Section

13 Hybrid and Electric

Vehicles
Introduction to Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
Section 13 will describe the fundamentals of operation
and service of hybrid, battery electric, and fuel cell elec-
tric vehicles. There are several reasons for the increased
emphasis on the different types of electric vehicles (EVs)
and alternative fuel vehicles (AFVs) that are in use or under
development today. U.S. government–mandated corporate
average fuel economy CAFE standards will be increasing
to 54.5 miles per gallon by the year 2025. “Greenhouse
gas” emissions are also to be capped at 163 grams per
mile. Burning a gallon of gasoline produces approximately
20 pounds of CO2, which is a heat-trapping greenhouse gas
implicated in climate change. It is estimated that automo-
biles burn in excess of 100 billion gallons of gasoline each
year. Reducing that fuel consumption through the use
of hybrid and electric vehicles will reduce the impact of
CO2 emissions, internal combustion engine (ICE) exhaust
emissions, and finite fossil fuel consumption. Importing
petroleum from unstable countries also poses a national
security problem.
Manufacturers are embracing new technologies to solve
some these problems. Some of the newer technologies
include the hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), the plug-in
hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), the battery electric vehicle
(BEV), and the fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV). All of these
use at least one electric motor/generator.
Note: An acronym that describes any form of electric vehicle
is xEV.

Ultra-Low and Zero Emission Vehicles

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
promotes and enforces clean air regulations. California was
an early state to regulate exhaust emissions, and the EPA
has worked with that state in the application of emission
regulations. Several other states also have clean air regula-
tions and require manufacturers to sell a certain percentage
of ultra-low emission vehicles (ULEVs), like hybrids, and
zero emission vehicles (ZEVs), like battery electric and
hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles.
Electric vehicles are ZEVs because they have no exhaust
emissions except for those generated by the power sources
used to charge their batteries. EVs are quiet and have
excellent acceleration torque. If you have ever driven an
electric golf cart, you probably have noticed that electric
motors have a tremendous torque advantage over gasoline
engines during acceleration from a stop. This is because
their torque curve is relatively constant throughout their
rpm range.

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 Section 13  Hybrid and Electric Vehicles 1601

Although battery electric vehicles are not viable
for long-distance driving in rural areas, they work
well for commuters in big cities. However, internal
combustion engines will continue to be the pri-
mary power source for farming and military uses,
especially in third-world countries.
Hybrid vehicles, with an internal combustion
engine and one or more electric motor/generators,
have become an important part of the automo-
tive marketplace in recent years. However, they
are more costly to produce than conventional ICE
vehicles.
Electric Vehicle Concerns
There are several concerns with battery EVs and
hybrid EVs. One of them is that they must carry
many nickel metal hydride (NiMH) or lithium-ion
batteries (LIBs), which are heavy. Also, because
electric drive vehicles use high-voltage systems,
they pose some serious safety problems. In the
event of an accident involving a hybrid EV or a full-
EV, emergency personnel will need to be able to deal
with dangerous high voltage, battery electrolyte
spills, and in rare instances, fire. Specialized hazard
and safety training for emergency service personnel
is a necessary and important requirement.
them from running low on electricity. Plug-in
hybrids are also called extended range electric
vehicles (EREVs). Operation of these vehicles is
covered in more detail in Chapter 82.
Regenerative Braking
Electric and hybrid vehicles use a large, high-
efficiency electric motor and a very large battery
pack (Figure 1) that is controlled electronically
by the powertrain vehicle management computer.
The combination of the electric motor/generator,
battery, and electronic controls is called an elec-
tro-mechanical machine. During deceleration, the
motor can be converted to a generator, producing
electricity to recharge the batteries as it slows the
vehicle down. This feature, called regenerative
braking (Figure 2), also increases the longevity
of the vehicle’s conventional friction brake linings.
Below 7 mph, regenerative braking is shut off, and
all braking is done by the conventional brakes.
Note: In Formula One (F1) racing, regenerative
braking systems are known as kinetic energy recov-
ery systems.

The Development of EVs

Most manufacturers developed EVs on an experi-
mental basis in the 1990s, often with research sub-
sidies from the government. The manufacture of
EVs powered solely by an electric motor was dis-
continued for some time due to practical considera-
tions, including a somewhat limited range between

Photo by Tim Gilles

recharges of less than 100 miles.
There was also the problem of recharging the
battery pack, which required several hours at best.
This limited the practicality of EVs to short-trip
Figure 1 This battery pack from a hybrid vehicle is located in
commuter driving. Electric-powered heating and the trunk.
air conditioning were also concerns. These EVs failed
to meet the expectations of consumers and govern-
ment alike. However, the technology developed
for EVs was not wasted. Currently, hybrid vehicles Regenerative Braking
couple existing internal combustion engine (ICE) during Deceleration
technology with EV technology to produce a viable
alternative to battery EVs. Battery technology has
been improving rapidly in recent years, and several
manufacturers now produce all-electric vehicles. Battery Motor/
Experimental fuel cell EVs have been produced and pack Generator
are undergoing further development. These are also
based on technology developed for EVs.
Today, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
(PHEVs) have become a reality. They are hybrid Figure 2 During regenerative braking, energy is recaptured
vehicles that have a backup power plant to prevent as the motor/generator slows the vehicle down.

10595_ch80_rev03.indd 1601 08/11/14 1:40 PM

 Chapter 80

Photo by Tim Gilles

Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Fundamentals
Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you Key Terms
should be able to: electrical grid plug-in hybrid
>> Explain hybrid vehicle principles. extended range electric vehicles
electric vehicles (PHEVs)
>> Describe hybrid vehicle parts.
(EREVs) regenerative braking
>> Explain the different types of hybrid hybrid electric vehicle zero emission
vehicles. (HEV) vehicles (ZEVs)
>> Understand the operation of hybrid lithium-ion batteries
vehicles. (LIBs)
>> Discuss hybrid vehicle operation.

Introduction to Hybrid Vehicles Pedal

This chapter will cover the different types of
hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and how they
operate. A hybrid vehicle (Figure 80.1) is a combi-
nation of a conventional ICE-powered vehicle and
an electric drive vehicle. It overcomes some of the
shortcomings of EVs by combining one or more
electric motor/generators with one or more addi-
tional power sources. Hybrids offer improved fuel
economy, increased performance, and a reduction
in exhaust pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions.
A moped (Figure 80.2) is one example of a
hybrid, with power provided by either the pedaling
IC
engine
Battery
pack
Starter
generator
Figure 80.1 Most hybrid automobiles are powered
with an internal combustion engine or a battery-
powered electric motor, or both at the same time.
1602
power
Engine
power
Figure 80.2 A moped is one example of a hybrid.
effort of the rider or a gasoline engine, or a combi-
nation of the two. Submarines are hybrids as well,
combining electric power with either nuclear or die-
sel power. Buses, trucks, and locomotives are often
diesel-electric hybrids. Another type of hybrid is the
hydraulic hybrid, used mostly in trucks. The energy
that would normally be used in braking is captured
and stored in hydraulic fluid storage tanks. This
is considered to be a very efficient hybrid vehicle.
UPS is experimenting with pneumatic air hybrids
because their in-town delivery trucks would be espe-
cially suited to this technology.
Note: In the discussion to follow, you will need to
know that a motor and an engine are two different
things. The following illustrates the difference in
HEV terminology:
>> Engine: piston powered by burning fuel
>> Motor: armature powered by electricity

10595_ch80_rev04.indd 1602 13/11/14 3:50 PM


Most hybrid automobiles are powered with an
ICE or a battery-powered electric motor/generator
(MG), or both at the same time. In addition, the
electric motor/generator can produce electricity to
recharge the battery pack.
Series and Parallel Hybrids
Most automotive hybrids have a four-stroke cycle
gasoline- or diesel-powered engine. They also have a
battery pack and one or more electric motor/genera-
tors. One way that hybrid systems are classified is by
the manner in which these components work with
each other. The engine and motor can be coupled in
a series configuration, a parallel configuration, or a
combination of the two.
Series Hybrids
A series hybrid is closer to a true EV because it is pow-
ered only by the electric motor (Figure 80.3). A
gasoline- or diesel-powered engine turns a genera-
tor to recharge the battery pack, but the generator
does not have direct input to the drive wheels. The
generator can either charge the batteries or power
the electric motor that drives the wheels; there is no
need for a transmission, torque converter, or clutch.
A series hybrid requires significant battery size
and output. The ICE is really just a big generator, and
it adds substantial weight to the vehicle. However,
because it is only used to charge the battery pack, it
can be designed to run at its most opportune speed
for maximum efficiency. The Chevy Volt is an exam-
ple of a series hybrid. Its operation is covered in detail
in Chapter 82. This type of series hybrid is sometimes
referred to as an extended range electric vehicle because
it uses electric power initially. Then after 40 miles or
so, it turns on the engine to keep the battery pack
charged. The generator can add extra power to the
battery pack during heavy loads and can also run the
vehicle by itself if the battery is depleted.
Another series hybrid type is the fuel cell hybrid,
covered in Chapter 82. It replaces the engine and
motor/generator with a fuel cell. The fuel cell pro-
duces electricity, which is used to recharge the bat-
teries and power an electric motor.
Fuel Engine
tank
Electric motor
High-voltage
battery
Generator
Figure 80.3 A series hybrid.
10595_ch80_rev03.indd 1603
Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamentals 1603
HISTORY The 1916 Woods Dual Power Coupe
NOTE was an early hybrid automobile, with a
gasoline engine and an electric motor/
generator, connected electromagnetically
by a clutch. The car could run on either
gasoline, electricity, or a combination of the two. It had
regenerative braking above 6 mph and was able to
recharge its own batteries.
The Woods Motor Vehicle Company was started in
Chicago and produced electric vehicles. Early automo-
biles were powered either by electricity, steam, or gaso-
line. By 1915, gasoline engines had progressed to the
point where they had become the power plant of choice
for most cars. The Woods Company founder, Clinton
E. Woods, decided to combine electricity with gasoline.
Electric cars at that time had a slow top speed. The
Woods Dual Power nearly doubled the average speed
of an electric car. It only used its electric motor from a
standing stop to 15 mph (24 km/h). Then a small four-
cylinder gasoline engine took over until it reached its
top speed of about 35 mph (56 km/h).
Another hybrid was a Santa Fe locomotive, which
used diesel engines to create electricity to run motors
and move the train.
Trains do not have storage batteries, although
non-nuclear submarines do. These submarines are
hybrids, using diesel engines when on the surface
and electricity when submerged. Using an engine to
drive a generator to power electric motors is often
done in heavy-duty vehicles and ships when there
are multiple motors. This technology could have
future use in hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.
Parallel Hybrids
A parallel hybrid uses the engine and electric motor/
generator, either individually or together, to provide
power to the transaxle (Figure 80.4). The Honda
Insight was the first production parallel hybrid.
There is usually only one electric motor/generator
mounted inline with the engine, either between
the engine and transaxle or inside the transaxle
itself. Power goes from the transaxle to the wheels.
Figure 80.5 shows the relationship between the
Engine
Fuel
tank
High-voltage
battery Motor/generator
Figure 80.4 A parallel hybrid.
08/11/14 1:40 PM
 1604 Chapter 80

Engine flywheel Engine

Copyrighted by Dr. Ing. h.c.F. Porsche AG and used with permission from Porsche
Automatic clutch
34 kW electric
motor/generator
-
+

Cars North America, Inc. and Porsche AG

Rear
motor Front
motor
Figure 80.6 An all-wheel-drive hybrid with front and
rear electric motors.
To transmission
Figure 80.5 This parallel hybrid has an electric assist
motor/generator between the engine and transmission.

HV Inverter MG2
battery assembly
engine, motor/generator, and transmission in a par-
allel hybrid. Final
drive
In a typical parallel hybrid system, the ICE and MGR
motor/generator are connected to the transmission MG1
or transaxle using computer-controlled clutches. Planetary
When power is provided by the electric motor, the Engine
clutch that connects the ICE to the electric motor
is disengaged, and the clutch between the electric
motor and transmission is engaged. When the ICE
is being used, the engine and motor are coupled Mechanical energy Recovered energy
together and run at the same speed. The electric
motor assists the engine. Therefore, the engine can Figure 80.7 An all-wheel-drive hybrid during regen-
erative braking. MG is an abbreviation for “motor/
be smaller than would otherwise be required. Most generator” and HV means “high voltage”.
parallel hybrids power the vehicle primarily using
the engine, with the electric motor providing addi-
tional assist when needed. Target Charge Rate. When hybrid system batteries
are sufficiently charged, power to move the vehicle
Series/Parallel Hybrid is provided by the electric motor. The typical target
charge rate in a hybrid is around 60 percent, which
Many automotive hybrids use a series/parallel
allows the regenerative brakes to work more often.
configuration. This is the Toyota-type hybrid sys-
This also prevents the battery pack from overcharg-
tem, sometimes called a power-split hybrid. Power
ing. The battery pack can recharge to as much as
can be provided by the motor, the engine, or a
80 to 90 percent and discharge down to about 30
combination of the motor and engine. Detailed
to 40 percent while waiting for opportunities for
operation of the Toyota system is provided later
regenerative braking. Charging the battery to full
in this chapter.
charge is avoided (see Chapter 82). Full electric
Some hybrids have one or two motor/
vehicles have a wider charge and discharge range
generators in the front, with another one in the rear
and are equipped with larger batteries.
(Figure 80.6). These provide a substantial boost in
torque output, along with all-wheel drive. Digital Display. The instrument panel on a hybrid
vehicle includes a digital display that shows
Regenerative Braking electrical flow into and out of the battery pack
The batteries in parallel and series/parallel hybrids (Figure 80.8). During deceleration and moder-
are charged either by the engine or by regenerative ate braking, energy is recaptured by the regenera-
braking. The electric motor converts to a genera- tive braking system (Figure 80.9). During harder
tor, assisting the conventional braking system as it braking the conventional brakes are used. When
slows the vehicle down. Figure 80.7 shows an all- the engine is providing power, another display is
wheel-drive hybrid during regenerative braking. shown (Figure 80.10).

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 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamentals 1605

Ready Light and Start Button

The internal combustion engine on a series-parallel
hybrid turns off and on depending on conditions.
Therefore, pushing the START button might not start
the engine. A READY light (Figure 80.11) on the
instrument panel illuminates when the vehicle is
ready to drive, and it is common to begin driving on
electric power only. The ICE can also be running to
charge the battery pack when the vehicle is stopped.

Photo by Tim Gilles

Caution: Remember to be careful when
working or inspecting under the hood. If the
Figure 80.8 This digital display from a hybrid vehicle ready light is on, the engine can start at any
shows when the battery pack is being charged (regen- time.
erative braking) and discharged (motor assist).

Many newer hybrid vehicles use a smart key

fob, without a metal-cut ignition key. When the key
fob is within 16 feet of the vehicle, the system can
function. To avoid confusion by drivers, U.S. federal
regulations require that a START, or POWER button
replace the usual ignition switch (Figure 80.12).
The old-style ignition tumbler is being phased out.

40 50 F
HI
30 60

20 70

10 80
Photo by Tim Gilles

BATTERY VOLTS
E LO
0
READY
MPH

Figure 80.9 This display shows energy being recap-

tured by the regenerative braking system. READY light
Figure 80.11 A ready light on the instrument panel
indicates that the car is ready to drive.
Photo by Tim Gilles

Photo by Tim Gilles

Figure 80.10 This display shows that the engine is Figure 80.12 This start/stop button replaces the
providing power. ignition switch.

10595_ch80_rev03.indd 1605 08/11/14 1:41 PM

 1606 Chapter 80
Vehicle Off
Power Button
Push
Button Push Power
Accessory
Power Button
Push
Ignition-On
Figure 80.13 Ignition mode sequence (brake pedal
released).
When the driver’s foot is off the brake pedal,
pushing the START button once turns on the acces-
sories. Pushing it a second time turns on the igni-
tion. Pushing it a third time turns off the ignition.
Starting the vehicle takes priority over all other
functions. This is accomplished by depressing the
brake and pushing the START button once. When
the READY light is illuminated, the vehicle is on.
Figure 80.13 shows typical system operation.
Differences Between Conventional
Power and Hybrid Power
The internal combustion engine in a hybrid vehicle
stops running at idle as long as certain operating
conditions are met. When the hybrid’s computer
program calls for the engine to be restarted, the
motor/generator switches from a generator into a
powerful starting motor. When starting a conven-
tional ICE, a starter motor turns the crankshaft
at about 250 rpm. A crankshaft in a hybrid ICE is
turned by the motor/generator at 800–1,000 rpm,
which is much faster than normal. Turning the
engine at higher rpm allows it to seamlessly restart,
typically in less than 50 ms, without the driver or
passengers being aware that it has restarted.
Hybrid Vehicle Advantages
Hybrid vehicles have always been known as “green”
vehicles because they offer improved fuel economy
and lower overall exhaust emissions. However, some
manufacturers also use the hybrid drive to increase
performance.
The hybrid design can improve fuel economy.
Shutting the engine off at idle reduces fuel consump-
tion by about 10 percent–15 percent. In addition,
regenerative braking reduces fuel consumption by
10595_ch80_rev03.indd 1606
recapturing approximately 20 percent–30 percent
of the energy that would otherwise be lost during
braking. Beyond these two methods of improving
fuel economy, some hybrid designs allow for an
engine that is smaller than what would normally
be required to power a gasoline-powered vehicle
of similar weight. When extra power is needed for
acceleration or for climbing a hill, the electric motor
assists the small engine’s power.
Manufacturers are also using hybrid technology
to increase performance in larger luxury cars, SUVs,
pickups, and sports cars. With tougher emission
rules on the horizon, partial electrification helps
provide a solution.
Hybrid Vehicle Disadvantages
The purchase price of a hybrid vehicle is higher than
that of a comparable conventional vehicle. There are
also realistic concerns about electrocution to techni-
cians and emergency first responders. To put this in per-
spective, however, it should also be said that many have
perished in vehicle fires caused by burning gasoline.
Hybrids cost more than ordinary ICE vehicles
because the battery pack, motor controller, and
motor/generator are expensive. Also, if freeway driv-
ing is the primary mode of operation, regenerative
braking is not used. Without regenerative brak-
ing, fuel economy suffers to a considerable degree.
A hybrid that is driven consistently at 70 mph on
an open road is not operating under the best pos-
sible circumstances to achieve better fuel economy
because it will not be operating under its most effi-
cient conditions while using its ICE most of the time.
Twelve-Volt and HV Electrical
System Integration
All HEVs use a 12/14V electrical system. In addition
to the high voltage battery, these vehicles also use a
12V battery. It is sometimes called an auxiliary bat-
tery. SAE specifications for hybrid vehicles state that
all vehicles must use the 12V system to control the
HV system. HV battery isolation relays are also 12V,
which assures that when the 12V system is shut off
the HV energy in the battery pack has been isolated.
The first gasoline-electric car sold in the United
States was the 99 Honda Insight. Since that time,
no HEVs of any kind have used a 12V alternator.
Instead, the 12/14V electrical system is powered by
the HV battery using a DC/DC converter. A high
voltage integrated starter generator (ISG) is used to
start the engine.
The Honda Integrated Motor Assist (IMA)
hybrid has an auxiliary 12V starter that can be used
to crank the engine during cold or emergency starts.
During normal operation, the IMA uses the ISG to
start the engine. It uses the auxiliary 12V starter, the
08/11/14 1:41 PM
 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamentals 1607

coolant temperature sensor senses engine coolant

below 40°F or when a system fault is detected.

Hybrid Types and Levels

There are several hybrid classifications. The one
that is used depends on the manufacturer and the
degree to which hybrid functions are needed. Types
of hybrids include micro, mild, full, power/muscle,
and plug-in (Figure 80.14).
All hybrids have idle stop and regenerative braking.
Idle stop. The engine stops after the vehicle is
Brake on Brake released
at rest. The engine seamlessly restarts when the
Engine off Engine on
accelerator is applied once again (Figure 80.15).
Vehicle stopped Vehicle moves
Some manufacturers also shut off the engine during
deceleration. In a typical stop-start system, when
fuel is shut-off during deceleration or braking, the Figure 80.15 In a start-stop hybrid, the engine stops
motor/generator continues to spin with the engine. after the vehicle is at rest and seamlessly restarts
As the engine shuts off, the controller positions the when the accelerator is applied.
engine in the correct position to allow for a seam-
less and smooth restart. When the accelerator is
depressed once again, the engine quickly restarts.
When the engine is off during stop-start mode,
an indicator on the instrument panel illuminates 80
60 100
(Figure 80.16). If the car door is opened during 40 120
5 6
this phase, an alarm sounds to remind the driver 4 x 100 7 8
E F
3 20 140
that stop-start is in operation. P
2 R
N 0 160 C H
Regenerative braking. During deceleration, regen- 1
0
D
D3

erative braking recharges the batteries, except when 1

2

the antilock brake system is operating, and at low

vehicle speeds (below 6 mph for instance).
AUTO STOP Auto stop indicator
Electric power steering. Idle stop, full hybrid
operation, or electric launch, require electric power Figure 80.16 On a start-stop system, when the
steering on hybrid vehicles. This is because there engine is off an indicator on the instrument panel
is no power from the ICE drive belt to pressurize illuminates or blinks.

Different Hybrid Designs

Power/
Characteristics Micro Mild Full Plug-in
Muscle
Stop-start operation

Regenerative braking

Can provide additional

© Union of Concerned Scientists, www.ucsusa.org

electrical power to the ICE

when accelerating

Can propel the vehicle solely

maybe
under electric power.

Rechargeable by plug-in maybe

High torque and power

operation at the expense of
fuel economy

Figure 80.14 Characteristics of different types of hybrids.

10595_ch80_rev03.indd 1607 11/11/14 2:05 PM

 1608 Chapter 80
a traditional hydraulic steering pump. Electric
steering is also safer because about 20% of under-
hood fires in frontal crashes are said to be caused
by hydraulic fluid that is ignited by hot exhaust
components.
Electric automatic transmission oil pump.
Because the engine restarts only when the driver is
about to “launch” the vehicle, it is important that
the automatic transmission have full working pres-
sure to provide proper clutch engagement. There-
fore, many hybrids and stop-start systems have an
electrically-driven oil pump that operates during
engine shut-off to maintain primed fluid pressure.
These pumps are typically 12V.
Micro Hybrid
A micro hybrid or stop-start hybrid has a more robust
generator that also acts as a starter. It is known as
an integrated starter/generator (ISG) and is powered
by a belt drive attached to the crankshaft. The ISG
replaces the traditional alternator.
The term micro-hybrid has traditionally been
used to refer to all stop-start mild hybrids. However,
today the term applies to a vehicle that moves with
power supplied only by the internal combustion
engine. A micro hybrid cannot propel the vehicle
with the electric motor alone.
Note: A micro hybrid is not actually a true hybrid
because it does not use electricity to power the vehicle.
The difference between a micro hybrid and a conven-
tional vehicle is that it has regenerative braking and
engine idle stop/start functions. Regenerative brak-
ing recharges the batteries, except when the antilock
brake system is operating, and at low vehicle speeds.
Micro hybrids have become common in Europe
and are becoming more widely available in North
America, as well. More and more manufacturers are
embracing the stop-start technology as a way to
help reach fuel economy and greenhouse gas emis-
sion goals. Shutting off the engine when stopped or
decelerating can provide an overall improvement in
fuel economy of about 8 percent. A modest reduc-
tion in CO2 emissions occurs, as well.
Dual Voltage Electrical Systems
Engineers use the term “dual voltage architecture”
to describe a 12/14V electrical system, combined
with a higher voltage battery. The higher voltage
battery can more quickly capture regenerative brak-
ing energy and provide electricity for high electrical
loads like air conditioning when the engine is off
during start-stop operation.
A micro hybrid electrical system typically uses
voltage less than 60 volts in its dual architecture
electrical system. Using lower voltage means that a
10595_ch80_rev03.indd 1608
Internal Integrated starter
combustion /generator (ISG)
engine
Electronic
control module
36/42V
12/14
battery
battery
pack
Figure 80.17 A belt alternator starter hybrid system.
vehicle can be made at lower cost because less expen-
sive lead-acid batteries can be used and the danger
of electrocution is diminished. The 36-volt battery
pack shown in Figure 80.17 consists of three addi-
tional 12-volt battery cassettes connected in series.
Note: Due to the amount of applied voltage when
charging, a 36-volt system is actually 42 or more
volts. This is comparable to a 12-volt electrical sys-
tem, which charges at 14 or more volts.
Some stop-start hybrids that have traditionally
been supplied with dual architecture 36-volt elec-
trical systems, now operate solely on 12 volts.
This is due to improvements in battery and starter
design. Some manufacturers are using special starter
motors that re-engage with the flywheel ring before
the engine comes to a complete rest. These robust
starter motors need to work much harder than con-
ventional starter motors.
Mild Hybrid
A mild hybrid, sometimes called a power-assist hybrid,
can be either series or parallel. A parallel mild
hybrid is the same as a micro hybrid, except that it
can also use the ISG to provide additional power to
the ICE when accelerating. The key component in
most mild hybrid systems is an integrated starter/
generator (ISG) attached to its crankshaft by way of
a coupling at the flywheel (Figure 80.18). It is used
with a conventional transmission or CVT. Parallel
mild hybrids do not propel the vehicle using only
the electric motor.
A mild hybrid provides a small additional
improvement in fuel economy at freeway speeds
08/11/14 1:41 PM
 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamentals 1609

Starter/generator
stator

Flexplate

Bell housing

Starter/generator
rotor

Torque converter

Transmission
Figure 80.18 A mild hybrid with a starter/generator attached to the crankshaft-driven flexplate.

over a micro hybrid because it will typically have a Medium Hybrid

smaller, more efficient ICE. This is because the elec- A medium hybrid, or assist hybrid, has the added
tric motor is able to provide additional power when function of electric motor assist. The motor adds
needed. additional torque to the crankshaft of the ICE when
There have also been mild hybrids produced accelerating or climbing a hill (Figure 80.19). It
with belt-driven ISGs, like GM’s eAssist. These have
110V lithium ion batteries, which require cooling,
are expensive, and require trunk space. GM has
been replacing these with a less expensive micro-
hybrid design.
A series mild hybrid uses an electric motor to
propel the vehicle and recharges the battery using
either the ICE or regenerative braking.

GDI Static Engine Restart

Some new technology is being developed by man-
ufacturers. A gasoline direct injection engine can
be restarted without using the starter motor. This
is sometimes called static start. The control mod-
ule knows the locations of the pistons during their
rotation in the engine. It injects and ignites fuel in
one of the cylinders whose piston is near TDC on
its compression stroke. This forces the piston down,
turning the crankshaft in the opposite direction,
moving the companion cylinder into the correct fir-
ing position. When fuel is injected and ignited, the
crankshaft turns in the correct direction once again
and the engine starts.
Mazda’s i-Stop system, which also uses the
starter motor to assist the restart, is said to start the
engine in 0.35 seconds. The engine stops when the
compression stroke and power stroke are balanced. Figure 80.19 An electric motor from a Honda Civic
More information on this technology is found in medium hybrid adds additional torque to the engine
Chapter 40. when accelerating or climbing a hill.

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 1610 Chapter 80
has high-voltage (144V) idle stop capability, and
the high-voltage electrical system allows for electric
power steering and air conditioning. The medium
hybrid is the system used by Honda. It achieves bet-
ter fuel economy at highway speeds because the
electric motor assists the engine using energy from
the battery that was recaptured during regenerative
braking.
Full Hybrid
A full hybrid, sometimes called a strong hybrid, does
everything that a medium hybrid does, but under
certain conditions it also powers the vehicle using
only the electric motor. A typical full hybrid idles
with the ICE off and uses the electric motor for ini-
tial acceleration before restarting the engine. With
the batteries sufficiently charged, the electric motor
can continue to power the vehicle at low speeds
without the ICE. At higher speeds, when the ICE
is powering the vehicle, the electric motor can pro-
vide an additional power boost (torque assist) to the
engine as needed. In large-size hybrid vehicles, this
provides a high-performance feel.
Toyota hybrid vehicles have series-parallel
powertrains. These and many other series-paral-
lel hybrids are called “full” hybrids because their
electric motors are powerful enough to propel the
vehicle for short distances on their own (typically
less than a mile). Ford and Nissan use similar series-
parallel hybrid powertrains.
Two-Mode Hybrid
A “two-mode” hybrid system was developed for
automotive use in a joint project by GM, BMW,
Daimler, and Chrysler. This design, which is based
on GM bus hybrids, combines a series-parallel
hybrid powertrain with four additional fixed for-
ward transmission gear ratios. Variations of the GM
two-mode hybrid system have been used on some
GM light trucks and SUVs. BMW, Chrysler, and Mer-
cedes-Benz have all used the two-mode system on
some of their hybrid vehicles as well. The two-mode
hybrid has proven to be popular in larger vehicles
because of its greater size and towing capacity.
Power Hybrid/Muscle Hybrid
Unlike ICEs, electric motors provide full torque from
a standing start. Torque is what gives you the feel-
ing of being pushed back into the seat. A traditional
saying among automotive sales people is “Custom-
ers buy horsepower, but they drive torque”. Elec-
tric motors have 100 percent of their rated torque
nearly all of the time, even at 0 rpm. This is why
an electric go-cart with only 8 HP feels so fast. In a
hybrid system, as the motor speeds up but its torque
remains constant, the ICE steps in to provide sup-
plemental power.
10595_ch80_rev03.indd 1610
Fuel Economy Considerations. From a fuel econ-
omy standpoint, the high-performance aspect of
hybrid vehicles can result in worse mileage when
coupled with an overly enthusiastic driver. Repeated
wide-open throttle with aggressive braking ruins
fuel economy.
Note: Pulse and glide driving when accelerating
and decelerating is best for fuel efficiency. Anticipat-
ing when you will need to slow down allows regen-
erative braking to occur as you reduce speed slowly,
rather than hard braking, which will cause the
regular brakes to slow the car. When there is a need
to accelerate rapidly on a freeway on-ramp, acceler-
ate aggressively. Fuel use will be reduced because
the battery will assist the ICE until you ease off the
throttle.
Full hybrids get worse fuel economy at freeway
speeds. Each mile per hour over 50 mph costs about
1 mile per gallon in fuel economy because the ICE
tends to be running continuously under these
conditions.
Plug-In Hybrids
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are becom-
ing more popular as battery technology improves.
A power socket allows their larger batteries to
be recharged by an external source of electricity
(Figure 80.20). They run for several miles on this
stored energy before the ICE turns on and begins to
use fuel. The Toyota plug-in hybrid has a 13-mile
range before the engine comes on, compared to
40 miles for the Chevy Volt. The Volt has a larger
battery pack and is therefore more expensive to
manufacture, however.
PHEVs can be either parallel or series hybrids.
Commuters who always take shorter trips might
rarely buy gasoline. However, the engine needs to
start occasionally so the internal engine compo-
nents remain lubricated and fuel in the tank doesn’t
Photo by Tim Gilles
Figure 80.20 A plug-in hybrid
08/11/14 1:41 PM

get oxidized and cause problems. Electronic pro-
gramming does this automatically.
Conventional hybrids cannot run for more than
a very short distance on battery power alone. As an
experiment, you can pull the fuel pump relay on a
Prius and see how far it will drive in electric mode.
You will probably find that this is about one mile.
Plug-in hybrids can run for longer distances. On
longer trips, a PHEV is like a normal hybrid.
From an environmental standpoint, driving
on electricity alone reduces greenhouse gases and
exhaust pollutants and can provide very high fuel
economy, about twice that of a conventional hybrid.
Extended Range Electric Vehicle
One type of PHEV is an extended range electric
vehicle (EREV) like the Chevy Volt. It runs on bat-
tery power alone until the battery SOC drops to
about 22 percent of full charge. This is called the set
point. It is where the ICE starts and provides elec-
tricity to the drive motor. However the ICE will not
recharge the battery pack. The ICE does not directly
propel the vehicle. Under all conditions, the wheels
are powered by electricity. The ICE provides enough
electrical energy to allow the vehicle to continue to
be driven after the battery charge drops below the
set point. Below the set point, the vehicle becomes a
series hybrid, with the ICE providing electrical gen-
eration to maintain vehicle movement. At higher
road speed, the engine operates at a higher rpm,
which uses more energy.
EREVs are covered in more detail in Chapter 82.
Plug-In Recharging
The electrical grid is the interconnected network
that moves electricity from generating stations to
customers throughout the world. The ICE will not
fully charge the battery in a plug-in hybrid. A battery
charge can only be done off the grid. The cost of elec-
tricity can vary widely, depending on the location,
time, and method of generation. Plug-in hybrids
can communicate with the battery charger to allow
charging only when the cost on the grid is lowest.
Charge Plug and Receptacle
The charge cord plug and receptacle (port) have
been standardized between manufacturers by SAE
J1772. Options include 120- or 240-volt charging. A
full charge can be accomplished more quickly with
240 volts. A larger battery requires a longer charge,
and software prevents overcharging or undercharg-
ing. The 440-volt charging systems are sometimes
available at commercial electric vehicle charging
stations, although these are not used for plug-in
hybrids. The various charging levels are known as
levels 1, 2, and DC Fast Charge. Chapter 82 covers
this in more detail.
10595_ch80_rev03.indd 1611
Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamentals 1611
Hybrid Artificial Sound for
Pedestrian Safety
When traveling at low speeds, hybrid and electric
vehicles often operate on electrical power alone.
This creates a problem in parking lots because
pedestrians cannot hear the sound of the vehicle,
and an accident can occur. Newer hybrid and elec-
tric vehicles make artificial sound to warn pedes-
trians and bicyclists of their presence. Guidelines
have been legislated in the United States and
Japan. Several manufacturers use manually acti-
vated warning sound generators, while others
have automatic systems. A challenge for engineers
is making a system that can distinguish between
pedestrians and other vehicles. Some systems
make realistic engine sounds, while others make
chirps or beeps. The target noise level is about
55 decibels.
At more than 20 mph, tire and wind noise com-
bine to make hybrids as loud as cars with an ICE.
In the U.S., the National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration (NHTSA) has guidelines that call
for artificial sound to be used below 18.6 mph
(30 km/h) and also when operating in reverse. In
Europe, the system is known as the Acoustic Vehicle
Alerting System (AVAS).
An aftermarket system called vehicular opera-
tions sound emitting system (VOSES) has been
developed. It generates sounds that resemble an
ICE from the car’s wheel wells. When the vehicle is
moving forward, the sound is transmitted forward
and when turning left or right the sound moves in
that direction.
Vintage Note
Fiskers Automotive, a manufacturer that
produced electric cars from 2007 to 2013,
used a sound generator “to enhance the
driving experience.” The company called
the sound a mixture of “a Formula One car
and a starship.” They also could equip a vehicle with
sounds like a muscle car.
Internal Combustion Engine Used
With Hybrid Vehicles
Most hybrid vehicles use a gasoline engine to assist
an electric motor, or motors, to power the wheels.
An ICE has low torque output at low rpm, while an
electric motor has high torque from a standing start.
At cruising speeds, the ICE is more powerful than
necessary. The series-parallel hybrid uses a smaller
ICE that uses the Atkinson cycle, rather than the
conventional Otto cycle. This results in better fuel
economy and easier engine restarting.
08/11/14 1:41 PM
 1612 Chapter 80

Atkinson Cycle ICE

The Atkinson cycle engine design operates within
a relatively narrow rpm band (4,500 maximum
rpm). Variable valve timing allows the intake valve
to close later, lowering the engine’s operating
compression ratio, or effective compression ratio
(Figure 80.21). Having a lower compression ratio
when idling and during startup allows the engine
to restart more easily from an idle stop because it
does not have to overcome the resistance of nor- Electric
mal compression. The engine cranks at 1,000 rpm, water pump
instead of about 250 rpm. This provides a seamless Figure 80.22 An electric water pump from a hybrid
feel between engine off and engine on. vehicle.
The intake valve opens late and remains open
until the piston is about 2/ 3 of the way back up in
the cylinder on the compression stroke. In a con-
Exhaust Intake ventional engine this would begin to push the air
valve opens valve opens charge back out the open intake valve. In the Atkin-
son cycle engine, this reversion is prevented by a
Actual compression phase
restrictive intake manifold.
Piston starts ascending The “shorter” compression stroke is followed
by a “longer” power stroke to maximize the energy
output of the burning fuel. Under heavy loads, the
valve opening

valve timing changes to allow operation more like a

Degree of

conventional engine.
Note: A supercharged Atkinson cycle engine is
called a Miller cycle engine.

Time Hybrid ICE Coolant Pump

Timing is delayed The use of electric water pumps (Figure 80.22) is
more signifcantly becoming commonplace on hybrid vehicles. Conven-
tional water pumps are inefficient in the same way as
a fixed-blade cooling fan. At idle, they must be able
to pump a sufficient amount of coolant with the A/C
on. This means they will pump too much coolant at
higher speed. On-demand electric water pumps are
relatively efficient and only run when necessary

Battery Types: Hybrid Electric

Exhaust Intake Vehicle and Others
Conventional 12-volt lead-acid batteries are cov-
ered in detail in Chapter 26. Other types of batteries
are used in electric motor–powered vehicles. These
include nickel-based batteries and lithium-based
batteries, called lithium-ion (Li-ion). Hybrid batter-
ies have typically been nickel metal hydride (NiMH).
Lithium-ion technology is rapidly changing, how-
ever, and several manufacturers are using them in
hybrids, but especially in full-electric vehicles.
Lithium-ion batteries are covered in detail in
Chapter 82.
There are two common nickel-based batteries:
Figure 80.21 In an Atkinson cycle engine, the intake nickel metal hydride and nickel-cadmium (NiCd).
valve timing varies to change the effective compres- They are similar to each other, except for the material
sion ratio. used in the anode. Both produce 1.2 volts per cell.

10595_ch80_rev03.indd 1612 08/11/14 1:41 PM


NiMH batteries are found in most hybrid vehi-
cles because they have more energy available in a
smaller space and do not contain cadmium, which
is dangerous to the environment. NiCd batteries are
not used in hybrid or electric vehicles.
Science Note
Ions are atoms with a positive or negative
charge. Most rechargeable batteries move
ions from the anode (2) to the cathode
(1) during discharge and back during
recharge. At the same time, electrons are
moving through the external circuit to do their work.
Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries
The positive plate in a NiMH battery is made of
nickel hydroxide. The negative plate contains metal
alloys known as lanthanides that absorb hydrogen.
The separator material between the plates is a fibre
sheet with an alkaline electrolyte of potassium and
sodium hydroxide. The electrolyte is absorbed into
the cell plates and will not leak, even if the battery is
damaged in an accident. A typical cell is housed in
a sealed metal housing with a high-pressure safety
vent. The electrolyte is caustic alkaline (pH 13.5).
This is dangerous to skin Cells, can become dam-
aged and leak when they short out in normal use.
Wear protective gloves before handling a cell.
Note: When fully charged, an NiMH cell measures
1.2 volts. Rechargeable NiMH batteries are used to
replace conventional AA alkaline batteries in cam-
eras and other 1.5-volt applications. A conventional
alkaline battery has 1.5 volts, but only when it is
new. In contrast, the average voltage during the
life of a NiMH battery is said to be 1.2 volts, and
it remains at this level for about 80 percent of its
discharge cycle. Some electric radio-controlled model
cars also use NiMH battery packs.
During NiMH discharge, hydrogen moves from the
negative plate to the positive plate (Figure 80.23).
As the cell recharges, hydrogen moves from the pos-
itive plate to the negative plate. The electrolyte level
does not change during charging and discharging;
hence no service is required.
The Memory Effect
The memory effect is something that occurs in some
rechargeable batteries. NiCd batteries are particu-
larly susceptible. The memory effect causes a battery
to hold less charge and lose its maximum capacity
if it is repeatedly discharged only partway before
recharging. NiMH and lithium-ion batteries do not
suffer from the memory effect and can be “topped
off” repeatedly with very little negative effect.
10595_ch80_rev03.indd 1613
Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamentals 1613
Charge O OH
MH x H H+ H+
Ni
Discharge O OH
M H H+ H+
Ni
(Negative electrode = (Positive electrode =
Hydrogen-absorbing Nickel
alloy) hydroxide)
Figure 80.23 During NiMH discharge, hydrogen
moves from the negative plate to the positive plate.
Typical Hybrid Battery
Most current hybrid automobiles use NiMH bat-
teries. Honda and some Fords use round cells
that resemble standard D-cell flashlight batteries.
Honda uses 120 individual NiMH cells positioned
end to end in groups of six, called modules or sticks
(Figure 80.24). The modules are stacked in the bat-
tery pack (Figure 80.25). A 144-volt Honda battery
pack is smaller than a typical Toyota 201.5-volt bat-
tery. However, the Honda is a power-assist hybrid
and does not power the vehicle exclusively on bat-
tery power.
The battery pack in Toyota hybrids is made
up of prismatic-style modules that are slightly
larger than an 18-volt cordless electric drill bat-
tery (Figure 80.26). Each module has six 1.2-volt
cells. Modules are grouped into packs of two, called
blocks. The battery pack in some Toyota hybrids has
228 1.2-volt cells in 38 six-cell modules that pro-
duce 273.6 volts of DC current. The current genera-
tion Prius uses a 201.5-volt battery with 168 1.2-volt
batteries in 28 six-cell modules (Figure 80.27).
The battery pack includes modules, relays,
and controllers in a metal case similar to a suitcase
(Figure 80.28). The battery modules are clamped
Individual cells
Photo by Tim Gilles
Figure 80.24 Cell modules are made up of individual
cells.
08/11/14 1:41 PM
 1614 Chapter 80

Photo by Tim Gilles

Photo by Tim Gilles
Figure 80.26 The front and back sides of a prismatic
Figure 80.25 Multiple cell stick batteries are stacked in hybrid battery module used in a Toyota Prius.
circular shelves in the battery pack.

Series current flow

Vent hoses

Photo by Tim Gilles

Module connector
Figure 80.27 This Toyota battery pack has 28 six-cell modules made up from 168 1.2-volt batteries. This results in
a 201.5-volt battery back.

Battery
modules

Battery
ECU
Amperage
sensor

Service plug
SMR3 connector
Photo by Tim Gilles

Resistor
SMR1
SMR2
Figure 80.28 The battery pack includes modules, relays, and solenoids in a metal housing.

10595_ch80_rev03.indd 1614 08/11/14 1:41 PM

 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamentals 1615

Six-cell
modules
Vent hoses
Clamp rods

Photo by Tim Gilles

Figure 80.29 Battery modules are fastened together within the battery pack frame.

together in the battery pack frame (Figure 80.29). Upper cover

The module blocks are connected to each other in
series using module connectors (Figure 80.30).
In some hybrids, battery packs are split into
smaller units due to space considerations and also
because they will have lower voltage when sepa-
rated for service (Figure 80.31). A Honda battery
pack weighs about 48 pounds, compared with a Relays &
Toyota battery pack, which weighs about 110–150 Junction solenoids
pounds, depending on its voltage. A bigger battery block
pack has more capacity. This concept is covered in
more detail in Chapter 82. Cooling fans

Modules Vents
Controller

HV battery
modules

Figure 80.31 The battery pack assembly includes mod-

ules, a controller, relays, and solenoids. In some hybrids,
battery packs are split into smaller units like this.

Hybrid Battery Electrolyte

Photo by Tim Gilles

The cells in a hybrid NiMH battery pack each have

their own sealed case. Each cell contains thin paper
membranes that absorb the potassium hydroxide
(KOH) electrolyte. The KOH electrolyte solution in
Module the high-voltage batteries was originally liquid dur-
connectors ing battery manufacture, but the batteries are called
Figure 80.30 Battery modules are connected to each dry cells because the liquid electrolyte is almost
other in series using module connectors. totally absorbed in the battery membranes. Unlike

10595_ch80_rev03.indd 1615 08/11/14 1:41 PM

 1616 Chapter 80

Cooling High-voltage
fan battery pack

Photo by Tim Gilles

Figure 80.32 The high-voltage battery pack has a Capacitors
cooling system. Figure 80.34 Capacitors in a Toyota inverter.

Air from passenger Alternating current can pass through a capaci-

compartment
Exhaust duct
(duct #1) Air intake
Cooling
fan
HV battery
Air out to
case
atmosphere
(duct #2)
Figure 80.33 Air is circulated from the passenger
compartment to the high-voltage battery.
ordinary lead-acid batteries, hybrid battery cell elec-
trolyte gel is highly alkaline with a pH of 13.5.
Hybrid Battery Cooling System
The battery pack generates heat, so it has an air
cooling system (Figure 80.32). The air cooling
system has several sensors and various fan speeds.
When the battery gets hot, the fan turns on, pulling
cool air from the passenger compartment or a rear
a/c evaporator into the high-voltage battery hous-
ing (Figure 80.33). This air is then vented to the
exterior of the car.
Capacitors in Hybrid Vehicles
A conventional capacitor, or static capacitor, is
made up of two conductive surfaces separated by an
insulator, called a dielectric. Capacitor theory was
described in detail in Chapter 25.
tor, but direct current cannot. Like a battery, a
capacitor is an electrical storage device. But unlike
a battery, a capacitor does not use a chemical reac-
tion when charging and discharging. It has lower
internal resistance and is capable of nearly twice the
output of a battery of the same weight.
When an electrical circuit is open, the capaci-
tor will maintain its charge. When the circuit is
closed, it will unload electrons in an attempt to
balance the voltage levels in the circuit. A capaci-
tor is efficient at electron storage and loses only a
small amount of its storage by leakage through the
dielectric.
Conventional capacitors are used in the invert-
ers of hybrid vehicles to control voltage spikes. They
also provide short-term power during acceleration
transients, similar to how a capacitor is used to
power a subwoofer in an audio system (a transient
is a momentary change in voltage, current, or fre-
quency). Figure 80.34 shows typical capacitors in
a cutaway inverter. When a hybrid vehicle is depow-
ered, its capacitors discharge within approximately
5 to 10 minutes, depending on the manufacturer.
However, as described in Chapter 81, never trust
this! Always check for voltage before working on
high-voltage circuits. Before attempting to service
an HEV, be sure to check that the capacitors are dis-
charged (see Chapter 81).
Supercapacitors/Ultracapacitors
A problem with conventional capacitors is that
their physical size is limited. If you want to store
more electrons, you have to have a bigger capaci-
tor. Supercapacitors, also called ultracapacitors, are
smaller than conventional capacitors. However, to
store the same charge, a supercapacitor will still

10595_ch80_rev04.indd 1616 13/11/14 3:50 PM

 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamentals 1617

be larger than a battery. Supercapacitors are con-
structed differently than static capacitors, so they
can store more electrons in a smaller area.
Supercapacitors Are Fast
Supercapacitors can discharge and store electric-
ity as the output of the battery pack changes. They
are used in some hybrid vehicles to reclaim energy
during regenerative braking. Supercapacitors are
especially suited for this because they cannot be
overcharged; they just get full. They can also charge
and recharge 100–200 times faster than a battery!
When a battery discharges and recharges, an elec-
trochemical reaction needs to occur; this takes a
relatively long time. This is not true with a superca-
pacitor, however, which stores electricity in an elec-
tric field and can discharge very fast. This feature
allows supercapacitors to provide secondary stor-
age and assist with power to the wheels when extra
acceleration is needed for high-current acceleration,
climbing steep hills, or just beating another driver
to the jump when the freeway on ramp converges
from two lanes to one.
Supercapacitors are maintenance-free and have
a long life expectancy. Unlike a battery, they are not
adversely affected by deep discharging. Whereas a
battery can discharge and recharge a few thousand
times, a supercapacitor has a life expectancy of
over 10 years and can discharge and recharge from
500,000 to a million times with no problem. It does
not overcharge, is not damaged by vibration, and
works well under varying temperature conditions.
A supercapacitor can recharge very quickly and
can also discharge very quickly. This makes it suit-
able for quickly charging batteries. In fact, superca-
pacitors are now being used for battery chargers for
some electric vehicles.
Unlike batteries, supercapacitors do not contain
toxic materials that require special environmen-
tal consideration during disposal. However, there
are safety issues; supercaps can charge themselves
easily, even with static electric buildup!

Science Note capacitive deionization used in desalination plants.

Types of Supercapacitors
The term supercapacitor includes the electric
double-layer capacitor (EDLC) (Science Note
Figure 80.1), the pseudocapacitor, and the
hybrid capacitor (Science Note Figure 80.2).
Double-layer capacitors store electrons electrostat-
ically using a Helmholtz layer. Pseudocapacitors store
a charge electrochemically, or Faradaically, between
electrolyte and electrodes. This is done in several ways,
including oxidation-reduction reactions, intercala-
tion, and electrosorption. Electrosorption is similar to
Electrolytic double-layer capacitors operate almost like
a battery and a capacitor at the same time. An EDLC
supercapacitor is like a battery in that it has an electro-
lyte, but it uses the electrolyte electrostatically, rather
than electrochemically. Ions move through the electro-
lyte, but without a chemical reaction.
A hybrid capacitor combines the EDLC and pseu-
docapacitor. This is an emerging field of technology
that stores a charge both electrostatically and elec-
trochemically. These devices already make it possible
to use smaller batteries, making up for lesser battery
power by substituting power from the hybrid capacitor.

Positive Negative
electrode electrode Supercapacitors
+ + + – – –
+ + + – – –
+ + + – – –

Current +
+
+
+
+
+
–
–
–
–
–
–
Current
collector + + + – – – collector Pseudocapacitors
+ + + – – – Double-Layer Capacitors
+ + + – – – Electrons stored
+ + + – – – Electrons stored
+ + + – – – electrochemically
electrostatically using a
+ + + – – –
(Faradaically) between the
+ + + – – –
Helmholtz Layer
Load + –
electrolyte and electrodes.
+ –
resistance +
+
–
–

Separator +
+
+ + –
– –
+
–
– – –
Hybrid Capacitors
+ + +
+
–
–
Electrons stored
+ – both electrostatically
and electrochemically.
Applied voltage
Science Note Figure 80.1 An electrochemical Science Note Figure 80.2 The supercapacitor
double-layer capacitor or ELDC group includes several types of capacitors.

10595_ch80_rev04.indd 1617 13/11/14 3:50 PM

 1618 Chapter 80
Stator
windings
Permanent
magnet
Hall effect
rotor
sensors
Figure 80.35 Parts of a brushless DC motor.
Hybrid Brushless DC Motors
Hybrid motor terms are similar to those you are
familiar with from conventional starters and gen-
erators; induction or permanent magnet stators and
rotors, for instance.
Hybrid vehicles use brushless motors. In a con-
ventional DC motor, electrical arcing not only causes
wear but results in electrical interference in computer
circuits. A brushless motor has no commutator or
brushes, so arcing cannot occur. Permanent magnets
are part of the rotor, and electromagnets are part of
the stator (Figure 80.35). Electronic commutation
replaces the brushes and commutator bars, switching
current flow between the different stator windings to
make the rotor turn (see Chapter 82). Rotor position
is sensed either by a Hall switch (see Chapter 37) or
by sensing the magnetic field strength in unexcited
field windings. Magnetic strength in the windings
varies with changes in the duty cycle. A duty cycle is
a ratio between on time and off time.
By varying the speed at which power is turned on
and off, a module can control current flow to change
the speed of the motor. This is called pulse-width mod-
ulation. With longer pulses, the motor turns faster.
Motors are covered in detail in Chapter 82.
Hybrid Vehicle Air Conditioning
Hybrid vehicles often operate with the internal com-
bustion engine off. Therefore, a belt-driven compres-
sor would not always have power when needed. Some
hybrid vehicles use a conventional air-conditioning
system but operate the internal combustion engine
any time the air conditioning is on. Some air-con-
ditioning compressors are driven by a belt from the
engine crankshaft. However, most hybrid vehicles use
an electric compressor (Figure 80.36) to pressurize
the air-conditioning system so the engine does not
have to be running. It is a scroll compressor powered
10595_ch80_rev03.indd 1618
Electric AC
Compressor
Photo by Tim Gilles
High voltage
power
Figure 80.36 An electric air conditioning compressor
used on a hybrid vehicle can be mounted anywhere.
Belt drive
Photo by Tim Gilles
High-voltage
connection
Electric Compressor
drive
Figure 80.37 A combination electric and belt drive
A/C compressor.
by either an AC or a DC motor. It does not need
to be mounted on the engine, so it can be located
anywhere on the vehicle the engineer desires. How-
ever, it is often located on the engine because this is
the quietest place to put it. Other than the electric
compressor, a typical hybrid air-conditioning system
operates in the same way as a conventional system.
Honda uses a combination belt and electric
drive compressor in their first-generation Accord
(Figure 80.37).
Hybrid Vehicle Brakes
The braking system on a hybrid vehicle has the same
parts as a conventional braking system. The system
is different, however, in that it has regenerative brak-
ing. Computer controls operate the hydraulic brake
system, rather than a direct mechanical link from
the master cylinder to the calipers. Figure 80.38
shows a diagram of a complete brake system used
on a late-model Toyota Prius. Computers control
the conventional braking system as well as all other
08/11/14 1:41 PM
 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamentals 1619

Master cylinder hydraulic brake system, the brakes will operate nor-
Power source mally but with increased pedal pressure and stopping
Relay box
Brake actuator backup unit distance, and a warning light on the instrument panel
will come on. Under abrupt braking situations, both
hydraulic and regenerative braking are applied.
Simulator Operation of the hybrid motor(s) during regen-
erative braking is covered next.

Hybrid Planetary Transmission

Speed sensors
Speed sensors Yaw rate and
deceleration sensor
Figure 80.38 The braking system for a late-model
hybrid. Braking is controlled electronically.
braking systems, including traction control, skid
control, and regenerative braking control. These
systems are covered in Chapter 59.
Because the regenerative and hydraulic brakes
work together, hybrid brakes feel slightly different
than conventional brakes. When the driver releases
the accelerator pedal, regenerative braking begins.
The hydraulic brakes are not used at this time. At
low vehicle speeds and when rapid stopping power is
required, the hydraulic brakes come into play and pro-
vide most of the stopping force. When decelerating,
Toyota’s Prius reverts to full hydraulic braking at about
6 mph. If there is a failure in either the electronic or
Operation
Some hybrid vehicles have used CVT or conventional
automatic transmissions, but many other hybrids use
a unique transmission known as an ECVT or electron-
ically controlled continuously variable transmission.
Note: Many technicians think of a CVT as the
typical belt-and-cone type. However, any transmis-
sion with variable gearing, including today’s series-
parallel hybrid transaxles, is a CVT. The terms ECVT
and e-CVT are marketing terms describing series-
parallel hybrid transaxles.
The hybrid drive system used in Toyota, Lexus, and Ford
vehicles is used here as an example because this system is
used in a majority of hybrid vehicles. It uses a planetary
gearset to transmit power between one or two motors,
the engine, and the drive wheels (Figure 80.39). This
arrangement provides a constantly variable transmis-
sion, and a torque converter is not needed. Depend-
ing on the manufacturer or vehicle, it is called a hybrid
transaxle, a final drive, or a power split device.
Engine speed is controlled using drive-by-wire
rather than a mechanical throttle connection. Com-
puters calculate the best conditions for emissions

Ring
Carrier gear
Carrier
Carrier (engine)
Oil Sun gear
pump (MG1)
MG2 MG1

Mounts
to
engine

Sun gear Sun gear

Pinion gear Ring gear

(Output)
Shared
ring gear POWER SPLITTING
DEVICE

Final gears Counter gears

Figure 80.39 This Toyota system uses a planetary gear unit to transmit power between two motors and the engine.
MG1 is motor/generator1 and MG2 is motor/generator 2.

10595_ch80_rev03.indd 1619 08/11/14 1:41 PM

 1620 Chapter 80

and economy and control the transaxle, mixing MG2 drives vehicle
input from the engine and motor(s) to balance the
demands of electrical generation and power.
A conventional automatic transmission plane- MG2 MG1
tary gearset has one input and three possible outputs.
A hybrid planetary transaxle has three inputs and
one output. Low-speed power is provided by an elec- Engine
tric motor, which can supply maximum torque from off
a standing start. As torque from the electric motor
declines, an ICE provides supplemental power.

Electric Motor/Generators
There are two motor/generators in the Toyota hybrid
system (THS). Both motor/generator 1 (MG1) and
motor/generator 2 (MG2) are part of the transaxle Figure 80.41 When starting from a stop, power comes
only from MG2.
assembly. MG2 is the main power plant, supplying
about 50 kilowatts of power. In comparison, MG1 pro-
vides about 10 kilowatts, about 1/ 5 the power of MG2. Deceleration D range

Hybrid Component Interaction

Hybrid motor/generators operate as motors when MG2 MG1
they power a vehicle. They can also generate elec-
tricity to recharge the battery pack.
Engine
Motor/Generator 1. MG1 is splined to the sun
off
gear. It controls the transaxle gear ratio and pro-
vides a starter for the internal combustion engine
(Figure 80.40). It also generates electricity and
gives a small amount of acceleration assist, espe-
cially when the internal combustion engine is off.
Motor/Generator 2. When starting from a stop,
power is supplied solely by the main electric motor, Figure 80.42 During regenerative braking, MG2 is the
MG2 (Figure 80.41). MG2 is splined to the planetary main brake source.
ring gear, and thus the final drive. It is used to propel
the vehicle all of the time and also generates elec-
MG1 as generator
tricity when the vehicle decelerates (Figure 80.42).
During this regenerative braking process, MG2 is the
main brake source, and each wheel is modulated by MG2 MG1
the computer system’s brake-by-wire system.
At speeds above 15 mph, MG1 acts as a starter
motor and starts the internal combustion engine, Engine
which then drives MG1 as a generator to recharge running
the battery pack (Figure 80.43). If the battery has

Starting engine

MG2 MG1
Planetary
pinions Figure 80.43 At speeds above 15 mph, the engine
Engine runs to power MG1 and recharge the battery pack.
running
already reached its intended charge, MG1’s addi-
tional power is applied to MG2 to move the vehicle.
Sun gear Figure 80.44 shows planetary gear operation as
the engine and MG2 move the vehicle.
Internal Combustion Engine. The engine is
Figure 80.40 Planetary operation when starting the splined to the planetary carrier. Any time the plan-
engine. etary carrier spins, the engine must be rotating.

10595_ch80_rev03.indd 1620 08/11/14 1:41 PM


Engine and MG2 drive vehicle
MG2 MG1
Engine
running
Figure 80.44 When the battery pack has been
recharged, both MG1 and MG2 drive the vehicle.
Reverse
MG2 MG1
Engine
off
Figure 80.45 In reverse, the engine is off and MG2
supplies the power to drive the vehicle.
Reverse. In reverse, the engine does not supply
power to the wheels. It only starts and runs when
needed to power MG1 when battery voltage drops
below a certain level. MG2 supplies power in
reverse, as shown in Figure 80.45.
Hybrid Computer Controls. The computer deter-
mines when to turn the engine on and off. It also
controls the interaction between the engine and
both motors, which determines the transaxle gear
ratio. The MG1 electrical field, in generator mode,
can be energized to put a variable load on the sun
gear. Given that the speed of the ring gear (and MG2)
is determined by the speed of the vehicle, managing
the load on the sun gear will determine the speed of
the carrier and thus the effective gear ratio between
the ICE and the wheels. Picture this as if it were an
infinitely variable duty cycle on a clutch pack! Like a
conventional clutch pack, there is friction which con-
trols the pack. However, instead of friction discs and
clutch linings, the hybrid concept uses electromag-
netic friction with generated power and some heat as
the result. The generated current can either go to the
battery or be sent to MG2 to help propel the vehicle.
10595_ch80_rev03.indd 1621
Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamentals 1621
Hybrid Differential. Output from the planetary
assembly provides a final drive ratio using a chain
or gears to drive a normal transaxle differential.
Because output from the planetary gearset is coun-
terclockwise, an idler gear is used to change the
direction of rotation to clockwise.
Hybrid Operation
The larger Toyota and Lexus hybrids are power-
ful vehicles that provide excellent acceleration.
These models use an additional third electric motor
on the rear axle to provide extra acceleration, all-
wheel drive, and traction control. Double regenera-
tive braking is an added benefit. The extra motor/
generator in the rear is called motor/generator rear
(MGR). The following figures illustrate some of the
operations of a complete hybrid system with an
MGR. In the illustrations, the planetary assembly is
called a planetary gear unit (PGU).
Initial Start from a Stop. When starting from a stop
(Figure 80.46), MG2 spins the ring gear. The engine
is off (unless needed), holding the planetary carrier
stationary. This turns the planetary pinions into idler
gears, driving the sun gear counterclockwise and
spinning MG1 under no load in a reverse direction.
Note: The generator does not necessarily generate elec-
tricity just because it is spinning. A permanent-magnet
rotor always produces a magnetic field. This field is
used during generator action, and must be overcome
during motor action. The rotor magnets have a fixed
field strength, and the strength of the field increases
Differential
MG2 Planetary MG1
gear Engine
unit
Inverter
Electrical energy
Mechanical energy
High-voltage
battery
MGR
Figure 80.46 Electrical and mechanical power flow when
starting from a stop. The engine does not normally run.
08/11/14 1:41 PM
 1622 Chapter 80

Differential Differential

MG2 Planetary MG1

MG2 Planetary MG1
gear Engine
gear Engine unit
unit

Inverter
Inverter Electrical energy
Electrical energy
Mechanical energy
Mechanical energy
High-voltage
High-voltage battery
battery

MGR

Figure 80.48 Full acceleration in an all-wheel-drive

Figure 80.47 When starting the engine, electrical hybrid. MG2, the engine, MG1, and the rear motor
power flows from the high-voltage battery to MG1. (MGR) all work together to supply additional power.

as the rotor turns faster. However, during operation as
either a motor or a generator, the interaction of the rotor
fields with the stator windings can be manipulated in
many ways. For instance, a manufacturer might design
a particular motor/generator to produce no torque for
brief periods of time. To do this, the vehicle’s motor
control produces an electromagnetic field in the wind-
ing that opposes the effects of the rotor’s magnetic field,
cancelling it out. This produces zero torque.
Starting the Engine. At speeds above 15 mph, the
engine is started by MG1 (Figure 80.47). Remem-
ber that MG1 is spinning in reverse because the
engine is holding the planetary carrier stationary.
The computer energizes the field in MG1 enough
so that the planetary carrier attached to the engine
starts to spin, turning the engine’s crankshaft. When
the engine is running, it does not control vehicle
speed. Rather, motor, generator, and engine output
are controlled through the power split device, with
sun gear speed being controlled by MG1.
Light Acceleration. During light acceleration,
MG2 and the engine drive the vehicle and MG1
recharges the battery.
Light Load Cruise. When cruising under light
load, the engine supplies power while MG2 works
as a generator to power MG1.
Heavy Acceleration. When full power is called for,
MG1, MG2, the engine, and the high-voltage battery
all supply additional power. In all-wheel-drive hybrids,
the rear motor supplies power as well (Figure 80.48).
Shift Control. Shift control is provided by three
driver inputs—shift position, accelerator pedal posi-
tion, and braking input from master cylinder pressure.

Review Questions
1. A [series/parallel] (choose one) hybrid is 4. When the light is illuminated, a
powered only by the electric motor. hybrid vehicle is “on”.
2. A conventional [series/parallel] (choose one) 5. List the starting rpm for the following vehicles:
hybrid has an electric motor mounted inline conventional ICE
with the engine. hybrid ICE
3. During moderate braking, energy is 6. List four types of hybrids.
recaptured by the braking 7. In a 36-volt system, the charging system
system. voltage is actually volts.

10595_ch80_rev03.indd 1622 08/11/14 1:41 PM


8. What is the name of the hybrid system that
uses a belt-driven starter/generator located in
place of the conventional AC generator?
9. Because of electric-only drive, [electric/
hydraulic] (choose one) power steering is
required on hybrid vehicles.
10. When a gasoline direct injection engine is
restarted without using the starter motor, this
is known as start.
11. A hybrid adds electric motor
assist to the capabilities of a mild hybrid
when accelerating or climbing a hill.
ASE-Style Review Questions
1. Which of the following is NOT true about a
series hybrid?
a. It is powered only by the electric motor.
b. The motor/generator drives the wheels.
c. The generator can be powered by a
gasoline or diesel ICE.
d. The ICE recharges the battery pack.
2. Which of the following is/are true about an
extended range electric vehicle?
a. The generator can add extra power to the
battery pack during heavy loads.
b. The generator can run the vehicle by
itself if the battery is depleted.
c. Both A and B.
d. Neither A nor B.
3. In a parallel hybrid, which of the following
provide(s) power to the drivetrain/transaxle?
a. The ICE c. Both A and and B
b. The electric motor d. Neither A nor B
4. Two technicians are discussing regenerative
braking. Technician A says that during hard
braking, the regenerative braking system is used.
Technician B says that during moderate braking,
the conventional brakes are used. Who is right?
a. Technician A c. Both A and B
b. Technician B d. Neither A nor B
5. Which of the following is NOT true about a
mild hybrid?
a. It only moves from power supplied by
the ICE.
b. Its electric motor does not propel the vehicle.
c. Its ICE fuel economy improves at freeway
speeds.
d. Regenerative braking and engine stop at
idle are its only functions.
6. arabicAll hybrids have idle stop and
regenerative braking. True or False?
10595_ch80_rev03.indd 1623
Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamentals 1623
12. Pulse and driving is a technique
to provide better fuel efficiency when acceler-
ating and decelerating a hybrid vehicle.
13. The lower-level battery state of charge where
the ICE starts and recharges the battery pack
is called the point.
14. Artificial sound systems for hybrid vehicles
operating in parking lots have a target noise
level of about decibels.
15. The hybrid engine design that varies intake valve
closing to change the effective compression ratio
is the cycle engine.
7. Which of the following is NOT true about a
full hybrid?
a. It idles with the ICE off.
b. It uses the electric motor for initial
acceleration before restarting the engine.
c. When the battery is sufficiently charged,
the ICE powers the vehicle at low speeds
with no electric motor assist.
d. The electric motor provides additional
power-assist to the engine as needed.
8. Which of the following is untrue about
NiMH batteries?
a. They are used in most hybrid vehicles.
b. They do not suffer from the memory effect.
c. Topping off the charge repeatedly is
damaging to the battery.
d. The fully charged voltage is 1.2V and
remains at this level for about 80 percent
of its discharge cycle.
9. Which of the following is/are true about
supercapacitors?
a. They provide a power assist when more
acceleration is needed.
b. They reclaim energy during regenerative
braking.
c. They cannot be overcharged.
d. They charge and recharge 100–200 times
faster than a battery.
e. All of the above.
10. Technician A says that hybrid brakes feel
slightly different than conventional brakes.
Technician B says that regenerative
braking begins when the driver releases the
accelerator pedal. Who is right?
a. Technician A c. Both A and B
b. Technician B d. Neither A nor B
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