensical
farce, in order to afford amusement to the rough and common
people. Mattheson compares him with his more earnest
contemporary, Rosenmüller, whose sonatas were “like the fresh blue
salmon of the Elbe,” while Keiser’s light music was “like the smoked
golden herrings of the North Sea, which tickle the palate, but awake a
thirst for drink.” In place of the sacred spectacles and plays which at
the outset had formed the subject of the drama on the Hamburg
stage, in the course of time the gods and heroes of mythology, and
vulgar farces, began to divide the attention of the public. The stage
spectacle grew more and more sensational. Fireworks, devils,
serpents, dragons, battle scenes and all kinds of noises and sights
were introduced. Not content with mere humanity on the stage,
various animals became personages in the drama, and mingled their
outcries with the music of the orchestra. Then again, in some operas,
no less than four different languages were spoken and sung
indiscriminately; yet in spite of all these absurdities, the Hamburg
opera remained worthy of the services of a Handel or a Mattheson.

FIRST SCENE IN KEISER’S OPERA OF

“HANNIBAL.”
 John Mattheson was a Hamburger by birth, and began his musical
career as a singer at the opera. He made his last appearance in that
capacity in Handel’s “Nero” in 1705. Mattheson was a man of
remarkable versatility of talent. He was a very prolific composer, but
did not possess great originality nor depth of conception. He was a
good actor, singer, and a finished performer on the harpsichord. As a
literary musician he still holds an eminent place. He used his facile
pen in the composition of an opera, or passion, or in the preparation
of a musical essay; also in the translation of some such pamphlet as
that on “The Properties and Virtues of Noble Tobacco.” His music,
which once found so many enthusiastic admirers, is no longer
performed, but his writings are still of value to students of musical
literature. His most famous books are “The Complete Art of
Conducting,” “The Newly Opened Orchestra,” and the “Triumphal
Arch.” The last is especially valuable as a source of information
concerning the lives of musical artists. These works have a place in
every complete musical library.
A more gifted musician was Georg Philipp Telemann, who was
born four years earlier than Handel and Bach. Telemann was the last
famous composer for the Hamburg theatre. His works are more
distinctly German than the majority of those of the period, which was
thoroughly under the influence of Italy in all matters pertaining to
opera Telemann’s name marks the decline of the Hamburg stage.
The time was not yet ripe for a distinctively national style of opera. It
was destined for Gluck and Mozart, half a century later, to reform
and develop German opera.
It has already been said that the oratorio enjoyed at first a steadier
and more constant development in Germany than the opera.
Heinrich Schütz, whom we have mentioned as the author of the first
opera given in Germany, was also the first prominent oratorio
composer. He was born in 1585. By frequent visits to Venice, where
he studied with Gabrieli, he kept himself in touch with the musical
life of Italy. Although Dresden was the scene of his principal labors,
the last twenty-five years of his life were spent in Weissenfels, where
he died in 1672. His larger works are “The Passion” according to the
four Evangelists, the “Story of the Resurrection,” and the “Seven Last
Words.” In the second of these works, produced in Dresden in 1623,
the form of the modern oratorio is clearly defined. The customary
“Introitus” is for six-part chorus, and the words of the Evangelist are
intoned. The more significant passages of the text are selected for
characteristic music. The dramatis personæ—the Saviour, the Angel,
Mary Magdelene, and some of the disciples—are given prominence
and individuality in various cantilene movements, sometimes for one
or two voices. This distinguishes the new form of oratorio from the
older, in which everything was performed by choral masses. In
Schütz’s sacred symphonies and concertos he attained far greater
finish and variety in the solo numbers, and greater mastery in
general. By his attempts to tell the story in dramatic form, without
the aid of scenery or action, Schütz became the real founder of the
modern German oratorio. We cannot suppose, however, that Handel
was acquainted with the music of Schütz, for before the end of the
seventeenth century his works were generally forgotten; but his
greater freedom of treatment, and dramatic interest, established
ideals in Germany which prevented the oratorio from yielding in that
country to the degenerating theatrical influence which had such
baneful effect on all forms of sacred music in Italy at this period.
Contemporary with Schütz was J. H. Schein, who was noted for his
sacred concertos. Johannes Rosenmüller, who died in 1680, effected
a more regular construction of the concerto. His works in this form
consist of a series of separate movements, which show unity of
character by the repeated presence of some principal thought. Thus
the form of the cantata was established, in which Bach afterwards
displayed such wonderful activity. The immediate predecessors of
Bach were Johann Rudolph Ahle (1625–73), and his son Georg Ahle
(1650–1706). In the oratorios of the latter the form of the aria is
clearly defined.
The account that has been given of the development of Protestant
Church music, and organ and clavier music, previous to Handel and
Bach, may serve to show the foundations on which their monumental
works were built. It was Handel’s mission to reconcile the church
and secular styles in his great oratorios. His long career as a dramatic
composer served as an admirable school for his talents; and when in
middle life he abandoned the field of Italian opera for the oratorio,
he was so well equipped that his triumphs were but as the natural
result of his former discipline. His forty operas shared the fate of all
operas of that time; not one holds a place on the modern stage. The
operas of Handel are not musical dramas in the sense of the present
day. They consist chiefly of a string of airs, with little or no dramatic
action. His stage heroes are generally trivial and insipid. It was
destined for Gluck and Mozart to reform the traditional Italian
opera. Handel was content to avail himself of the conditions of the
opera as they then existed. His opera airs are the best of his time;
they are lyric, but not dramatic.
The dramatic talent of Handel did not find expression in his
operas but in his oratorios. The great heroes of Jewish history, like
Samson, Saul and Judas Maccabæus, are represented in a combined
narrative and dramatic form. Many of his oratorio solos are more
dramatic than his opera airs.
In the oratorio of “Samson,” for instance, the characters of
Samson, Delila, Minoah and Micah naturally suggest the dramatic
scene. But it is especially in the conflicting ideas and emotions of the
people—the chorus of Israelites, in opposition to the chorus of
Philistines, the heathen priests of Dagon, and the chorus of Virgins of
Delila—that the dramatic conflict is sharply defined with sublime
choral effects. His choruses are elemental in their irresistible and
overwhelming power when sung by large masses of voices. In this
respect his choruses are unique and have never been equalled. While
Handel’s oratorios in general hold the middle ground between the
secular and church style of his time, Bach’s great choral works belong
more distinctly to the older church style of Schütz and others.
As Palestrina marks the culmination of the unaccompanied (a
capella) church music of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, so
Bach is the highest representative of Protestant Church music. Yet he
is more than this, for in his sacred cantatas and passions he reveals a
nature more profoundly religious than even Handel or Palestrina.
His Passion music to St. Matthew has no rival in its special form. It is
the sublimest conception in music of the trials and death of Jesus.
Among similar works before and during Bach’s time, his passions are
the only ones that have lived. The oratorio has replaced the passion;
but the older form as perfected by Bach possesses a certain reality
and intensity of religious fervor that not even the grandest oratorios
of Handel can match, except possibly the “Messiah.”
Notwithstanding the sublimity, variety and vocal effectiveness of the
latter work, the St. Matthew Passion surpasses it in lyric pathos and
dramatic fire. Handel’s long experience with the public, his Italian
vocal training, the example of Purcell and other masters of the
English anthem, were important factors in his artistic development,
and enabled him to carry the art of solo and chorus composition to
the highest perfection. On the other hand, Bach’s difficult choral
style suggests the organ, and his airs, though full of religious pathos,
are often stiff and archaic in style.
Great as Bach is in his vocal works, he is still greater in his
instrumental music. Through him, for the first time in history,
instrumental music reaches a point of influence where it
predominates. He is justly considered as the true progenitor of
modern instrumental music, and largely to his influence we owe the
subsequent wonderful development of this youngest branch of art.
Handel, on the other hand, had little influence on instrumental
music. His counterpoint is more vocal than instrumental; he makes a
more limited use of dissonances and modulation. Bach stood far in
advance of his time in these respects, and anticipated many of the
effects of the present day. His remarkable use of chromatic and
enharmonic modulation is exhibited in all his principal works,
especially in such movements as the great organ Fantasia in G minor.
(Volume II., Peters’ Edition.)
As a master of the fugue, nay, of all polyphonic writing, Bach
stands pre-eminent, a model for all time. We are overcome by the
inexhaustible wealth of his ideas, that seem as boundless as the
forces of nature, and we constantly feel the emotional depth and
romantic sentiment of this wonderful artist.
He not only perfected the stricter forms of counterpoint, but the
older, lighter forms found their ideal in his charming clavier suites,
violin sonatas, etc. His “Well-Tempered Clavichord” is a unique
work, one of the corner-stones of modern music.
Above all, his organ works are the very central point and acme of
his achievement. The great Prelude and Fugue in A minor, the
Fantasia and Fugue in G minor, the Toccata in F, the Passacaglia,
and other organ compositions are to be classed with Beethoven’s
symphonies as among the greatest works of art.
Notwithstanding the attempt to establish German opera at
Hamburg, Italian opera held full sway in Germany until the influence
of Gluck and Mozart was felt.
 At the time when the great achievements of Sebastian Bach were
almost entirely unrecognized and unappreciated by his countrymen,
his contemporaries, Hasse and Graun, were lauded to the skies, and
the operas of the Neapolitan school, with their singer-triumphs, held
all Europe in subjection.
The Italians Steffani, Cimarosa, and Jomelli lived in Germany, and
their works were often given in the principal opera houses. It was
then only natural that Germans should seek public favor by adopting
the prevailing musical style. Chief among the writers in the Italian
style were Johann Adolf Hasse (1699–1783), Karl Heinrich Graun,
and Johann Gottlieb Naumann. The number of Hasse’s compositions
is extremely great. They include operas, oratorios, masses, cantatas,
and instrumental movements of every kind. The florid style of Italian
vocal composition predominated in his music. The harmonic
structure is of the simplest nature, and his instrumentation is
without individuality. He had better taste than most Italians of his
time, and showed greater dramatic instinct. On the whole it may be
said that he represents the highest attainment of the Italian opera of
the school of Scarlatti. The music of Graun, who was born in 1701, is
not so purely Italian in style, and certain of his sacred works, notably
his passion music, entitled “Tod Jesu” (Death of Jesus), are known at
the present time. His recitatives, like those of Hasse, are dry and
insignificant. On the contrary, his arias are more pleasing, and show
the influence of Keiser. The songs of Graun deserve mention. The
compositions of Naumann (1741–1801) display perfect facility in the
Italian style; his career, however, was interrupted by the appearance
of Gluck and Mozart in the operatic field.
Gluck had a long experience as a dramatic composer before he
entered on the path which has rendered his name illustrious in the
annals of music. He was already advanced in years when he turned
his back on the Italian opera, and disclosed his plan of reform. His
principles applied only in their full force to the degenerate opera
seria of that period. These ideas were by no means original with him;
they had previously been accepted, and realized by other musicians.
They were, however, first brought into the foreground by the
production of his “Alcestis,” “Orpheus,” “Iphigenia,” and other
mature works, and divided the musical world of that time into
opposite parties.
 R. Bong. X.A.

KARL HEINRICH GRAUN.

It is remarkable that Gluck, who fought against the musical

inconsistencies and defects of his time, should not have felt the
necessity of reforming the dramatic construction of the opera, for he
showed a much keener insight and appreciation of dramatic effect
than the poets whose librettos he composed. He knew how to give
characteristic expression to the personalities of the play. His
characters may be read like an open book. In simplicity and dignity
of style he approached the Greek ideal.
While Gluck increased the significance of accompanied recitative
and insisted on truer methods of declamation, he would not allow
the air the same prominence that the Italians did. His airs are
divested of all richness of ornament and colorature. Many of them
are noble in their simplicity, but in general they lack sensuous charm
and beauty. The chorus was a very important feature of his operas,
and fulfilled something like its original object in ancient tragedy. In
his dramatic use of the orchestra, Gluck stood in advance of his time.
He added new instruments, and produced original and impressive
effects which render his orchestration interesting to musicians of the
present day.
Notwithstanding the nobility and grandeur of his conceptions, he
neither fulfilled the ideal of the musical drama from the point of view
of Wagner, nor of the opera as perfected by Mozart. The latter
embodied Gluck’s ideas in works which surpass his in every respect
except dramatic simplicity.
The field of music in which Mozart stands pre-eminent is the
opera. He was endowed by nature and favored by opportunity to
bring this form to ideal perfection, at least as regards the musical
element of the opera of his time. He learned first of the Italians and
then of Gluck, and surpassed the highest accomplishments of both.
“Don Giovanni” and “Figaro” are the greatest of Italian operas. No
one has ever united more perfectly than Mozart precision and energy
of dramatic expression with the richest and purest melody. His
dramatic characters are thoroughly individualized by the music.
Each one appears on the stage to remain true and consistent to his or
her individuality in every phase of passion and conflict of action. This
power of contrasting characters is especially vivid in his concerted
music, in the inimitable quartets and sextets of his latest operas. For
this purpose, Mozart exercised his perfect command of vocal
composition and polyphony.
Before his time the orchestra, as a means of dramatic expression
and coloring, was not appreciated, although Gluck pointed out the
way. Under Mozart it became more symphonic and massive in
character. The solo instruments became refined organs of feeling,
giving color and sensuous beauty to the vocal parts. The
orchestration intensified the dramatic fire of the scene from
beginning to end. In his operas every feeling of the heart finds
utterance. A divine harmony and classic purity of form distinguish
his dramatic music, as, indeed, all his music, from the little minuets
which he composed as a child to his last operas and symphonies.
During the time of Gluck and Mozart the German operetta came into
existence. Mozart’s “Entführung” (Belmont and Constanza) is the
noblest example of this style. This new form of musical drama was
suggested by the French comic opera. It adopted the spoken dialogue
for the less dramatic moments of the play. It resembled, however, the
French operetta only externally, and soon developed a genuine
German character. This new species of musical play sought to do that
which the brilliant and conventional Italian opera could not
accomplish, namely, interest the great masses of the people. This was
at first possible only through inartistic exaggeration of the realities of
life, and by the introduction of humorous elements of a distinctly
coarse kind. But the general demand for musical plays of this class
gradually attracted to their composition writers of real musical and
dramatic ability.
Johann Adam Hiller (1728–1804) was the first German who
became prominent as a composer of operettas. “Lottchen at Court,”
“Rustic Affection,” and “The Hunt” are his principal operettas. The
last named was given not less than forty times during a short theatre
season in Berlin in 1771. Even before this time the operetta had
become so generally popular that a writer had had occasion to
remark that tragedies and legitimate comedies were being driven to
the wall. Yet there was one serious obstacle to the operetta’s rapid
artistic development. The good singers were monopolized by theatres
giving Italian opera, and operetta managers had to take what was
left.
Vienna soon began to acquire the prominence in operetta
performances for which it is distinguished at the present day. In
1778, the erection by Joseph II. of the “Deutsches Nationalsingspiel”
was a sign of the growing popularity of this new form of
entertainment, and gave a powerful incentive to the composers of
such works. Operettas of Gluck, Mozart, Salieri, Umlauf, Schenck
and others attained great popularity here. In 1786, Carl Ditters von
Dittersdorf scored a signal success with his “Doctor and Apothecary.”
This versatile musician soon became a favorite of the entire nation.
Born at Vienna in 1739, he first became prominent as a violinist.
Later his symphonies, concertos, quartets, oratorios, etc., became
well known. In all these forms, however, he was surpassed by others.
He possessed, it is true, much cleverness, but his counterpoint was
not faultless, and he wrote too much and too superficially. In comedy
and farce he took the lead. His melodies are lively and flowing,
characteristic and very catching. He learned much from Haydn, but
something also from French composers. His “Doctor and
Apothecary,” “Jeremiah Knicker,” and “Red Riding Hood” gained for
him great popularity. In all, he wrote twenty-eight such works. His
autobiography, published in 1801, two years after his death, is also a
work of remarkable freshness and interest.
In Gotha, the conductor, George Benda (1721–99), produced
operas which became popular in Germany. His melodramas, in
which the text was spoken to the accompaniment of fitting music,
were novelties, and became even more favorably known. Munich was
identified with more serious undertakings in dramatic music through
Peter von Winter (1754–1825), Court Kapellmeister. This once highly
esteemed master composed numerous operas, the most popular of
which were “The Labyrinth,” “Marie of Mantalban,” and
“Unterbrochene Opferfest.” The last is still occasionally performed.
Likewise Mannheim—which from Mozart’s time until to-day has
been devoted to the highest interests of music—became the scene of
serious operatic endeavors. Ignaz Holzbauer (1711–83) wrote several
operas during his conductorship of the theatre in that city.
The most prominent of the composers who succeeded Dittersdorf
was Johann Friedrich Reichardt, whose interesting literary work,
“Letters of an Observant Traveller,” is full of useful information.
Born in 1752, he became orchestral conductor to Frederick the Great
in 1775, and was salt-inspector in a town near Halle, at the time of
his death in 1814. He was liberally educated, travelled much, and was
acquainted with many of the prominent persons of his time. Few of
his works have lived, and those which have survived are chiefly
songs. He produced, however, an enormous amount of music. His
imagination was not equal to his understanding or his artistic
intentions, and, indeed, he was to a great extent a mere copyist. A
single new form is due to him, the “Liederspiel,” the musical part of
which, as the name suggests, consists only of songs.
The development of the opera in Germany, during the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries, has now been traced, and next we will turn
our attention to the progress of instrumental music after Sebastian
Bach.
No more remarkable instance of lack of appreciation of a great
man’s genius has ever been known than that furnished by the history
of Bach’s works. The reasons for this are perhaps twofold. Like
Shakespeare, Bach must have been ignorant of the supreme
excellence of his artistic creations. Hence, like many other great men,
he occupied himself little with the dissemination of his works, except
those used in teaching. Not only the musical world, but even Bach’s
immediate family and pupils were unable to appreciate his
significance and to use his compositions in a way most advantageous
to the development of music. It would indeed be interesting to know
what difference it might have made in the development of music in
Germany if Haydn, and especially Mozart, had enjoyed opportunities
of intimate acquaintance with Bach’s works.[24]

JOHANN FRIEDRICH REICHARDT.

Only a few of his organ compositions, the “Well-Tempered

Clavichord” and some of his other clavier music, seem to have been
generally known in Haydn’s and Mozart’s time. It was only indirectly
through his sons and other pupils that his powerful influence on
instrumental music was then felt.
Among Bach’s numerous pupils the most noted, besides his own
sons, were Krebs, Altnickol, Agricola, Vogler, and the theorists,
Marpurg and Kirnberger. His most distinguished sons were, Wilhelm
Friedemann, Carl Philipp Emanuel, Johann Christoph Friedrich,
known as the Bückeburg Bach, and Johann Christian, called the
Milanese Bach. Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (1710–84) was the eldest
son of Sebastian Bach. He was a genius, and his father bestowed
great care on his musical training, and had great hopes of his future.
He studied at the St. Thomas School and university of Leipsic, where
he distinguished himself in mathematics. For a number of years he
held a position as organist at Dresden. In 1747 he became director
and organist at Halle. In later years he led a wild and wandering life,
and finally died in utter want and misery in Berlin. He was perhaps
the greatest organist of his time, and was famous for his wonderful
improvisations. He wrote a large number of compositions, many of
which are preserved in the Berlin Royal Library, but few of which are
published.
Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach was born at Weimar in 1714. In his
youth he studied law thoroughly, and busied himself with music
rather as an amateur than as one who intended to make it a
profession. His attention was devoted chiefly to piano playing and
the art of improvisation, which, thanks to his father’s rare teaching,
he carried to the highest degree of perfection. He was destined, after
all, to make music his life-work. He had hardly completed his
university studies when he received an invitation from the crown
prince of Prussia, afterward Frederick the Great, to accept a musical
position at court. He accepted, and remained in his service for a
number of years. In 1767 he became successor of Telemann as
conductor of the opera at Hamburg, where he remained until his
death. By his daily practice in improvisation, Emanuel Bach acquired
a freedom and elegance of style equalled by no other German master
except his father. His position and intercourse with the best society
were not without good influence on his music. He possessed hardly a
tithe of his father’s genius; but, as he lived more in the world, he
became a man of fashion and popularity. In his day his name was far
better known than that of his father, and musicians looked upon
Emanuel Bach as the great authority. Even Mozart said of him: “He
is the father; we are mere children. Those of us who can do anything
right in music have learned it of him. Although we could not be
satisfied nowadays to do what he did, nevertheless, no one was able
to equal him in what he did.” He was an inferior vocal composer. It
was chiefly as a clavichord player and composer that he took first
rank. His refined style and uncommon finish of execution excited
universal wonder. Emanuel Bach’s vocal works embrace two
oratorios; twenty-two passions; sacred cantatas; Singspiele; sanctus
for two choirs; sacred and secular songs, etc. His works for clavier
are very numerous, consisting of sonatas, concertos and solos.
Eighteen of his orchestral compositions are published by Breitkopf
and Härtel.
Emanuel Bach’s talent as a teacher was evinced in his celebrated
treatise, “On the True Art of Playing the Clavichord,” which contains
the principles of all good piano playing. But his greatest services to
modern music were rendered in his sonatas and symphonies, in
which he not only enlarged the form, but also increased the means of
expression and of instrumental effects. Emanuel Bach exercised a
great influence on the clavier sonata, and first brought it into
prominence. The so-called sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti were single,
brilliant movements which resembled the prelude. Sebastian Bach’s
sonatas for the organ, clavier and violin, etc., in three or four
movements, were more or less fugal and strict. Emanuel Bach
combined the solidity of the style of his father with the brilliancy and
lightness of Scarlatti. Although it remained for Haydn to develop
fully the principle of free thematic music, the germ of the modern
style existed in the sonatas of Emanuel Bach. The habit of
improvisation gave full scope to the play of his imagination, and
consequently his works are characterized by a certain ease and
brilliancy which distinguish him from his predecessors. He made
more use than formerly of contrasted themes in the several
movements of the sonata, and they were brought into relation to
each other by means of free passages. His “Salon” style is
distinguished for its elegance and grace, ornateness and playfulness,
and well represents the polite world in which he lived.
Having traced the early development of organ and clavier music,
we will turn our attention, for a moment, to the growth of orchestral
music to the advent of Haydn, and the so-called classical period of
modern instrumental music. During the first half of the seventeenth
century the instruments used in connection with the opera served a
subordinate position. The accompaniments of the recitatives and
arias consisted of a ground bass (basso continuo) for chittarone,
organ, clavier, etc., which supplied the chords indicated by figures. In
the opera-madrigals the orchestral accompaniment was simply a
reproduction of the vocal parts, on wind and stringed instruments.
In the course of time instrumental ritornelli were introduced to
relieve the solo voices, and melodic phrases were given to the
instruments. The first operas generally opened with a flourish of
trumpets or with a madrigal played by the instruments alone;
sometimes dances played by the instruments were introduced in
course of the opera.
The opera overture was invented subsequently, probably by Lully.
It consisted, at first, of three short movements, slow, quick, slow.
Scarlatti and his contemporaries adopted the overture, and changed
the order of the movements to allegro, adagio, allegro.
With the perfection of the violin and the other stringed
instruments, about the beginning of the eighteenth century, solo
playing became more and more artistic. With Corelli, sonatas and
suites for one or more violins and clavier became the fashion. At this
time the orchestra was well organized, so far as the true relation of
the string band to the wind instruments is concerned.
The cultivation of chamber music was encouraged by titled and
fashionable people, and virtuosos on various orchestral instruments
appeared. Thus instrumental music began to be cultivated
independent of the opera and church music.
 The three-movement form suggested by the overture was the type
of this independent orchestral music, under the names of symphony,
concerto, or suite. Such were the orchestral symphonies of
Sammartini, the famous Milanese conductor of the first half of the
eighteenth century. His is the first prominent name in this field. He
was soon followed by German composers, among whom were
Stamitz, J. C. Bach, Abel, Wagenseil, Cannabich and Emanuel Bach.
Among noted German instrumental soloists of this period were
Johann Georg Pisendel (1687–1755), who was celebrated as a
violinist, and composed concertos for solo violin and string quartet,
which were considered as among the best of that time.
Franz Benda (1709–86), Georg Benda and Ignaz Holzbauer (1711–
83) were likewise able masters of the violin, and had large experience
as orchestral musicians.
Under Stamitz and Cannabich the Mannheim orchestra became a
famous organization.