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Preface
A Few Words to the Students
I n spite of its many successful theories, chemistry remains an experimental science. As our world has grown
increasingly digital, many initiatives have emerged based on the hope that students might learn chemistry by
working with software and observing reactions on a computer screen rather than actually carrying them out
in a laboratory. While we are proponents of innovation and follow these efforts closely, even dabbling in them
ourselves, we remain convinced that chemistry is, at its core, a hands-on laboratory science, in the vast ma-
jority of cases best learned by carrying out first-hand experiments with real chemicals. Your instructors must
agree, because teaching “wet” laboratory sections is a difficult and expensive undertaking, not the path of
least resistance. Please keep in mind that a lot of resources are going into giving you the opportunity to learn
chemistry in this way; we urge you to make the most of it!
It is not easy to do good experimental work. It requires experience, thought, and care. As beginning
students, you have not had much opportunity to do experiments. We feel that the effort you put into your
laboratory sessions can pay off in many ways. You can gain a better understanding of how the chemical world
works, manual dexterity in manipulating apparatus, an ability to apply mathematics to chemical systems, and,
perhaps most importantly, a way of thinking that allows you to better analyze many problems in and out of
science. Who knows, perhaps you will find you enjoy doing chemistry and go on to a career as a chemist, as
many of our students have. We should make clear, however, that while professional chemists rely on many of
the skills that you will learn from the experiments in this manual, the experiments they conduct differ in sev-
eral important respects. First, the experiments in this manual have all been carried out many times, and their
design vetted and refined, such that they offer reasonably reproducible results—at least as much as is possible
with an experimental science. In research chemistry, a great deal of thought and effort (and some measure
of luck!) must go into the design of experiments if they are to have any hope of producing a reproducible
result; we have done that work for you. All of the reagents that go into an experiment must also be correctly
prepared, and that work will largely be done for you by your instructors or their colleagues. Second, the “cor-
rect” outcome of these experiments is known: If something else is obtained (because we can be confident in
the experimental design and the reagents used), it is almost always the result of an error made in the course
of carrying out the experiment. When doing research-level chemistry, we must always consider whether the
experimental design or some other unknown factor is responsible for an interesting result, and the experiment
must be repeated multiple times to ensure that it is reproducible. So even if you find great success in carrying
out the experiments in this manual, don’t get too cocky. You will emerge well-prepared to do what profes-
sional chemists do . . . but you will not have done it yet!
In writing this manual, we have attempted to illustrate many established principles of chemistry with ex-
periments that are as interesting and challenging as possible. These principles are basic to the science but are
usually not intuitively obvious. With each experiment we introduce the theory involved, state in detail the pro-
cedures that are used, describe how to draw conclusions from your observations, and, in an Advance Study
Assignment (ASA), ask you to answer questions similar to those you will encounter in the experiment. Each ASA
is designed to help prepare you for and assist you in the analysis of the experiment it is associated with. Where
applicable, we furnish you with sample data and show (in some detail) how that data can be used to obtain the
desired results. The Advance Study Assignments generally include the guiding principles as well as the specific
relationships to be employed. If you work through the steps in each calculation by yourself, you should understand
how to proceed when you are called upon to analyze the data you obtain in the laboratory. Before coming to lab,
you should read over the experiment for that week and do the Advance Study Assignment. If you prepare for lab
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Preface vii
as you should, you will get more out of it. To give an experiment a bit of a challenge, we occasionally ask you to
work with chemical “unknowns,” whose identity is unknown to you (but not to your instructors).
This edition includes an appendix entitled “Statistical Treatment of Laboratory Data.” When professional
scientists collect experimental data, especially in doing chemical analyses to determine compositions, they
usually summarize their results by means of an average (the arithmetic mean) and a measure of how consis-
tent the data are (through a statistical parameter called the standard deviation). In several experiments of this
type you will be asked to calculate these quantities from your results. Your instructor may decide to make
these calculations an optional part of the experiments, but these values are easily obtained on many standard
calculators or via any spreadsheet (such as Excel).
A Few More Words, This Time to the Instructors

While a great deal of this manual remains his handiwork, dating back as far as to his first days teaching labs at
Macalester College, Professor Emeritus Emil Slowinski is, unfortunately, no longer with us save in spirit and in
our hearts. We miss both his experimental perspicacity and his knack for clear, direct prose aimed at students,
but we have done our humble best to emulate both in putting forth this new edition.
If this is the first time that you are using this manual, we have done what we can to make the transi-
tion to a new manual as easy as possible. The Instructor’s Manual, available online, contains a list of re-
quired equipment and chemicals, directions for preparing solutions, and suggestions for dealing with the
disposal of chemical waste for each experiment. It details the time required to do the experiments and the
approximate cost per student. It also offers comments and suggestions for each experiment that may be
helpful, sample data and calculations, and answers to the Advance Study Assignment questions (see next
paragraph).
Each experiment in this manual includes an “Advance Study Assignment,” or “ASA,” designed to assist
students in preparing for the experiment and particularly (where applicable) in making the calculations
required for it. In such cases, the ASAs offer sample data and (in some detail) step the students through
how that data can be used to obtain the desired results. If students work through the ASA for an experiment
before coming to lab, they will be well prepared to make the necessary calculations on the basis of the data
they obtain in the laboratory, and we encourage you to employ the ASAs as pre-lab exercises.
As with any endeavor, there are many people who contribute to the effort. We value input and queries
from users of the manual, and these have guided many changes in this edition. We would like to thank in
particular Nicole Gill of Ramapo College in Mahwah, New Jersey; Kevin Milani of Hibbing Community
College, up north in our own state of Minnesota; Mary Stroud of Xavier University in Cincinnati, Ohio; and
Ryan Hayes of Andrews University in Berrien Springs, Michigan. We appreciate the assistance of many
members of the Cengage staff, in the form of editorial and technical support in the preparation of this
edition, and would like to thank in particular Alex Sham for his diligence and patience in getting this edition
past the finish line, as well as his superb editing. The careful, thorough, and thoughtful copyediting work
of Patricia Daly, of the Paley Company, improved this edition significantly and is most appreciated. The
cooperation of our chemistry colleagues at Macalester College over the years has also been essential.
It has been a great experience being involved with this laboratory manual over its many editions.
We appreciate the support of our users. We encourage any comments, questions, or suggestions you may have.
Please send them to wolsey@macalester.edu and rossi@rrts.us.
Finally, we acknowledge the patient support of our families in the preparation of this edition.
Wayne C. Wolsey
Robert C. Rossi
New in This Edition

This twelfth edition of Chemical Principles in the Laboratory features a new experiment, entitled “Funda-
mentals of Quantum Mechanics,” which provides an accessible and hands-on introduction to the concept and
general principles of quantized behavior. It was developed to address the steady increase in quantum chem-
istry coverage in chemistry courses, as this topic has become less exotic and more mainstream, all the while
viii Preface
remaining something that few students can readily wrap their head around, and for which little accessible lab
work has been generally available.
As in all previous editions, we have also changed the Advance Study Assignment questions; however, for
this edition we have changed our approach to doing so. Instructors are urged to read the Preface of the Instruc-
tor’s Manual for more details.
We continuously work to improve the clarity and usability of this manual, and this edition certainly re-
flects that. An effort has been made to more rigorously systematize the numbering of sections, subsections,
and questions, such that these are consistent throughout the manual. Significant clarity improvements have
been made in the qualitative analysis experiments, and particularly in Experiment 40, the Ten Test Tube
Mystery. The structure and content of Appendix II have also been improved as part of that process. Acting on
helpful suggestions from users of this manual, as well as in response to questions from them, the procedural
instructions for many other experiments have been improved, including: in Experiment 10, mention of safe
agitation of the test tube; in 13, a nod to the possible use of other model kits; in 16, mention of the Pythago-
rean Theorem; in 17, clarification of the procedure for estimating melting points; in 23, optional instructions
for student preparation of a calibration curve; in 25, extra help on the calculations around the preparation of a
buffer; in 26, some rearranging to improve clarity; in 28, additional detail concerning the blank; and in 36, a
tweak aimed at reducing the risk of botching the experiment by adding chromate to the wrong test tube. Also
based on user feedback, the text of Experiment 15 has undergone a major overhaul and a figure depicting the
“device” has been added, in an effort to make the experimental approach and calculations more readily un-
derstood. Similarly, the procedure in Experiment 19 has been extensively revised to streamline and clarify the
procedure.
The terminology in Experiment 14 has been adjusted to properly treat “heat” as exclusively an energy
transfer, not a property of matter per the debunked caloric theory. The terms “specific heat” and “calorimeter”
have also been made more precise therein, changed to “specific heat capacity” and “adiabatic calorimeter.”
Throughout this new edition, the use, treatment, and rigor of significant figures have been improved. As
a key part of this process, the final appendix has been revised to explain the relevance of significant figures
when attempting to follow lab instructions.
Finally, we work to keep this manual up to date, and in that pursuit the RDI of vitamin C has been up-
dated in Experiment 43 and Appendix VII has been updated to accommodate the newest versions of Excel.
Appendix VIII has been added, introducing Google Sheets, which is a free alternative to Excel and is seeing
ever-wider use on college campuses.
Safety in the Laboratory
Read This Section Before Performing

Any of the Experiments in This Manual
A chemistry laboratory can be, and should be, a safe place in which to work. Yet each year in academic and
industrial laboratories accidents occur that in some cases injure seriously, or even kill, chemists. Most of these
accidents could have been foreseen and prevented had the chemists involved used proper judgment and taken
proper precautions.
The experiments you will be performing have been selected at least in part because they can be done
safely. Instructions in the procedures should be followed carefully and in the order given. Sometimes even a
change in the concentration of one reagent is sufficient to change the conditions of a chemical reaction so as
to make it occur in a different way, perhaps at a highly accelerated rate. So, do not deviate from the procedure
specified in the manual when performing experiments, unless specifically told to do so by your instructor.
Eye Protection: One of the simplest, and most important, things you can do in the laboratory to avoid
i njury is to protect your eyes by routinely wearing safety glasses. Your instructor will tell you what eye protec-
tion to use, and you should use it. Glasses worn up in your hair may be fashionable, but they will not protect
your eyes. If you use contact lenses, it is even more critical that you wear safety glasses as well.
Chemical Reagents: Chemicals in general are toxic materials. This means that they can act as poisons or
carcinogens (causes of cancer) if they get into your digestive or respiratory system. Never taste a chemical
substance, and avoid getting any chemical on your skin. If contact should occur, wash off the affected area
promptly with plenty of water. Also, wash your face and hands when you are through working in the labora-
tory. Never pipet by mouth; when pipetting, use a rubber bulb or other device to suck up the liquid. Avoid
breathing vapors given off by reagents or reactions. If directed to smell a vapor, do so cautiously. Use a fume
hood when the directions call for it.
Some reagents, such as concentrated acids or bases, or gases like chlorine and bromine, are corrosive,
which means that they can cause chemical burns on your skin and eat through your clothing. Where such re-
agents are being used, we note the potential danger with a CAUTION: box at that point in the procedure. Be
particularly careful when carrying out that step. Always read the label on a reagent bottle before using it; there
is a great difference between the properties of 1 M H2SO4 and those of concentrated (18 M) H2SO4.
A few of the chemicals we use are flammable. These include heptane, ethanol, and acetone. Keep ignition
sources, like hotplates and Bunsen burners, well away from any open beakers containing such chemicals, and
be careful not to spill them on the laboratory bench where they might be easily ignited.
When disposing of the chemical products from an experiment, use good judgment. Some dilute, nontoxic
solutions can be poured down the sink, flushing with plenty of water. Insoluble or toxic materials should be
put in the waste containers provided for that purpose. Your lab instructor may give you instructions for treat-
ment and disposal of the products from specific experiments.
Safety Equipment: In the laboratory there are various pieces of safety equipment, which may include a
safety shower, an emergency eye wash, a fire extinguisher, and a fire blanket. Learn where these items are, so
that you will not have to waste precious moments looking for them if you ever need them in a hurry.
Laboratory Attire: Come to the laboratory in sensible clothing. Long, flowing fabrics are out, as are bare
feet. Sandals and open-toed shoes offer less protection than regular shoes. Keep long hair tied back, out of the
x Safety in the Laboratory
way of flames and reagents. Tight-fitting jewelry (especially rings) can exacerbate the harm caused by chemi-
cal exposure and should not be worn in lab.
If an Accident Occurs: During the laboratory course a few accidents will probably occur. For the most
part these will not be serious and might involve a spilled reagent, a beaker of hot water that gets tipped over, a
dropped test tube, or a small fire.
A common response in such a situation is panic. A student may respond to an otherwise minor accident
by doing something irrational, like running from the laboratory, when the remedy for the accident is close at
hand. If a mishap befalls a fellow student, watch for signs of panic and tell the student what to do; if it seems
necessary, help him or her do it. Call the instructor for assistance.
Most chemical spills are best handled by quickly absorbing wet material with a paper towel and then
washing the area with water from the nearest sink. Use the eye wash fountain if you get something in your
eye. In case of a severe chemical spill on your clothing or shoes, use the emergency shower and immediately
take off the affected clothing. In case of a fire in a beaker, on a bench, or on your clothing or that of another
student, do not panic and run. Smother the fire with an extinguisher, with a blanket, or with water, as seems
most appropriate at the time. If the fire is in a piece of equipment or on the lab bench and does not appear to
require instant action, have your instructor put the fire out. If you cut yourself on a piece of broken glass, tell
your instructor, who will assist you in treating it.
A Message to English as a Second Language (ESL) Students: Many students for whom English
is not their first language take courses in chemistry before they are completely fluent. If you are such a stu-
dent, it may be that in some experiments you will be given directions that you do not completely understand.
If that happens, do not try to do that part of the experiment by simply doing what the student next to you
seems to be doing. Ask that student, or the instructor, what the confusing word or phrase means, and when you
understand what you should do, go ahead. You will soon learn the language well enough, but until you feel
comfortable with it, do not hesitate to ask others to help you with unfamiliar phrases and expressions.
Although we have spent considerable time here describing some of the things you should be concerned
with in the laboratory from a safety point of view, this does not mean you should work in the laboratory in fear
and trepidation. Chemistry is not a dangerous activity when practiced properly. Chemists as a group live lon-
ger than other professionals, in spite of their exposure to potentially dangerous chemicals. In this manual we
have attempted to describe safe procedures and to employ chemicals that are safe when used properly. Many
thousands of students have performed these experiments without having accidents, and you can too. However,
we authors cannot be in the laboratory when you carry out the experiments to be sure that you observe the
necessary precautions. You and your laboratory instructor must, therefore, see to it that the experiments are
done properly and assume responsibility for any accidents or injuries that may occur.
Disclaimer: Chemistry experiments employing the use of chemicals and laboratory equipment can be dan-
gerous, and misuse may cause serious bodily injury. Cengage Learning encourages you to speak with your
instructors and become acquainted with your school’s laboratory safety regulations before attempting any
experiments. Cengage Learning and the authors have provided, for your convenience only, safety information
intended to serve as a starting point for good practices. Cengage Learning and the authors make no guarantee
or representations as to the accuracy or sufficiency of such information and/or instructions.
Experiment 1
The Densities of Liquids and Solids
G iven a sample of a pure liquid, we can measure many of its characteristics. Its temperature, mass, color,
and volume are among the many properties we can determine. We find that if we measure the mass and vol-
ume of different samples of the liquid, the mass and volume of each sample are related in a simple way: if we
divide the mass by the volume, the result we obtain is the same for each sample, independent of its mass. That
is, for samples A, B, and C of the liquid at constant temperature and pressure,
MassA / VolumeA = MassB / VolumeB = MassC / VolumeC = a constant
That constant, which is clearly independent of the size of the sample, is called its density and is one of the
fundamental properties of the liquid. The density of water is exactly 1.00000 g / cm3 at 4°C and is slightly less
than that at room temperature (0.9970 g / cm3 at 25°C). Densities of liquids and solids range from values that
are less than that of water to values that are much greater. Osmium metal has a density of 22.5 g / cm3 and is
probably the densest material known at ordinary pressures.
In any density determination, two quantities must be determined—the mass and the volume of a given
quantity of matter. The mass can easily be determined by weighing a sample of the substance on a balance.
The quantity we usually think of as “weight” is really the mass of a substance. In the process of “weighing”
we find the mass, taken from a standard set of masses, that experiences the same gravitational force as that
experienced by the given quantity of matter we are weighing. The mass of a sample of liquid in a container
can be found by taking the difference between the mass of the container plus the liquid and the mass of the
empty container.
The volume of a liquid can easily be determined by means of a calibrated container. In the laboratory a
graduated cylinder is often used for routine measurements of volume. Accurate measurement of liquid volume
is made using a pycnometer, which is simply a container having a precisely definable volume. The volume of
a solid can be determined by direct measurement if the solid has a regular geometric shape. Such is not usu-
ally the case, however, with ordinary solid samples. A convenient way to determine the volume of a solid is to
accurately measure the volume of liquid displaced when an amount of the solid is immersed in the liquid. The
volume of the solid will equal the volume of the liquid that it displaces.
In this experiment we will determine the density of a liquid and a solid by the procedure we have out-
lined. First we weigh an empty flask and its stopper. We then fill the flask completely with water, measuring
the mass of the filled stoppered flask. From the difference in these two masses we find the mass of water, and
then, from the known density of water, we determine the volume of the flask. We empty and dry the flask, fill
it with an unknown liquid, and weigh again. From the mass of the liquid and the volume of the flask we find
the density of the liquid. To determine the density of an unknown solid metal, we add the metal to the dry
empty flask and weigh. This allows us to find the mass of the metal. We then fill the flask with water, leaving
the metal in the flask, and weigh again. The increase in mass is that of the added water; from that increase, and
the density of water, we calculate the volume of water we added. The volume of the metal must equal the vol-
ume of the flask minus the volume of water. From the mass and volume of the metal we calculate its density.
The calculations involved are outlined in detail in the Advance Study Assignment (ASA).
2 Experiment 1 The Densities of Liquids and Solids
Experimental Procedure
A. Mass of a Coin
After you have been shown how to operate the analytical balances in your laboratory, read the section on
balances in Appendix IV. Take a coin and measure its mass to ± 0.0001 g. Record the mass on the report page.
If your balance has a TARE bar, use it to re-zero the balance. Take another coin and weigh it, recording its
mass. Remove both coins, zero the balance, and weigh both coins together, recording the total mass. If you
have no TARE bar on your balance, add the second coin and measure and record the mass of the two coins.
Then remove both coins and find the mass of the second one by itself. When you are satisfied that your results
are those you would expect, obtain a glass-stoppered flask, which will serve as a pycnometer, and samples of
an unknown liquid and an unknown metal.
B. Density of a Liquid
If your flask is not clean and dry, clean it with detergent solution and water, rinse it with a few milliliters of
acetone, and dry it by letting it stand for a few minutes in the air or by gently blowing compressed air into it
for a few moments.
Weigh the dry flask with its stopper on an analytical balance, or a top-loading balance if so directed, to
the nearest milligram. Fill the flask with deionized water until the liquid level is nearly to the top of the
ground surface in the neck. Put the stopper in the flask in order to drive out all the air and any excess water.
Work the stopper gently into the flask, so that it is firmly seated in position. Wipe any water from the outside
of the flask with a towel and soak up all excess water from around the top of the stopper.
Again weigh the flask, which should be completely dry on the outside and full of water, to the nearest
milligram. Given the density of water at the temperature of the laboratory (see Appendix I) and the mass of
water in the flask, you should be able to determine the volume of the flask very precisely. Empty the flask, dry
it, and fill it with your unknown liquid. Stopper and dry the flask as you did when working with the water, and
then weigh the stoppered flask full of the unknown liquid, making sure its surface is dry. This measurement,
used in conjunction with those you made previously, will allow you to accurately determine the density of
your unknown liquid.
C. Density of a Solid
Pour your sample of liquid from the flask into its container. Rinse the flask with a small amount of acetone
and dry it thoroughly. Add small chunks of the metal sample to the flask until the flask is at least half full.
Weigh the flask, with its stopper and the metal, to the nearest milligram. You should have at least 50 g of metal
in the flask.
Leaving the metal in the flask, fill the flask with water and then replace the stopper. Roll the metal around
in the flask to make sure that no air remains between the metal pieces. Refill the flask if necessary, and then
weigh the dry, stoppered flask full of water plus the metal sample. Properly done, the measurements you have
made in this experiment will allow a calculation of the density of your metal sample that will be accurate to
about 0.1%.
DISPOSAL OF REACTION PRODUCTS. Pour the water from the flask. Put the metal in its container.
Dry the flask and return it with its stopper and your metal sample, along with the sample of unknown
liquid.
Name ________________________________________ Section ____________________________________
Experiment 1
Data and Calculations: The Densities of Liquids and Solids
A. Mass of a Coin
Mass of coin 1 _____________ g Mass of coin 2 _____________ g
Mass of coins 1 and 2 weighed together _____________ g

What general law is illustrated by the results of this part of the experiment?
B. Density of a Liquid
Mass of empty flask plus stopper _____________ g
Mass of stoppered flask plus water _____________ g
Mass of stoppered flask plus liquid _____________ g
Mass of water
_____________ g
Temperature in the laboratory _____________ °C
Volume of flask (Obtain the density of water from Appen-

dix I; note that a density in g / mL is identical to a density in
g / cm3, because 1 mL 5 1 cm3.)
_____________ cm3
Mass of liquid
_____________ g
Density of liquid _____________ g / cm3
To how many significant figures can the liquid density be

properly reported? (See Appendix V.) _____________
(continued on following page)
C. Density of a Solid
Mass of stoppered flask plus metal _____________ g
Mass of stoppered flask plus metal plus water _____________ g
Mass of metal _____________ g
Mass of water _____________ g
Volume of water
_____________ cm3
Volume of metal _____________ cm3
Density of metal
_____________ g / cm3
To how many significant figures can the density of the metal be

properly reported? _____________
Explain why the value obtained for the density of the metal is likely to have a larger percentage error
than that found for the liquid.
Unknown liquid # ______________ Unknown solid # ______________
Name ________________________________________ Section ____________________________________
Experiment 1
Advance Study Assignment: Densities of Solids and Liquids
1. Finding the volume of a flask

A student obtained a clean, dry glass-stoppered flask. She weighed the flask and stopper on an analytical
balance and found the total mass to be 34.166 g. She then filled the flask with water and obtained a mass
for the full stoppered flask of 68.090 g. From these data, and the fact that at the temperature of the labora-
tory the density of water was 0.997 g / cm3, find the volume of the stoppered flask.
a. First we need to obtain the mass of the water in the flask. This is found by recognizing that the mass
of a sample is equal to the sum of the masses of its parts. For the filled and stoppered flask:
Mass of filled stoppered flask = (mass of empty stoppered flask) + (mass of water)
So
mass of water = (mass of filled flask) – (mass of empty flask)
Mass of water = g– g= g
Many mass and volume measurements in chemistry are made by the method used in 1(a). This
method is called measuring by difference, and it is a very useful one.
b. The density of a pure substance is equal to its mass divided by its volume:
mass mass
density 5 or volume 5
volume density
The volume of the flask is equal to the volume of the water it contains. Since we know the mass and
density of the water, we can find its volume and that of the flask. Calculate the volume of the flask.
mass of water g
Volume of flask = volume of water = = = cm3
density of water g / cm3
2. Finding the density of an unknown liquid

Having obtained the volume of the flask, the student emptied the flask, dried it, and filled it with an
unknown liquid whose density she wished to determine. The mass of the stoppered flask when completely
filled with liquid was 57.418 g. Find the density of the liquid.
a. First we need to find the mass of the liquid by measuring the difference:
Mass of liquid = g– g= g
b. Since the volume of the liquid equals that of the flask, we know both the mass and volume of the
liquid and can easily find its density using the equation in 1(b). Calculate the density of the unknown
liquid.
Density of liquid = g / cm3
3. Finding the density of a solid

The student then emptied the flask and dried it once again. To the empty flask she added pieces of a metal
until the flask was about three-fourths full. She weighed the stoppered flask and its metal contents and
found that the mass was 306.150 g. She then filled the flask with water, stoppered it, and obtained a total
mass of 309.827 g for the flask, stopper, metal, and water. Find the density of the metal.
a. To find the density of the metal we need to know its mass and volume. We can easily obtain its mass
by the method of differences:
Mass of metal = g− g= g
b. To determine the volume of metal, we note that the volume of the flask must equal the volume of the
metal plus the volume of water in the filled flask containing both metal and water. If we can find the
volume of water, we can obtain the volume of metal by the method of differences. To obtain the vol-
ume of the water we first calculate its mass:
Mass of water = mass of (flask + stopper + metal + water) − mass of (flask + stopper + metal)
Mass of water = g− g= g
The volume of water is found from its density, as in 1(b).

mass of water g
Volume of water = = = cm3
density of water g / cm3
c. From the volume of the water, we calculate the volume of metal:
Volume of metal = (volume of flask) − (volume of water)
Volume of metal = cm3 − cm3 = cm3
From the mass and volume of metal, find the density, using the equation in 1(b):
Density of metal = g / cm3
Now go back to Question 1 and check to see that you have reported the proper number of significant
figures in each of the results you calculated in this assignment. Use the rules on significant figures as given
in your chemistry text or Appendix V.
Experiment 2
Resolution of Matter into Pure Substances,

I. Paper Chromatography
T he fact that different substances have different solubilities in a given solvent can be used in several ways to
effect a separation of substances from mixtures in which they are present. We will see in an upcoming experi-
ment how fractional crystallization allows us to obtain pure substances by relatively simple procedures based
on solubility properties. Another widely used resolution technique, which also depends on solubility differ-
ences, is chromatography.
In a chromatographic experiment a mixture is deposited on some solid adsorbing substance, which might
consist of a strip of filter paper, a thin layer of silica gel on a piece of glass, some finely divided charcoal
packed loosely in a glass tube, or even a resin coating the walls of an incredibly small-diameter tube.
The components of a mixture are adsorbed on a solid to varying degrees, depending on the nature of
the component, the nature of the adsorbent, and the temperature. A solvent is then made to flow through the
adsorbent solid under applied or gravitational pressure, or by the capillary effect. As the solvent passes the
deposited sample, the various components tend, to varying extents, to be dissolved and swept along the solid.
The rate at which a component will move along the solid depends on its relative tendency to be dissolved in
the solvent as opposed to adsorbed on the solid. The net effect is that, as the solvent passes slowly through the
solid, the components separate from each other and move along as rather diffuse zones. With the proper
choice of solvent and adsorbent, it is possible to resolve many complex mixtures by this procedure. If neces-
sary, we can usually recover a given component by identifying the position of the zone containing the com-
ponent, removing that part of the solid from the system, and eluting the desired component with a suitable
(good) solvent.
The name given to a particular kind of chromatography depends upon the manner in which the experi-
ment is conducted. Thus, we have column, thin-layer, paper, and gas chromatography, all in very common
use (Fig. 2.1). Chromatography in its many possible variations offers the chemist one of the best methods,
if not the best method, for resolving a mixture into pure substances, regardless of whether that mixture
Figure 2.1 This is a gas chromatogram of a sample of unleaded gasoline. Each peak corresponds to a
different molecule, so gasoline has many components: at least fifty, each of which can be identified. The molar
masses vary from about fifty to about one-hundred fifty, with the largest peak, at about three minutes, being
due to toluene, C6H5CH3. The sample size for this chromatogram was less than 10−6 g (less than 1 µg)! Gas
chromatography offers the best method for resolution of complex volatile mixtures.
Chromatogram courtesy of Prof. Becky Hoye at Macalester College.
8 Experiment 2 Resolution of Matter into Pure Substances, I. Paper Chromatography
consists of a gas, a volatile liquid, or a group of nonvolatile, relatively unstable, complex organic com-
pounds.
In this experiment we will use paper chromatography to separate a mixture of metallic ions in solution. A
sample containing a few micrograms of ions is applied as a spot near one edge of a piece of filter paper. That
edge is immersed in a solvent, with the paper held vertically. As the solvent rises up the paper by capillary
action, it will carry the metallic ions along with it to a degree that depends upon the relative tendency of each
ion to dissolve in the solvent rather than adsorb on the paper. Because the ions differ in their properties, they
move at different rates and become separated on the paper. The position of each ion during the experiment
can be recognized if the ion is colored, as some of them are. At the end of the experiment their positions are
established more clearly by treating the paper with a staining reagent that reacts with each ion to produce a
colored product. By observing the position and color of the spot produced by each ion, and the positions of
the spots produced by an unknown mixture containing some of those ions, you can readily determine the ions
present in the unknown.
It is possible to describe the position of spots such as those you will be observing in terms of a quan-
tity called the Rf (“retention factor”) value. In the experiment the solvent rises a certain distance, say
L centimeters. At the same time, a given component will usually rise a smaller distance, say D centimeters.
The ratio of D / L is called the Rf value (or “the retention factor”) for that component:
D distance component moves (1)

Rf 5 5
L distance solvent moves
The Rf value is a characteristic property of a given component in a chromatographic experiment conducted

under particular conditions. Within some limits, it does not depend upon concentration or upon the other
components present. Hence, it can be reported in the literature and used by other researchers doing similar
analyses. In the experiment you will be doing, you will be asked to calculate the Rf values for each of the
cations studied.
Experimental Procedure
Obtain an unknown mixture and a piece of filter paper 19 cm long and 11 cm wide. Along the 19-cm edge,
draw a pencil line about one centimeter from that edge. Starting 1.5 cm from the end of the line, mark the line
at 2-cm intervals. Label the segments of the line as shown in Figure 2.2, with the formulas of the ions to be
studied and the known and unknown mixtures. (This must all be done in pencil, not pen.)
Figure 2.2 This figure shows how the filter paper should be set up for this experiment.
Experiment 2 Resolution of Matter into Pure Substances, I. Paper Chromatography 9
Put two or three drops of 0.10 M solutions of the following compounds in separate micro test tubes,
one solution to a tube:
AgNO3 Co(NO3)2 Cu(NO3)2 Fe(NO3)3 Bi(NO3)3
In solution these substances exist as ions. The metallic cations are Ag+, Co2+, Cu2+, Fe3+, and Bi3+, respec-
tively, and each drop of solution contains about fifty micrograms (micrograms is abbreviated as µg, and 1 µg =
10−6 g) of cation. Into a sixth micro test tube put 2 drops of each of the five solutions; swirl until the solutions
are well mixed. This mixture will be our known, since we know it contains all of the cations.
Your instructor will furnish you with a fine capillary tube, which will serve as an applicator. Test the ap-
plication procedure by dipping the applicator into one of the colored solutions and touching it momentarily to
a round piece of filter paper. The liquid from the applicator should form a spot no larger than 8 mm in diam-
eter. Practice making spots until you can reproduce the spot size each time.
Clean the applicator by dipping the tip about one centimeter into a beaker of deionized water and then
touching the round filter paper to remove the liquid. In this case, continue to hold the applicator against the
paper until all the liquid in the tube is gone. Repeat the cleaning procedure one more time. Dip the applicator
into one of the cation solutions and put a spot on the line on the rectangular filter paper in the region labeled
for that cation. Clean the applicator twice, and repeat the procedure with another solution. Continue this ap-
proach until you have put a spot for each of the five cations and the known and unknown mixtures on the
paper, cleaning the applicator between solutions. Dry the paper by moving it in the air or holding it briefly in
front of a hair dryer or heat lamp (low setting). Apply the known and unknown mixtures three more times to
the same spots; the known and unknown mixtures are less concentrated than the cation solutions, so this pro-
cedure will increase the amount of each ion present in the spots. Be sure to dry the spots between applications,
since otherwise they will get larger. Don’t heat the paper more than necessary, just enough to dry the spots.
Draw 15 mL of eluting solution from the supply on the reagent shelf. This solution is made by mixing a
solution of hydrochloric acid (HCl) in water with ethanol and butanol, which are organic solvents. Pour the
eluting solution into a 600-mL beaker and cover with a watch glass.
Check to make sure that the spots on the filter paper are all dry. Place a 4- to 5-cm length of tape along the
upper end of the left edge of the paper, as shown in Figure 2.2, so that about half of the tape is on the paper.
Form the paper into a cylinder by attaching the tape to the other edge in such a way that the edges are parallel
but do not overlap. When you are finished, the pencil line at the bottom of the cylinder should form a circle
(approximately, anyway) and the two edges of the paper should not quite touch. Stand the cylinder up on the
lab bench to check that such is the case and readjust the tape if necessary. Do not tape the lower edges of the
paper together.
Place the cylinder in the eluting solution in the 600-mL beaker, with the sample spots down near the liq-
uid surface. The paper should not touch the walls of the beaker. Cover the beaker with the watch glass. The
solvent will gradually rise by capillary action up the filter paper, carrying along the cations at different rates.
After the process has gone on for a few minutes, you should be able to see colored spots on the paper, showing
the positions of some of the cations.
While the experiment is proceeding, you can test the effect of the staining reagent on the different cations.
Put an 8-mm spot of each of the cation solutions on a clean piece of round filter paper, labeling each spot in
pencil and cleaning the applicator between solutions. Dry the spots as before. Some of them will have a little
color; record those colors on the report page. Put the filter paper on a paper towel, and, using the spray bottle
on the lab bench, spray the paper evenly with the staining reagent, getting the paper moist but not really wet.
The staining reagent is a solution containing potassium ferrocyanide and potassium iodide. This reagent forms
colored precipitates or reaction products with many cations, including all of those used in this experiment.
Note the colors obtained with each of the cations. Considering that each spot contains less than 50 µg of cat-
ion, the tests are surprisingly definitive.
When the eluting solution has risen as high as time permits, but not higher than within about two centi-
meters of the top of the filter paper (which typically requires between seventy-five minutes and two hours),
remove the filter paper cylinder from the beaker and take off the tape. Draw a pencil line along the solvent
front. Dry the paper with gentle heat until it is dry. Note any cations that must be in your unknown by virtue of
your being able to see their colors. Then, with the filter paper set out flat on a paper towel, spray it as before
with the staining reagent. Any cations you identified in your unknown before staining should be observed, as
well as any that require staining for detection.
Measure the distance from the straight line on which you applied the spots to the solvent front, which is
distance L in Equation 1. Then measure the distance from the pencil line to the center of the spot made by
each of the cations, when pure and in the known; this is distance D. Calculate the Rf value for each cation.
Then calculate Rf values for the cations in the unknown. How do the Rf values compare?
DISPOSAL OF REACTION PRODUCTS. When you are finished with the experiment, pour the eluting
solution into the waste container, not down the sink. Wash your hands before leaving the laboratory.
Name ________________________________________ Section ____________________________________
Experiment 2
Data and Calculations: Resolution of Matter into Pure Substances,

Ag+ Co2+ Cu2+ Fe3+ Bi3+
Colors (if observed)

Dry _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
After staining _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
Pure Cations
Distance solvent moved (L) _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
Distance cation moved (D) _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
Rf _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
Known Mixture
Distance solvent moved _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
Distance cation moved _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
Rf _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
Unknown Mixture
Cations identified
Dry _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
After staining _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
Distance solvent moved _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
Distance cation moved _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
Rf _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
Composition of unknown _________ _________ _________ _________ _________
Unknown # __________
Name _______________________________________ Section ___________________________________
Experiment 2
Advance Study Assignment: Resolution of Matter into Pure Substances,

1. A student chromatographs a mixture, and after developing the spots with a suitable reagent he observes
the following:
What are the Rf values?
2. Explain, in your own words, why samples can often be separated into their components by chromatography.
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to await the dawn to fly home, for owls fly in the early twilight, and
hawks come later, and I wished to have a safe path through the air.
Now I am at home—I am hungry and thirsty."
The first thing I did with my new pigeons was to give them food and
fresh water. I never let them drink the water they bathed in. Since
Gay-Neck's wing smelled of fish, I gave him separate quarters from
the other pigeons. It took three days longer and three good baths
before Gay-Neck was fit for decent society. In passing, let me remark
that my father made me return the money to the man who had
bought Gay-Neck with such deplorable results. To tell you the truth, I
did not wish to then. But now I feel I did right in obeying my parent.
After a fortnight and before unbinding the wings of my newly
acquired pigeons, I bribed them to love me. Every morning I would
put some millet seed and peanuts in ghee (clarified butter). After
they had been soaked in butter all day, I gave a dozen each to every
one of my pets. They were so fond of those delicacies that in two
days' time they had formed the habit of coming to me before five in
the afternoon, begging for buttered seeds. In three more days I freed
their wings, in a subtle way, undoing them about fifteen minutes
before five. They all flew off the moment they felt their liberty. But lo,
after the first exhilaration of finding their freedom had passed, they
flew down to the roof again for their meal of buttered peanuts and
millet seeds! It is a pity that we have to win our pigeons' confidence
by feeding their stomachs, but alas! I have noticed that there are
many men and women who resemble pigeons in this respect!
CHAPTER II
WAR TRAINING (Continued)
he new pigeons gradually learnt to fly further and
further away from the house as day followed day.
At the end of a month they were taken a distance
of fifty miles and more and uncaged, and with the
exception of two who apparently fled home to their
previous owner, all returned to me under Gay-
Neck's leadership.
The question of an undisputed leadership was not an easy one to
settle. In fact a serious battle had to be fought out between Gay-
Neck and two new males, Hira and Jahore. The last named was a
pure black tumbler. His feathers shone like panther's fur. He was
gentle and not fierce, yet he refused to submit to Gay-Neck's
leadership of the entire flock. You know how quarrelsome and full of
display carriers generally are. On my roof all the carrier males used
to strut, coo and talk as if each one of them was the monarch of all
he surveyed. If Gay-Neck thought himself Napoleon, Hira (Diamond),
the white carrier,—(as white "as the core of sunlight," to express it
poetically)—considered himself Alexander the Great, while Jahore
(Black Diamond), though not a carrier, let it be known that he was
Julius Cæsar and Marshal Foch rolled in one. Besides those three,
there were other conceited males, but they had already been beaten
in battle by one or the other of the above three. Now it was
necessary to fight out the question of absolute leadership of the
entire flock.
One day Hira was seen preening his wings and talking nonsense in
the presence of Mrs. Jahore, a beautiful jet black creature with eyes
red as bloodstone. Matters had hardly gone any distance when from
nowhere came Jahore and fell up on Hira. The latter was so
infuriated that he fought like a fiend. Beak against beak, feet against
feet, and wings pitted against wings. All the other pigeons fled from
the ring where the two males were engaged in trouncing each other.
Gay-Neck stood over them, calm as an umpire over a tennis match.
At last, after half a dozen set-tos, Hira won. Puffing himself to the
uttermost limits of his conceit, he went over to Mrs. Jahore as much
as to say: "Madame, your husband is a coward. Behold what a fine
fellow I am, Buk, bukoom, kumkum." She gave him one crushing
look of contempt, and flapping her wings withdrew to her husband in
their home. Hira looked crestfallen and sulky in turn, then in a
sudden paroxysm of anger he fell upon Gay-Neck tooth and nail.
The latter, taken unaware, was very nearly knocked out at the first
fury of the attack. Hira pecked and slapped him till he felt too dizzy to
stand up, so Gay-Neck ran away pursued by the mad fellow. They
ran in a circle, spinning like two tops, I could hardly see which was
pursuer, and which pursued. They went at such high speed that I
could not see when they stopped and started to peck and slap each
other. The explosive sound of wing hitting wing filled the air with an
ominous clamour. Now feathers began to fly in every direction.
Suddenly, beak to beak and claw in claw they wrestled and spun on
the floor—two birds become one single incarnation of fury. Seeing
that they could not reach any decision that way, Gay-Neck extricated
himself from his rival's grip and flew up in the air. Hira followed
flapping his wings tremendously fast. About three feet above the
ground Gay-Neck put his claws like talons around Hira's windpipe,
and set to squeezing it more and more tightly, and at the same time
kept up a terrific cannonade of wing-beats, that like flails of steel
threshed out a shower of snowy feathers from his opponent's body.
Now, hid in that falling blizzard of feathers, the two rolled on the
ground, pecking one another with the virulence of two maddened
serpents. At last Hira let go and wilted like a torn white flower on the
floor. One of his legs had been dislocated. As for Gay-Neck his
throat and neck had hardly any feathers left. But he was glad that the
struggle had been settled one way or another. And he knew full well
that had Hira not first expended half his strength fighting Jahore he,
Gay-Neck, might not have won the battle. However, all is well that
ends well. I bandaged and did all that was necessary to Hira's leg. In
another thirty minutes all the pigeons were eating their last meal of
the day utterly oblivious of what had happened so recently. No
sulking and bearing of grudges in their blood—no doubt they all
came from a fine set of ancestors! Good breeding prevailed even
amongst the smallest of them, and needless to add Hira took his
defeat like a gentleman.
By now January had come, with cool weather and clear skies and
the competition for pigeon prizes began. Each man's flock was
tested on three points: namely, team-work, long distance flight, and
flight under danger. We won the first prize on the first point, but I am
sorry to say that owing to a sad mishap which you shall learn of in its
proper place, my pigeons could not compete for the other two.
This is the nature of the team-work competition. The various flocks of
pigeons fly away up from their respective homes. Once they are
beyond the reach of whistling and other sounds that indicate their
master's voice, the diverse flocks coalesce. Then spontaneously
they agree to fly under the leadership of a pigeon whom they
consider fit. All that happens up in the air where pigeon-wit and
pigeon instinct prevail, and the bird who flies forward and is allowed
to lead, does so without ever realizing the nature and the reason of
the honour that has been bestowed on him.
The temperature dropped to forty-five. It was a fine cold morning for
our part of India, in fact the coldest day of the year. The sky above,
as usual in the winter, was cloudless and remote, a sapphire
intangibility. The city houses—rose, blue, white, and yellow—looked
like an army of giants rising from the many-coloured abyss of dawn.
Far off the horizons burnt in a haze of dun and purple. Men and
women in robes of amber and amethyst, after having said their
morning prayers to God, were raising their arms from the house-tops
in gestures of benediction to the rising sun. City noises and odours
were unleashed from their kennels of the night. Kites and crows
were filling the air with their cries. Over the din and clamour one
could yet hear the song of the flute players. At that moment the
signal whistle blew that the contest had begun, and each pigeon
fancier waved from his roof a white flag. Instantly from nowhere
innumerable flocks of pigeons rose into the sky. Flock upon flock,
colour upon colour, their fluttering wings bore them above the city.
Crows and kites—the latter of two species, red and brown—fled from
the sky before the thundering onrush of tens of thousands of carriers
and tumblers. Soon all the flocks—each flying in the shape of a fan
—circled in the sky like so many clouds caught in large whirlpools of
air. Though each moment they ascended higher, for a long time each
owner of a flock knew his own from the others, and even when at
last the separate flocks merged into one single unit and flew like a
solid wall of wings, I could pick out by the way they flew, Gay-Neck,
Hira, Jahore and half a dozen others. Each bird had personal
characteristics that marked him as he flew. When any owner wished
to call the attention of any one of his pigeons, he blew a shrill whistle
with certain stops as a signal. That attracted the bird's attention
provided he was within reach of the sound.
At last the whole flock reached such a height that not even the blast
of a trumpet from any pigeon fancier could reach it. Now they
stopped circling in the air and began to move horizontally. The
competition for leadership had begun. As they manoeuvred from one
direction of the heavens to another we, the owners below, had to
look up intently in order to make sure of the characteristics of the
one whom the pigeons had trusted to lead their flight. For a moment
it looked as if my Jahore would lead. But hardly had he gone to the
head of the flock when they all turned to the right. That brought
about a confusion in the ranks, and, like horses on a race course, all
kinds of unknown pigeons pushed forward. But in time each one of
them was pushed back by the rest of the flock. This happened so
often that we began to lose interest in the contest. It looked as
though some nondescript pigeon would win the coveted leadership
prize.
Now suddenly rose the cry from many house-tops: "Gay-Neck, Gay-
Neck, Gay-Neck!" Yes, many of the pigeon fanciers were shouting
that name. Now I could see—without the slightest shadow of error—
my own bird at the head of that vast flock—a leader amongst leaders
—directing their manoeuvres. Oh! what a glorious moment. He led
them from horizon to horizon, each time rising a few feet higher till by
eight in the morning not a pigeon could be seen in any corner of the
sky. Now we furled our flags and went downstairs to study our
lessons. At midday, when again we went above, each man could see
the entire wall of pigeons descending. Lo! Gay-Neck was still
leading. Again rose the shout "Gay-Neck, Gay-Neck!" Yes, he had
won the palm, for he had remained in leadership for more than four
hours, and was coming down as he had gone up—a master!
Now came the most dangerous part of the flight. The Commander of
the vast concourse gave the order to disband, and flock after flock
split from the main body, each separate flock flying away to its home.
But not too quickly. Some must guard the sky above them while the
others flew homeward. Gay-Neck held my little flock in a kind of
umbrella formation to protect the rear of the receding pigeons
belonging to other contestants. Such is the price of leadership—the
other name of self-sacrifice.
But now began a horrible climax. In India during the winter the
buzzards called Baz, come south. They do not eat carrion; like the
eagle and the hawk the Baz generally eats what he kills with his own
talons. They are mean and cunning—I think they are a class of low-
born eagles—but they resemble kites, although their wings are not
frayed at the ends. They fly in pairs slightly above a flock of kites and
are hidden by them from their prey, which however they can see in
this way without ever being seen themselves.
On that particular day just when Gay-Neck had won the leader's
laurels, I perceived a pair of Baz flying with a flock of kites. Instantly I
put my fingers in my mouth and blew a shrill whistle. Gay-Neck
understood my signal. He redistributed his followers, he himself
leading the centre, while Jahore and Hira he ordered to cover the
two ends of the crescent, in which shape the flock was flying. The
entire group held together as though it were one vast bird. They then
began to dip down faster and faster. By now the task for which they
tarried in the heavens was done. All the other flocks that they had
played with in the morning had gone home.
Seeing them dip down so fast, a Baz fell in front of them like a stone
dropping from a Himalayan cliff. Just when he had descended to the
level of my birds, he opened his wings and faced them. This was no
new tactic, for it has been used in the past by every Baz in order to
strike terror into a flock of pigeons. That it succeeds in ten cases out
of eleven is undeniable for when it happens the terror-struck pigeons
lose their sense of solidarity and fly pell mell in every direction. No
doubt that was what the Baz hoped for now, but our wily Gay-Neck
beating his wings flew without a tremor under the enemy about five
feet, drawing the whole flock after him. He did it, knowing that the
enemy never pounces upon a solidly unified group. But hardly had
he gone a hundred yards forward when the second, probably Mrs.
Baz, fell in front of the pigeons and opened her wings as her
husband had done. But Gay-Neck paid no attention. He led the
whole flock straight toward her. It was inconceivable. No pigeon had
dared do that before, and she fled from their attack. Hardly had her
back been turned when Gay-Neck and the rest of the pigeons dipped
and swooped as fast as they could go. By now they were hardly six
hundred feet from our roof, and then as fate would have it, Mr. Baz,
like a shell full of high explosives, fell again, this time right in the
middle of the crescent and opened his wings and beak like forks of
fire, crying and shrieking with fury. That produced its effect. Instead
of one solid wall of pigeons, the flock was cut in two, of which one
half followed Gay-Neck, while the other, smitten with abject fear, flew
none knew whither. Gay-Neck did what a true leader does in great
crises. He followed that panic-stricken flock until his section overtook
it, and in no time, lo, they had merged into a single group once more.
Hardly had that taken place when Mrs. Baz in her turn descended
like a thunderbolt between him and the other pigeons. She almost
fell on his tail, and cut him off from the rest, who now, deprived of
their mentor, sought safety in flight, paying no heed to anything. That
isolated Gay-Neck completely, and exposed him to attacks from
every side. Still undaunted he tried to fly down to his retreating
followers. Ere he had descended a dozen feet, down before him
swooped Mr. Baz. Now that Gay-Neck saw the enemy so near, he
grew more audacious and tumbled. It was a fortunate action. Had he
not done so, Mrs. Baz, who had shot out her talons from behind,
would have captured him then and there.
In the meantime the rest of my pigeons were beating on and had
almost reached home. They were falling on the roof as ripe fruits fall
from a tree. But one among them was not a coward. On the contrary
he was of the very essence of bravery. It was Jahore, the black
diamond. As the whole crowd settled down on our roof, he tumbled
and flew higher. There was no mistake about his intentions. He was
going to stand by Gay-Neck. Seeing him tumble again, Mr. Baz
changed his mind. He gave up pursuing Gay-Neck and swooped
down after Jahore. Well, you know Gay-Neck—he dipped to the
rescue of Jahore—circling and curving swiftly as a coil of lightning,
leading Mrs. Baz panting after him. She could not make as many
curves as Gay-Neck, no, not nearly so many. But Mr. Baz, who was
a veteran, had flown up and up to take aim; this put Jahore in
danger. One more wrong turn and Mr. Baz would have him. Alas!
poor bird; he did the thing he should not have done. He flew in a
straight line below Mr. Baz who at once shut his wings and fell like a
thunderclap of Silence. No noise could be heard, not even "the
shadow of a sound." Down, down, down, he fell, the very image of
death. Then the most terrible thing happened. Between him and
Jahore slipped, none knew how, Gay-Neck, in order to save the
latter and frustrate the enemy. Alas! instead of giving up the attack,
the Baz shot out his talons, catching a somewhat insecure hold of
the intruder. A shower of feathers covered the air. One could almost
see Gay-Neck's body writhing in the enemy's grip. As if a hot iron
had gone through me I shrieked with pain for my bird! But nothing
availed. Round and round, higher and higher that Baz carried him
trying to get a more secure hold with his talons. I must admit
something most humiliating here. I had been so intent on saving
Gay-Neck that I did not notice when Mrs. Baz fell and captured
Jahore. It must have happened very swiftly right after Gay-Neck was
caught. Now the air was filled with Jahore's feathers. The enemy
held him fast in her talons, and he made no movement to free
himself. But not so Gay-Neck; he was still writhing in the grip of Mr.
Baz. As if to help her husband to grasp his prey more securely, Mrs.
Baz flew very close to her lord. Just then Jahore struggled to get
free. That swung her so near that her wing collided with her
husband's. The fellow lost his balance. As he was almost over-
turned in the air with another shower of feathers Gay-Neck wrenched
himself free from his grip. Now he dropped down, down, down.... In
another thirty seconds a panting, bleeding bird lay on our roof. I lifted
him up in order to examine his wound. His two sides were torn, but
not grievously. At once I took him to the pigeon doctor who dressed
his wounds. It took about half an hour, and when I returned home
and put Gay-Neck in his nest, I could not find Jahore anywhere. His
nest, alas, was empty. And when I went up to the roof there I found
Jahore's wife sitting on the parapet scanning every direction of the
sky for a sign of her husband. Not only did she spend that day, but
two or three more in the same manner. I wonder if she found any
consolation in the fact that her husband sacrificed himself for the
sake of a brave comrade.
CHAPTER III
MATING OF GAY-NECK
ay-Neck's wounds healed very slowly. Until
about the middle of February he could not be made
to fly more than ten yards above the roof. The
duration of his flight too was very short. No matter
how frequently I chased him off the roof, I could not
keep him in the air more than a quarter of an hour.
At first I thought that it was his lungs that were out
of order. When, after investigation, they proved sound, I ascribed his
disinclination to fly to his heart that might have been injured by his
latest mishap. That assumption also proved erroneous after a
second investigation.
So, utterly exasperated by Gay-Neck's behaviour, I wrote a long
letter to Ghond describing everything that had happened. It turned
out that he had gone on a hunting trip with some Englishmen.
Receiving no help from that quarter, I decided to examine my pigeon
most closely. Day after day I put him on our house-top and watched,
but no clue was vouchsafed me as to the nature of his trouble. So I
gave up all hope of seeing Gay-Neck fly again.
About the end of February I received a cryptic note from Ghond from
the deeps of the jungle. It read: "Your pigeon is frightened. Cure him
of his fear. Make him fly." But he did not say how. Nor could I devise
anything that would make Gay-Neck wing his way into the higher
spaces. It was no use chasing him off the roof, for if I chased him off
one corner, he flew across to another and perched there. And what
was most disconcerting was that if the shadow of a cloud or a flock
of birds flying in the sky fell on him on our roof, he would tremble
with terror. Doubtless every shadow that fell filled his mind with the
feeling that it was a Baz or a falcon swooping down on him. That
gave me an idea of how badly shaken Gay-Neck was. How to cure
him of his disease of fear proved most baffling. Had we been in the
Himalayas I would have taken him to the holy man who once healed
him of a similar ailment, but here in the city there was no Lama. I
was forced to wait.
March had ushered in Spring and Gay-Neck, who had gone through
an unusual moulting, looked like the very heart of a deep and large
aquamarine. He was beautiful beyond description. One day, I know
not how, I found him talking to Jahore's widow. She looked very
bright with the advent of Spring. In the sunlight her black opal
complexion glowed like a tropical night shot with stars. Of course I
knew that marriage between her and Gay-Neck, though not the best
thing for their offspring, might win him from his fear and her from the
morose temper which had grown upon her ever since Jahore died.
In order to encourage their friendship, I took the two together in a
cage to my friend Radja who lived on the edge of the jungle about
two hundred miles away. The name of his village was Ghatsila. It
stood on the bank of a river across which lay high hills densely
forested and full of all kinds of animals. Radja, being the priest of the
village, which office his ancestors had held for ten centuries, and his
parents, were housed in a large building of concrete. The village
temple, also of concrete, was adjacent to the house. In the courtyard
of the temple surrounded by high walls Radja every night performed
the duty of reading the Scriptures and explaining them to the
peasantry that assembled there. While he would read aloud inside,
outside would come from far off the yell of a tiger or the trumpeting of
wild elephants across the narrow river. It was a beautiful and sinister
place. Nothing dangerous happened in the village of Ghatsila, but
you did not have to go very far to encounter any beast of prey that
you cared to seek.
The train that brought me there reached Ghatsila at night. Radja and
two servants of his house greeted me at the station. One of the
servants took my bundle on his shoulder and the other carried the
cage with the two pigeons. Each of us had to carry a hurricane-proof
lantern, an extra one having been brought for me. In single file, one
servant leading and another in the rear, we walked for an hour. My
suspicions were aroused and I asked, "Why do we go round-about?"
Radja said: "In the spring wild animals pass through here going
north. We can't take short cuts through the woods."
"Nonsense!" I exclaimed. "I have done it many times before. When
do we reach home?"
"In half an hour——"
Then, as if the very ground had opened at our feet and belched out a
volcano with a terrific noise, arose the cry "Hoa—ho—ho—ho—hoa!"
The pigeons fluttered their wings in panic in their cage. I gripped
Radja's shoulder with my disengaged hand, but instead of sharing
my feelings he laughed out loud. And like master like servant—the
two servants laughed too.
After their mirth had subsided Radja explained: "You have done this
many times, have you? Then why did the cry of monkeys frightened
by lanterns scare you?"
"Monkeys?" I questioned.
"Yes, lots of them," my friend reminded me, "go north this time of the
year. We frightened a whole flock in the trees overhead. That's all. In
the future don't take every monkey yell for the roar of a tiger."
Fortunately we reached home shortly without any other incident to
upset my complacency.
The next morning Radja went to his duties at his ancestral temple
while I sought the roof and uncaged my birds. At first they were
bewildered, but seeing me near them with my hands full of buttered
seeds, they settled down to breakfast without any ado. Pretty nearly
all of that day we spent on the roof. I dared not leave them by
themselves very long lest the strangeness of their surroundings
upset them.
In the course of the week that followed the two birds made
themselves at home in Ghatsila, and moreover became extremely
intimate with each other. There was no doubt now that I had acted
wisely in isolating them from the rest of the flock. About the eighth
day of our stay, Radja and I were surprised to see Gay-Neck fly in
pursuit of his mate. She flew on, but at a low altitude. He followed.
Seeing him catch up to her, she rose and turned back. He too did the
same and followed after. Again she rose. But this time he balked and
began to circle the air beneath her. However, I felt that he was
regaining his confidence. At last Gay-Neck, the paragon of pigeons,
was healing himself of his fear and of his horror of the heavens; he
was once more at home in the sky.
The next morning the birds flew higher and played with each other.
Gay-Neck again refused to go all the way and he began to come
down hastily instead of circling in the air below her. That puzzled me,
but Radja, who was a keen person, explained. "A cloud, large as a
fan, has come over the sun. Its shadow fell so suddenly that Gay-
Neck thought it was his enemy. Wait until the cloud passes and then
——"
Radja was right. In a few more seconds the sun came out and its
light dripped from Gay-Neck's wings once more. At once he stopped
coming downwards and began to make circles in the air. His mate
too, who had been coming down to keep him company, waited for
him a hundred feet or so above. Now Gay-Neck rose, beating his
wings like an eagle freed from his cage. The sunlight made pools of
colour about him as he swerved and swung up and up. Soon instead
of following, he led his mate. Thus they ascended the sky—he
healed of fear completely, and she ravished by his agility and power.
The next morning both of them made an early start. They flew far
and very long. For a while they were lost beyond the mountains as if
they slid over their peaks and down the other side. They were gone
at least an hour.
At last they returned about eleven o'clock bearing each in his beak a
large straw. They were going to build a nest for the laying of eggs. I
thought I would take them home, but Radja insisted that we should
stay at least a week longer.
During that week every day we spent some hours in the more
dangerous jungle across the river, taking the two pigeons with us in
order to release them in the dense forest hardly five miles from
Radja's house. Gay-Neck forgot everything save testing his sense of
direction and making higher flights. In other words, love for his mate
and the change of place and climate healed him of fear, that most fell
disease.
Here let it be inscribed in no equivocal language that almost all our
troubles come from fear, worry, and hate. If any man catches one of
the three, the other two are added unto it. No beast of prey can kill
his victim without frightening him first. In fact no animal perishes until
its destroyer strikes terror into its heart. To put it succinctly, an
animal's fear kills it before its enemy gives it the final blow.
CHAPTER IV
WAR CALLS GAY-NECK
y the first week of August, just after the children
were born, Hira and Gay-Neck had gone from
Calcutta to Bombay, setting sail with Ghond to
serve in the world-war. I sent that bachelor bird Hira
with Gay-Neck because the army had need of both.
I was very glad that Gay-Neck had some knowledge
of his little ones before he sailed for the battle-field
of Flanders and France. The chief reason of this happiness was
because I knew that a pigeon whose wife and new-born children are
waiting at home rarely fails to return. That bond of love between Gay-
Neck and his family assured me that he would do his work of carrying
messages very well. No sound of gun-fire, nor bullets, as long as he
lived, could keep him from returning home at the end.
But here one may raise the question that home was in Calcutta and
the war was thousands of miles away. That is true. But all the same,
because he had left his wife and children at home, he would do his
utmost to fly back to his temporary nest with Ghond.
It is said that Gay-Neck carried several important messages between
the front and general headquarters where the Commander-in-chief
and Ghond waited for him. Of course Gay-Neck was attached to
Ghond first. But in the course of the following months he became very
fond of the Chief.
Ghond and not I went to the front with the two pigeons for I was under
age and ineligible for any kind of service, so the old fellow had to take
them. During the voyage out from India to Marseilles, Hira and Gay-
Neck and the old hunter became fast friends. I have yet to see any
strange animal resist Ghond's friendship long, and since my pigeons
had known him before, it was easy for them to respond to him.
During the stay of the Indian Army in Flanders from September 1914
till the following spring, Ghond remained near General Headquarters
with his cage, while Hira or Gay-Neck was taken by different units to
the front. There from time to time messages were written on thin
paper weighing no more than an ounce and were tied to his feet; then
he was released. He, Gay-Neck, invariably flew to Ghond at the
general headquarters of the Army. There the message was
deciphered and answered by the Commander-in-Chief himself. It is
rumoured that the latter personage loved Gay-Neck and valued his
services highly.
But it is better to listen to Gay-Neck's own story. As the experiences
of a dream cannot be told except by the dreamer, so some of the
adventures of Gay-Neck he should recount in person.
"After we crossed the black water—the Indian ocean and the
Mediterranean—we travelled by rail through a very strange country.
Though it was September, yet that country—France—was cold as
Southern India in the winter. I expected to see snow-capped
mountains and giant trees, for I thought I was nearing the Himalayas.
But no hills higher than our tallest bamboo trees could I perceive on
the horizon. I do not see why a land has to be cold when it is not high.
"At last we reached the battle front. It turned out to be the rear end of
it, but even there you could hear the boom, boom, boom of the fire-
spitters. And, as a normal pigeon, I hate all fire-spitters no matter of
what size and shape. Those metal dogs barking and belching out
death were not to my liking. After I had been there a couple of days
our trial flight began. There were only four pigeons of our own city
besides Hira and myself. You know how rash Hira could be. No
sooner had we flown up above the houses of a large village than Hira
flew towards the direction of the boom, boom, boom. He wanted to
investigate. Well, in an hour's time we were there. Oh, what a noise!
Big balls of fire, spat out like thunderbolts by the metal dogs hidden
under trees, hissed and exploded below us. I was frightened, so I
rose higher and higher. But no peace there in the highest heavens
could I find. From nowhere came vast eagles roaring and growling
like trumpeting elephants. At such a terrific sight, we flew towards
where Ghond was waiting for us. But the eagles, two of them
followed! We went faster and faster. Fortunately they could not
overtake us. Just as we had expected, those eagles came down
where we lived. I felt death was at hand. Those eagles were going to
devour us in our cages like weasels. But no! They stopped trumpeting
soon and lay down on the field—dead. Two men each jumped out of
the stomachs of those two birds and walked away. I wondered how
eagles could devour human beings. And how could the fellows come
out alive?
No beast of prey can kill his victim without frightening him first.

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Read This Section Before Performing

The Densities of Liquids and Solids

MassA / VolumeA = MassB / VolumeB = MassC / VolumeC = a constant

Data and Calculations: The Densities of Liquids and Solids

Mass of coin 1 _____________ g Mass of coin 2 _____________ g

Mass of coins 1 and 2 weighed together _____________ g

Mass of empty flask plus stopper _____________ g

Mass of stoppered flask plus water _____________ g

Mass of stoppered flask plus liquid _____________ g

Temperature in the laboratory _____________ °C

Volume of flask (Obtain the density of water from Appen-

Density of liquid _____________ g / cm3

To how many significant figures can the liquid density be

(continued on following page)

Mass of stoppered flask plus metal _____________ g

Mass of stoppered flask plus metal plus water _____________ g

Mass of metal _____________ g

Mass of water _____________ g

Volume of metal _____________ cm3

To how many significant figures can the density of the metal be

Unknown liquid # ______________ Unknown solid # ______________

Advance Study Assignment: Densities of Solids and Liquids

1. Finding the volume of a flask

mass of water = (mass of filled flask) – (mass of empty flask)

2. Finding the density of an unknown liquid

(continued on following page)

Density of liquid = g / cm3

3. Finding the density of a solid

The volume of water is found from its density, as in 1(b).

Volume of metal = cm3 − cm3 = cm3

Density of metal = g / cm3

Resolution of Matter into Pure Substances,

￼ D distance component moves  (1)

The Rf value is a characteristic property of a given component in a chromatographic experiment conducted

Data and Calculations: Resolution of Matter into Pure Substances,

Ag+ Co2+ Cu2+ Fe3+ Bi3+

Colors (if observed)

After staining _________ _________ _________ _________ _________

Distance cation moved (D) _________ _________ _________ _________ _________

Rf _________ _________ _________ _________ _________

Distance cation moved _________ _________ _________ _________ _________

Rf _________ _________ _________ _________ _________

(continued on following page)

Dry _________ _________ _________ _________ _________

After staining _________ _________ _________ _________ _________

Distance solvent moved _________ _________ _________ _________ _________

Mass of coin 1 _ g Mass of coin 2 _ g

Unknown liquid # Unknown solid #

D distance component moves (1)

Data and Calculations: Resolution of Matter into Pure Substances,

After staining _____ _ _ _ _____

Distance cation moved (D) _____ _ _ _ _____

Rf _____ _ _ _ _____

Distance cation moved _____ _ _ _ _____

Rf _____ _ _ _ _____

Dry _____ _ _ _ _____

After staining _____ _ _ _ _____

Distance solvent moved _____ _ _ _ _____

Distance cation moved _____ _ _ _ _____

Rf _____ _ _ _ _____

Composition of unknown _____ _ _ _ _____

Advance Study Assignment: Resolution of Matter into Pure Substances,