Content of This Book

S.No. Name of the Chapter Pg No.

1. The Living World 3

2. Biological Classification 6
3. Plant Kingdom 13
4. Animal Kingdom 22
5. Morphology of Flowering Plants 40
6. Anatomy of Flowering Plants 53
7. Structural Organisation in Animals 59
8.
Cell : The Unit of Life 66
9.
Biomolecules 80
10.
Cell Cycle and Cell Division 90
11. Photosynthesis in Higher Plants 97
12. Respiration in Plants 111

13. Plant Growth and Development 124

14. Breathing and Exchange of Gases 136

15. Body Fluids and Circulation 146

16. Excretory Products and their 160

Elimination

17. Locomotion and Movement 170

18. Neural Control and Coordination 181

19. Chemical Coordination and 188

Integration
 The Lving World

What is Biodiversity?

Biodiversity refers to the number and types of organisms present

on the earth. The number of species that are known and
described range between 1.7-1.8million

Taxomomy

Identification Classification Nomenclature Characterization

Nomenclature
Naming of living organisms of a particular organisms so it is
known by same name all around the world
Two international codes that are established for nomenclature.
1. ICBN-International Code for Botanical Nomenclature
2. ICZN-International Code for Zoological Nomenclature
Need of classification -
To understand how various organisms are related and how they
evolved.
Understanding the key characteristics of a group requires more
than just studying one or two organisms
There aren't many different types of organisms in one place.
The connection between different groups of organisms can be
better understood through classification.
It helps in understanding the evolutionary relationships of species.

Binomial Nomenclature
Proposed by Carolus Linnaeus
In binomial nomenclature each name has two components
1.Generic name (genus)
2.Specific epithet (species)
Example-Homo sapiens

Rules
Genus name starts with capital letters and specific epithet starts
with small letters
Example: Musca domesticata
Biological names are generally in Latin, written in italics and when
handwritten are separately underlined to indicate their Latin
origin.
Example: Mangifera indica
First word in a biological name is genus and second component is
species
Example: Rana tigrina
The name of the author is written in an abbreviated form after
the species epithet
Example:Clitoria ternatea Linn.
Linn.-Carl Linnaeus
Taxonomic Categories
The system of organising organisms in a definite sequence of various
taxonomic categories in a descending order. (First proposed by Carolus
Linneaus)
Each category, referred to as a unit of classification, represent a rank, called
as taxon

Species
Group of individuals organisms with fundamental similarity
Genus
Group of related species which has more characters
in common in comparison to species
Family
Group of related genre with still less number
similarities as compared to genus and species
Order
Assemblage of family which exhibit a few similar character
Class
Related order having common character
Phylum
Classes having same features in common constitute the next higher
category
Kingdom
All organisms whether plants or animals belonging to various Phyla are
assigned to the highest category
Systematics
Taxonomy is the study of classifying organisms into kingdoms, both past and
present, and understanding their relationships, originating from the Latin
word 'systema' meaning systematic arrangement
Phylogenetics is the study of the evolutionary history and connections among
or within groups of organisms. These connections are determined by
phylogenetic inference, which relies on observed heritable traits like DNA
sequences, protein amino acid sequences, or morphology. The outcome of this
analysis is a phylogenetic tree—a diagram that represents a hypothesis of
relationships reflecting the evolutionary history of a group of organisms.

Organisms with their Taxonomic Categories

 Biological Classification

What is Biological classification?

Identification of difference among organisms and placing them into group that reflects their most significant
features and relationship is called biological classification (first given by Aristotle)

Two Kingdom classification system

Given by Linnaeus

Animalia Plantae
Demerits
This type of classification fails to distinguish between eukaryotes and prokaryotes,unicellular and
multicellular organisms, photosynthetic and non- photosynthetic organisms.

3 Domain system

Given by Carl Woese

Bacteria Archaea Eukarya

Eubacteria Archaebacteria

Protista Fungi Plantae Animals

Five kingdom Classification

Given by R.H.
Whittaker

Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

 Characteristics of the five kingdom

Monera
•Bacteria are the sole member of Kingdom Monera and most abundant micro-organisms
•Bacterial structure is very simple, yet their behaviour are very complex,also shows the most extensive
metabolic diversity
Monera

•Based on
their shape

Coccus Baccillus Spirillum Vibrium

(Spherical-shaped) (Rod-shaped) (Spiral-shaped) (Comma-shaped)
 Monera

Archaebacteria Eubacteria
(True Bacteria)

Archaebacteria
•They are found in the most harsh conditions on the planet,like extreme salty areas
( halophiles),hot springs (thermoacidophiles)and marshy area(methanogen).
•Methanogen are also found in the guts of ruminant animal such as cow and buffalo
•Methanogens are also responsible for biogas (methane)
•Archaebacteria has different cell wall structure and other unique features that help them to
live in these harsh conditions.

Eubacteria

•They have rigid cell wall and if motile,a flagellum also.

Photosynthetic bacteria -
•Cyanobacteria (blue -green algae ) have chlorophyll a that help them in photosynthesis
•Cyanobacteria are unicellular ,colonial or filamentous, freshwater/marine ,there colonies are
generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath
•Some Cyanobacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen in there specialised cells called heterocysts
Example -Nostoc and Anabaena

Chemosynthetic Bacteria -
•These bacteria oxidise various inorganic substances such as nitrates,nitites and ammonium and use
released energy for their ATP production
• They play a important roles in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus ,iron and sulphur etc.
Heterotrophic bacteria -
•Most abundant in nature and majority of decomposers.
•They have a significant role in your life like making curd from milk to production of antibiotics
•But there are some pathogens causing damage to animals ,crops and plants,like cholera, typhoid
and tetanus are very known disease caused by bacteria.

Mycoplasma(Joker of Kingdom Monera)

•They completely lack a cell wall and they are smallest living cells know
•They live in anaerobic conditions
•Many of the mycoplasma are pathogenic in animals and plants

Reproduction -
•They reproduce mainly by fission but in unfavorable condition they can produce spores.
•They can also reproduce by a sort of sexual reproduction by adopting a primitive type of DNA
transfer from one bacterium to other.
 Protista
• All single -celled eukaryotes are placed under Protista,but the boundaries of this kingdom are not
will defined, members of Protista are primarily aquatic
• The protista cell body contains a well defined nucleus and other membrane -bound organelles.
•They reproduce by both ways asexual (cell fission) and sexual(zygote formation)

Chrysophytes

•This group includes diatoms and golden algae, most of them are photosynthetic and mostly found in
fresh water and marine as well, diatoms are 'cheif produces ' in the ocean.
•The cell wall of diatoms form two thin overlapping shells which fit together as in a soap box.The wall
of are embedded with silica and thus the wall are indestructible

Soap box structure

•When diatoms have left behind large amount of cell wall deposit in their habitat ,the accumulation
over billions of years give birth to Diatomaceous earth
Economic importance -
•The soil of diatomaceous earth is used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups
Dinoflagellates
•They are mostly marine photosynthetic and came in variety of colours yellow,brown,green,blue or red
depends on the pigment present in their cells
•Cell wall has stiff cellulosic plates on the outer surface, also they are biflagellated (Longitudinal and
transverse)
•Red tides - Red dinoflagellates under goes such rapid multiplication that they make sea
appear red,but many harmful toxins are released by such number can kill other marine animals
Example-. Gonyaulax
Euglenoids

•Majority of them are freshwater organisms found in stagnant water.

•Instead of a cell wall , they have protein rich layer called pellicle which make their body flexible
•Biflagellated,a short and a long.
•They have 2 mode of nutrition-
(i) In presence of sunlight they behave like autotrophs
(ii) when deprived of sunlight they behave like heterotrophs
Slime moulds

•Saprophytic protists,body moves along decaying twigs and leaves engulfing organic matter.
•Under favourable conditions they form an aggregation called which can spread several feet , but in
unfavorable condition the plasmodium forms fruiting bodies bearing spores at their tips
•The spores posses true walls , extremely resistant and survive for many years even under adverse
conditions ( dispersion through air)

.
 Protozoans

• All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predator or parasite.

•They are believed to be primitive relatives of animals
Protozoans

Amoeboid protozoans Flagellated protozoans Cillated protozoans Sporozoans

Amoeboid protozoans: Live in fresh water, sea water, or moist soil. Move using pseudopodia. Marine
forms have silica shells. Some, like Entamoeba, are parasites.
Flagellated protozoans: Free-living or parasitic. Move with flagella. Parasitic forms cause diseases like
sleeping sickness (e.g., Trypanosoma).
Ciliated protozoans: Aquatic and active due to cilia. Have a gullet for feeding. Example: Paramecium.
Sporozoans: Diverse organisms with infectious spore-like stages. Notable example: Plasmodium, which
causes malaria

Fungi
•Show great diversity in morphology and habitat
•All members of this kingdom are heterotrophic organisms.
•All fungi are filamentous, except Yeast which is unicellular.
•There body consist of long,slender thread-like structure called as hyphae,the network of hyphae is
called mycelium.
•Coenocytic hyphae-Hyphae that has continuous tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm
•Some hyphae has septa or cross walls
•Some are saprophytes ,but some are dependent on living plants and animals (parasite) and some
members are also found in symbiotic relationship for example lichen (Algae+Fungi) and
mycorrhiza(Roots of higher plants like cycas+Fungi).

Reproduction

•Fungi has 3 means to reproduce

(i) Vegetation
(ii) Sexual
(iii) Asexual
•Vegetative reproduce takes places by fragmentation,fission and budding.
•Asexual reproduction is by spores called conidia/sporangiospores/zoospores.
•Sexualreproduction takes by mating of two compatible hyphae. And after fusion it immediately results
in diploid cells(2n). However in some fungi like ascomycetes and basidiomycetes ,an intervening
dikaryotic stage(n+n …i.e. 2 nuclei per cell) such condition is called dikaryon and the phase is called
dikaryophase .Later, these dikaryotic cell,the parental nuclei fuse and become diploid
diploid. Which in turn formation of fruiting bodies in which reduction division (meiosis) occurs,leading
To formation of haploid spores .
•The sexual cycle involves the following three steps-
(i)Plasmogany-Fusion of protoplasm between two motile or non-motile gametes.
(ii)Karogamy- Fusion of two nuclei
(iii)Meiosis- In zygote resulting in haploid spores.
Fungi

Phycomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes Deuteromycetes

Phycomycetes
Mucor
•Habitat-Aquatic habitat and decaying wood or as obligate parasites on plant
•Mycelium-Aseptate and coenocytic
•Reproduction-
(i) Asexually -By endogenously produced zoospores (motile) or alpanospores.
(ii) Sexually -Zygospore is formed by fusion of two gametes.
Example-Mucor and Albugo(parasitic fungi on mustard).
Ascomycetes (sac fungi)
•Habitat-Coprophilous(growing on dung) , saprophytes decomposers or parasitic.
•Mycelium-Multicellular ,rarely unicellular, branched and septate.
Reproduction-
(i) Asexually -Conidia,produced exogenouslyAspergillus.
(ii) Sexually -Ascospores produces in asci,these asci are arranged in different types of fruiting bodies
called ascocarp.
Example - Neurospora (extensively used in biochemistry and genetics), truffles(edible) and Penicillium

Basidiomycetes (club fungi)

•Habitat- Grow in soil,on log and tress stumps or as parasites (rust and smuts).
•Mycelium-Branched and septate
•Reproduction- Agaricus
(i) Vegetatively- Fragmentation
(ii) Asexually -Generally not found
(iii) Sexually - Sexual spores are basidiospores formed on basidium inside basidiocarps .Sex
organ absent
Example- Ustilago,Puffballs and Puccinia

Deuteromycetes (imperfect fungi)

•Habitat-Saprophytes, parasite and some are decomposers

•Mycelium-Branched and septate
•Reproduction-
(i) Asexually -Conidia
(ii) Sexually -Absent Example-
Alternaria,Colletotrichum,Trichoderma
In five kingdom Classification of Whittaker there is no mention of lichens,
virus, viroids and prions
Inert outside host Not truly livinng

Non cellular Virus Helical & polyhedral

symmetry

Obligate Nucleoprotein
parasite structure Tobacco Mosaic Virus

Nucleic acid + protein(capsid)

•M.W. Beijerinek - Contogium vivium fludium

•W.M. Stanley - Crystallization of virus
•Viruses have one molecule of either DNA or RNA
•Usually animal virus have ds DNA and plant virus ss RNA

Bacteriophage
T.O. Diener ds DNA
Free low molecular weight SSRNA
Viroids No protein
Disease in plant- Potato spindle tuber disease

Abnormally folded protein

Prions No nucleic acid
Cause neurological disease

BCr-Jacob disease
Mad cow disease

•Lichen-Algae & Fungi symbiosis

•Algae- Phycobiont (synthesis of food )
Fungi - Mycobiont ( Provide shelter and absorption of water and minerals
•Lichen- are used as pollution indicator . they do not grow in polluted environment
 Plant Kingdom

Classification

Natural Phylogenetic
Artificial
•Given by Linneaus.
•Based on natural affinities •Given by George Bentham •Based on evolutionary
among the organisms and Joseph Dalton Hooker. relationship between the
•Based mainly on Vegetative •Based on natural affinities various oraganism
character or on the androecium among organisms and •This assumes that
structure consider both external and organisms belonging to
internal features like the same taxa have a
Demerits ultrastructure, anatomy, common ancestor
•Separated closely related species embryology,phytochemistry
as they were based on a few
characteristics
•It gave equal weightage to
vegetative and sexual
characters.This is not acceptable
because vegetative characters are
more easily affected by
environment Taxonomy

Numerical Taxonomy Cytotaxonomy Chemotaxonomy

•Carried out using computer •Based on cytological •It is based on the chemical
and is based on all observable information like chromosome constituents of the plant
characteristics number , structure and
•Number and codes are behaviour.
assigned to all the characters
and the data are then
proceed.
 Plant Kingdom

Algae Bryophytes Pteridophytes Gymnosperms Angiosperms.

Algae
•Algae are chlorophyll -bearing,simple,thalloid, autotrophic and largely aquatic (both freshwater and
marine ) organism
•The form and size of algae is highly variable, ranging from colonial (Volvox) to filamentous
(spirogyra)

Reproduction -
•Vegetative-Fragmentation
•Asexual - Production of different types of spores (mainly zoospores) .They are flagellated (motile) and
germinate to give rise to new plant
•Sexual-Takes place through fusion of two gametes
(i)Isogamous- Gametes are similar in size they can be flagellated (Ulothrix) and Non-flagellated gametes
(Spirogyra)
(ii)Anisogamy - Gametes dissimilar in size (Eudorina)
(iii)Oogamous-Fusion between one large non-motile female gamete and smaller motile male gamete
(Volvox).

Economic importance -
•At least a half of the total carbon dioxide fixation on earth is carried out by Algae
•Being photosynthetic they increase the level of dissolved oxygen in their immediate environment
•They are primary producer of energy-rich compound which form the basis of food cycles of all aquatic
animals
•70 species of marine algae are used as food like Porphyra ,Laminaria and Sargassum
•Hydrocolloids like algin (brown algae) and carrageen(red algae) are used commercially
•Agar obtained from Gelidium and Gracilaria are used to grow microbes and in preparation of ice-cream
•Chlorella are rich in protein and used as food supplements even by space travellers

Algae

Chlorophyceae Phaeophyceae Rhodophyceae

Chlorophyceae

•Commonly called green algae because grass green due to dominance of pigment chlorophyll a and b
•Plant body may be unicellular, colonial or filamentous
•Chloroplast may be discoid,plat -like , reticulate,cup-shaped ,spiral or ribbon-shaped in different
species
•Storage body - pyrenoids . Pyrenoids contain protein besides starch, also store food as oil droplets
•They have rigid cell wall of an inner layer of cellulose and an outer layer of pectose.
Reproduction -
•Vegetative-Fragmentation
•Asexual-Flagellated zoospores produced in zoosporangia
•Sexual-May be Isogamous, Anisogamous,Oogamous Ulothrix
Example -Volvox,chara, Spirogyra etc.
Volvox
Phaeophyceae
•Commonly called brown algae and found mainly in marine habitat
•They can be simple branched, filamentous form (Ectocarpus) to profusely branched forms as
kelps(can grow a height of 100meters)
•Pigments-Chlorophyll a,c, carotenoids and xanthophylls
•Vary in colour from olive green to various shades of brown depending upon the amount of
xanthophylls ,fucoxanthin present in them.
•Storage body-Laminarin or mannitol (from of complex carbohydrates)
•Cellulosic cell wall covered by algin
•Plant body has -
(i)Holdfast -help plant to get attached to the substratum
(ii)Stipe-Stalk
(iii)Frond-leaf like photosynthetic organ
Reproduction -
•Vegetative-Fragmentation
•Asexual-Pyriform (Pear-shaped )biflagellate zoospores and have two unequal laterally attached
flagella
•Sexual- May be Isogamous, Anisogamous,Oogamous,Union may take place in water or in oogonium
Gametes are pyriform and bear two laterally attached flagella
Example-Ectocarpus, Laminaria and Fucus

Rhodophyceae
•Commonly called red algae because the predominance of the red pigment,r-phycoerythrin in
their body
•Majority are found in marine habitat with greater concentration found in the warmer areas
•Occur in both well-lighted region close to the surface of water and also in great depths of Ocean
where relatively little light penetrates
•Thalli of most red algae are multicellular
•Food storage as floridean starch (very similar to amylopectin and glycogen in structure)
Reproduction-
•Vegetative-Fragmentation
•Asexual-Non-motile spores
•Sexual-Non-motile spores gametes (Oogamous),
accompanied by complex post fertilization development
Example-Gracilaria, Porphyra Polysiphonia Porphyra
 Bryophytes
•Also known as amphibians of plant kingdom because these plants can live in soil but are dependent on
water for sexual reproduction
•Commonly grow in moist shaded areas in the hills
•It has thallus-like and prostrate or erect ,and attached to the substratum by unicellular or
multicellular rhizoids
•Lack true roots,stem or leaves but may possess root -like,leaf-like or stem -like structure
•Main plant body of the bryophytes is haploid (gametophyte)
•Sex organs are multicellular
Male- Antheridium, produce biflagellted antherozoids
Female- Archegonium, produces a single cell
•Antherozoids are released into water where they come in contact with archegonium , and they fuses
together to form zygote
•Zygote do not undergo reduction division immediately,they produce a multicellular body
sporophyte.Some cells of the sporophyte undergoes meiosis to produce haploid spores these spores
germinate to produce gametophyte.
Sporophyte - Not free living but attached to the photosynthetic gametophyte derives nourishment
from it

Economic importance -
•Species of Sphagnum provide peat used as fuel and as packing material for trans-shipment of living
material as they hold water
•Mosses (along with lichens) are of great ecological importance,they decompose rocks making substrate
suitable for growth of higher plants .Plays an important role in plant succession on bare rocks /soil
•Help in preventing soil erosion as they form a dense mat on soil
Bryophytes

Liverworts
Mosses
Liverworts
•Usually grow in moist,shady habitats, such as banks of streams, marshy ground,damp soil,bark
soil,bark of trees and deep in the woods
•Plant body of a liverworts is thalloid,thallus is dorsoventral and closely appressed to the substrate.
•Leafy members have tiny leaf like appendages in two rows on the stem-like structure
Reproduction-
•Asexual - (i) Fragmentation of thalli
(ii) Formation of specialised structure called gemma
Gemma get detached from the parent body and germinate to new individual
Gemma-Green , multicellular, asexual buds, which develops in small receptacles called Gemma cup
located on the thalli
•Sexual - Male and female sex organ are produced either on the same or on different thalli
•Sporophyte is differentiated into feet ,seta and capsule.After meiosis,spores are produced within the
capsule and spores germinate to form free-living gametophytes.
Example -Marchantia
Female Male
Marchantia Marchantia

Mosses
•Predominant stage of the life cycle of moss is gametophytes which consists of two stages -
(i) Protonema- Develops directly from a spores.It is a creeping,green, branched and frequently
filamentous stage
(ii) Leafy stage -Develops from secondary Protonema- as a lateral bud, consists of upright, slender
axes bearing spirally arranged leaves and they get attached to the soil through multicellular and
branched rhizoids.This stages bears sex organ
Reproduction -
•Vegetative- Fragmentation and budding in the secondary Protonema
•Sexual-Sex organ antheridia and archegonia are produced at the apex of the leafy shoots.After
fertilization,the zygote Develops into sporophyte, consisting of a foot,seta and capsule .The sporophyte
and spore dispersal mechanism are more elaborate than in liverworts
Example -Funaria and Sphagnum
 Pteridophytes (Snakes of plant kingdom) Fern
•Evolutionary,they are the first terrestrial plant with vascular tissues
•Found in cool,damp,shady places though some may flourish well in Sandy -soil condition
•Main plant body is sporophyte (2n),with true root,stem and leaves,all these organs possess well-
differentiated vascular tissues

•Leaves are small (microphylls) as in Selaginella or large (macrophylls) as in ferns

•Sporophytes bear sporangia subtended by sporophyll, which may be compact called strobilli or cones as in
Selaginella

Meiosis
Sporangia Sporemother cel l Spores
(2n) (2n) (n)
•Spores germinate to give rise to inconspicuous,small but multicellular, free-living, mostly photosynthetic
thalloid gametophytes called prothallus (required cool, damp, shady places to grow)
•Because of this specific requirement and the need of water for fertilization the living pteridophytes is
limited and narrow to geographical regions.
•Gametophytes bear sex organs
Male-Antheridia
Female-Archegonia

•As told earlier water is required for fertilization and fusion of male gamete with egg present in the
archegonium result in the formation of zygote
•Zygote thereafter produces a multicellular well-differentiated sporophyte which is the dominant phase of
pteridophytes.
•Majority are homosporous but genera like Selaginella and Salvinia are heterosporous
Homosporous-Spores are of similar kinds
Heterosporous-Spores are of two type
(i) Macrospores (large)
(ii) Microspores (small)
•Macrospores and Microspores germinate and give rise to female and male gametophytes and female
gametophytes are retained on the parent sporophyte, zygote develops into young embryos within female
gametophytes .This event is a precursor to seed habit consider an important step in evolution

Economic importance -
•Used as medical purpose
•Soil - binders
•Frequently grown as ornamental

Pteridophytes

Psilopsida Lycopsida Sphenopsida Pteropsida

Psilotum Selaginella Equisteum Pteris
Lycopodium Dryopteris
Adiantum
Salvinia
 Gymnosperms

•Gymnosperms includes medium- sized trees or tall tress and shrubs (The giant redwood tree Sequoia is one of
the tallest tree species)
•Plants in which the ovules are not enclosed by any ovary wall and remain exposed,both before and after
fertilization,seed that develop post- fertilization are also not covered (naked )

•Roots are generally tap roots,some genera have fungal association in the form of mycorrhiza (Pinus) while
some (Cycas) specialised roots called coralloid roots are associated with nitrogen fixation Cyanobacteria.
•Leaves may be simple or compound,In cycas the pinnate Leaves persist for a few years
•Stems are unbranched(Cycas) or branched (Pinus)
•Needle - like leaves to reduce surface area,thick cuticle and sunken stomata to reduce water loss these
types of well-adaptation of leaves have been seen in gymnosperms that make them withstand extreme
temperatures, humidity and wind

Needle -like leave inPinus adaptation to reduce surface area

•They are heterosporous

. Two kinds of (microspores and megaspore) are produced within sporangia . that
are borne on sporophylls which are arranged spirally along an axis
. to form cones

Sporophylls

Pi n u s

Microsporophylls. Megasporophylls

Male cone. Female cone

•Cone bearing megasporophylls with ovules or megasporangia are called macrosporangiates (strobilli or
female cone )
•Megaspore mother cell is differentiated from one of the cells of the nucleus it is protected by envelope
and the composite structure is called an ovule
•The megaspore mother cell divides meiotically to form four megaspore
•Female gametophyte bear two or more archegonia or female sex organs. The multicellular Female
gametophytes is retained within megasporangia
•The microspores develope into a male gametophytes generation, which is highly reduced and is confined
to only a limited number of cells called pollen grains (develops within microsporangia)

Sporangia

Microsporangia (2n) Megasporangia (2n)

Pollen grains (n) Meiosis of MMC(Megaspore mother cell)

4 Megaspore
One develops into Female gametophytes (n)
 Gymnosperm Trees

Monoecious Dioecious

Male and female cone Male and female cone

are borne on same are borne on different
tree trees
Example-Pinus . Example -Cycas

•Male and female gametophytes do not have an independent free living existence
•Pollen grains are carried by air current and come in contact with opening of Ovule
•Fertillisation is by pollen- tube formation which carries male gametes
•Zygote forms embryo and ovules are naked seeds

Ginkgo
(Living fossil)
 Animal Kingdom

Basis of Classification

arrangement body symmetry nature of patterns of reproductive circulatory

of cells coelom digestive systems systems
Level of Organisation

Cellular level Tissue level Organ level Organ system level

•Cell are •Cells performing •Tissues are grouped •Organ are associated
arranged the same function together to form oragns, to form functional
as loose cell are arranged into each specialised for a systems,each system
aggregates. tissues particular function concerned with a specific
Example-sponges Example-Coelenterates Example-Platyhelminthes physiological function
(Annelida to Chordates)
Example-Molluscs

•All members of Annelida are multicellular ,all of them do not exihibit the same patterns of organisation
of cells .
Digestive System

Incomplete Digestive System Complete Digestive System

•A single opening seve as both anus •When two opening mouth
and mouth and anus are present
One opening Two opening
 Circulation System

Open type Closed type

•Blood pump out of the cells and tissues •Blood is circulated
are directly bathed it through a series of vessels
like - arteries ,veins and
capillaries

Symmetry

Asymmetry Radial Bilateral

•Organisms in which any plane
that passes through the center
does not divide them into equal
halves
Example-sponges
symmetry symmetry
•Any plane passing through •Body can be divided
the central axis of the body into identical left and
divides the organism into two right halves in only
identical halves one plane
Example-Coelenterates Example-Arthropods

Embroyonic germ layer

Diploblastic Animals Triploblastic Animals

•Cells are arranged in two embryonic layers, •Those animal in which the
an external ectoderm and internal endoderm developing embryo has a third
Example-Porifera mesoderm in between the
in between the ectoderm and
endoderm
Example-Chordates
 Coelom (Body Cavity)
Body cavity lined by mesoderm

Coelomates Pseudocoelomates Acoelomates

•Animals possessing coelom •Mesoderm is present as scattered •Animal in which the
Example-Annelids pouches in between the ectoderm body cavity is absent
Example-Aschelminthes Example Platyhelmintes

Scattered
pouches of
mesoderm

Segmentation
•Metamerism- The phenomena of dividing body externally and internally into segments with a serial
repetition of at least some organs.Example- Earthworm

Notochord
•Notochord is a mesodermally derived rod-like structure formed on the dorsal side during embroyonic
development
Notochord

Chordates Non-Chordates
•Animals having a notochord •Animals which do not form
Level of notochord
Kingdom organisation Symmetry Coelom Phylum
Cellular level Porifera
Coelenterata

Radial Ctenophora
Animalia
(multicellular) Without Body cavity Plathyhelminthes
(acoelomates)
Tissue/Oragn/ With false coelom Aschelminthes
Oargan system (Pseudocoelomates) Annelida
Bilateral
Arthropoda
With true coelom Mollusca
(coelomates) Echinodermata
Hemichordata
Chordata
Porifera (Sponges)
•Symmetry-Mostly asymmetrical
•Habitat and Habit-All are aquatic ,generally marine but few are found in freah water also.They are
sessile,solitary or colonial
•Body organisation-cellular level
•Body wall-Diploblastic Large holes (Osculum)
•Digestion-Intracellular digestion ,digestive system absent Exit
•Respiratory system- Cell surface
•Sexuality-Hermaphrodite
•Skeleton-Made up of spicules(calcium carbonate or siliceous) or spongin fibres
•Reproduction- Many minute pores
(i)Asexual-Fragmentation
(ii)Sexual-Formation of gametes (Ostia) ,Enter
•Fertilization-Internal Sycon(Scypha)
•Development-Indirect,larva morphologically distinct from adult

Unique features-
•They have water canal system ,water enter through minute pores (ostia) in the body wall into central
cavity (spongocoel) from where water exits through large hole osculum and in central cavity
choanocytes /collar cells line the spongocoel
Function of water canal system

Food gathering Respiratory exchange Removal of waste

Euspongia (Bath sponge)

Spongilla(Fresh water sponge)

Coelenterata(Cnidria)
•Symmetry-Radially symmetrical
•Habit and Habitat-Mostly marine ,some are fresh water (Hydra),sessile or free-swimming
•Body organisation-Tissue level
•Body wall- Diploblastic
•Digestion- Incomplete digestive system,mouth on hypostome leading to body cavity Gastro-vascular
cavity,intra and extracellular digestion
•Respiration and excretion Through body surface
•Skeleton-Exoskeleton,Coral forms have skeleton of calcium carbonate
•Reproduction-
(i)Asexual-Budding
(ii)Sexual-Present
•Fertilization-External
•Development-Indirect/direct
Nematocysts

Unique features-
•Cnidoblasts cells have stinging capsules called nematocysts present in tentacles and body

Function of cnidoblasts cells

Anchorage Defence Capture of preys

•They exhibit two basic body form called polyp and medusa
Polp-Sessile and Cylindrical like Adamsia

Medusa-umbrella -shaped and Free-swimming like Aurelia

•Metagenesis-Alternation of generation in sexual reproduction in which polyp asexually produce

medusa and medusa sexually produces polyp .Example-Obelia

Example -Physalia (Portuguese man -of-war),Adamsia(Sea Anemona),Pennutula(Sea-Pen),Gorgonia(sea

fan)and Meandarina(Brain coral)
Ctenophora ( Sea Walnut)

•Symmetry-Radially symmetry
•Habitat and habit -Exclusively marine ,free-living
•Body organisation - Tissue level
•Body wall-Diploblastic
•Digestive system /Digestion-Extracellular and intra cellular digestion
Pleurobrachia
•Sexuality-Hermaphrodites
•Reproduction -Only sexual
•Fertilisation-External
•Development-Indirect development

Unique features
.They emit light (Bioluminescence)
•They exhibit
•Body bear 8 external rows of ciliated comb plates

Example-Ctenoplana For food capturing

Platyhelminthes
•Symmetry-Bilateral symmetry
•Habit and Habitat-Mostly parasite(endoparasite) and few are free-living
•Body organisation-Organ level
•Body wall-Triploblastic
•Coelom-Acoelomate
•Digestion/Digestive system-Digestive system incomplete,Extracellular digestion and Some of them absorb
nutrients from host directly through their body surface with the help of hooks and sucker •Sexuality-
Hermaphrodites
•Reproduction-
(i) Asexual-High regeneration(Planaria)
(ii)Sexual-Present
Fertilisation-Internal
•Development-Indirect ,through many larval stages

Unique features
•Body is dorsoventrally flattened ,thats why they are called flatworm
•First ones with bilateral symmetry
•Have specialized cells called flame cells help in osmoregulation and excretion

Taenia Fasciola

•Teeno ki planning fail hai

Taenia-Teeno
Plannig-Planaria
Fail-Fasciola
Aschelminthes(Round worms)

•Symmetry-Bilateral symmetry
•Habitat/Habit-Aquatic,terrestrial ,parasitic in plants and animals
•Body organisation-Organ system
•Body wall-Triploblastic
•Digestive system/ digestion-Complete alimentary canal with muscular pharynx ,extracellular digestion
•Coelom-Pseudocoelomate
•Excretory system-Excretory tube open out through excretory pore
•Sexuality-Bisexual
(i)Females are longer than males
(ii)Posterior end curved in males
Ascaris
(Round worm)

Females are longes than males

Posterior end
curved in male

Male Female

•Fertilization-Internal
•Development-Indirect/direct

Unique features
•Circular in cross-section
•First ones with complete alimentary canal

Example-Wucheria(Filaria worm)
Ancylostoma(Hookworm)

•Annie Bechari Aksar Rah Jati hai

Ancylostoma-Annie
Wucheria-Bechari
Ascaris-Aksar
Rhabditis-Rah
Annelida(Segmented worms)

•Symmetry-Bilateral symmetry
•Habit and Habitat-Aquatic and terrestrial
•Body division/appearance- Distinct segment metameres / annuli
•Body organisation- Organ-level
•Body wall-Triploblastic
•Coelom-Body cavity is true coelom
•Circulatory system-Closed
•Excretory system-Nephridia help in osmoregulation and excretion
•Locomotory structure-
(i)Longitudinal and circular muscles
(ii) Parapodia/lateral appendages in some

Nereis

Parapodia

•Nervous system-Paired ganglia with double ventral nerve cord

•Sense organs -Eyes,tentacles
•Reproduction-Sexual
•Sexuality-(i)Monoecious-Earthworm,Leech
(ii)Dioecious-Nereis(aquatic form)
•Fertilization-External/internal
•Development-Direct/internal

Unique features
•First ones with metameric segmentation and true coelom
•First one with metamerism

Hirudinaria
(Blood sucking Leech)

Pheretima
(Earthworm)
Arthropoda
•Symmetry-Bilateral symmetry
•Habitat and Habit-Aquatic and terrestrial
•Body division/appearance- Head ,thorax abdomen
•Body organisation-Organ -level
•Body wall-Triploblastic
•Coelom-Body cavity is true
•Locomotory structure-Jointed appendages
•Respiratory system-Respiratory organs are gills,book gills,tracheal system,book lungs
•Circulatory system -Open
•Excretory system -Takes place through Malpighian tubes
•Sense organ -Eyes(simple,compound),antennae,Statocyst(for balancing)
•Sexuality-Mostly dioecious
•Fertilization-Usually internal
•Development-Direct/indirect

Butterfly
Unique features
•Econimically important insects
Apis(Honey bee)
Bombyx(Silkworm)
Laccifer(Lac insect)
•Vectors-Anopheles,Culex and
Ades(Mosquitoes)
•Gregarious pets-Locusta(Locust)

•Living fossil-Limulus(King crab)

•Largest phylum of kingdom Animalia

Scropion Prawn
 Mollusca
•Symmetry-Bilateral symmetry
•Habit and Habitat-Mostly aquatic but some are terrestrial Body
division-Head,muscular foot ,visceral hump
•Body organisation-Organ-system
•Body wall - Triploblastic
•Coelom-True coelom
•Skeleton-Calcareous shells (Exoskeleton)

Pila(Apple snail)

•Digestive system-Mouth with file like rasping organ,radula for feeding

Radula (file-like rasping organ for feeding)

Octopus(Devilfish)

•Respiratory system-Feather like gills in mantle cavity

•Locomotory structure-Muscular foot
•Execratory organ-Gills
•Sense organ-Tentacles
•Sexuality-Usually dioecious
•Fertilization-External
•Development-Oviparous (egg producing ) with indirect
Unique feature
•Soft and spongy layer of skin forms a mantle over visceral hump
•Space between hump and mantle is mantle cavity
Example-
Pinctada (Pearl oyster )
Sepia (Cuttle fish)
Aplysia (sea-Hare)
Dentalium(Tusk shell)
Chaetopleura(Chiton)
•Phir se Octopus Dekhenga
•Aap pehle Chai to Pila Lo
Pinctada-Phir Aplysia-Aap
Sepia-Se Chaetopleura-Chai to
Octopus- Octopus Pila-Pila
Dentalium-Dekhenge Lo-Lotogo
Echinodermata(Spiny skinned )

•Symmetry-Adult echinoderms are radially symmetrical but larvae are bilaterally symmetrical
•Habitat-Exclusively marine
•Body appearance-Star like
•Body wall-Triploblastic
•Body organisation -Organ-level system
•Coelom-True Coelom
•Digestive system-
Mouth - lower side/ventral
Spines
Anus-upper side/ dorsal
•Skeleton- Spines
•Locomotory-Water vascular system Asterias
•Respiratory system-Water vascular system (Star fish)
•Circulatory system-Open
•Excretory system-Absent
•Sexuality-Dioecious
•Fertilization-Usually external
•Development-Indirect with free swimming larva

Unique features-
•Presence of water vascular system

Water vascular system

Locomotion Respiration Capture and transport of

food
•Presence of calcareous ossicles

Example-Echinus (Sea Urchin)

Antedon (Sea lily)
Cucumaria(Sea cucumber)

Ophiura(Brittle-star)
 Hemichordata

•Symmetry-Bilateral symmetry
•Habitat-Exclusively marine
•Body organisation - Organ-system
•Body appearance division-Worm -like cylindrical body and Proboscis ,collar,trunk

•Body wall-Triploblastic •Coelom-

True coelom
•Respiratory system-Gills
•Circulatory system-Open
•Excretory system-Proboscis gland
•Sexuality-Dioecious
•Fertilization-External
•Development-Indirect

Unique features
•Presence of rudimentary structure in the collar region called stomochord(structure similar to
notochord)
•Earlier considered as subphylum under phylum Chordata but now placed as separate phylum under
non-chordata
Example-Saccoglossus
Chordata

•Symmetry-Bilateral symmetry
•Body wall-Triploblastic
•Body organisation-Organ system
•Coelom-True coelom
•Circulatory system-closed

Unique feature
•Presence of notochord ,a dorsal hollow nerve cord and paired pharyngeal gill slits
•Possess a post anal tail

Chordata characteristics

Tail

Mouth
Digestive tube
Trunk

Comparison of Chordates and Non-chordates

1 Notochord present Notochord absent

2 Central nervous system id dorsal Central nervous system is ventral,solid and

, hollow and single and double

3 Pharynx perforated by gill slits Gill slits are absent

4 Heart is ventral Heart is dorsal(if present)

5 A post-anal part (tail) is present Post-anal tail is absent

 Chordates

Urochordate/Tunicate Cephalochordate Vertebrata

Protochordates

Habitat Exclusively marine Exclusively marine Variety of habitats

Extends from head to Present in embroyonic

Notochord Only in larval tail
tail and persist stage and is replaced by
throughtout their life cartilaginous / bony
vertebral column in the
adult

Example Ascidia ,Salpa Branchiostoma Canis

•All vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates
Cyclostomata

•Habitat-Marine
•Habit-Ectoparasite on fishes
•Temperature regulation -No(Poikilotherm )
•Skeleton-Scales are absent and cartilaginous cranium and vertebral column
•Digestive system-Circular and sucking mouth without jaws
•Respiratory system-6-15 pairs of gills slits
•Circulatory system-Closed
•Excretory system-Kidneys
•Reproductive system-They migrates to fresh water for spawning and after spawning the adult dies with
few days
•Development-Indirect and larvae return to ocean after metamorphosis

Unique feature
• Unpaires fins

Example-Myxine(Hagfish) Jawless vertebrate - Petromyzon(Lamprey)

Chondrichtyes

•Habitat- Marine
•Habit Predaceous
•Temperature regulation-Poikilotherm (Cold blooded)
•Skeleton- Placoid scales for tough skin (Exoskeleton) and Cartilaginous (Endoskeleton)
•Digestive system-Ventral mouth ,teeth are modified scales(backward directed) and powerful jaws
•Respiratory system - Gill slits without operculum
•Circulatory system-2 chambered heart with 1 auricle and 1 ventricle
•Excretory system-Kidney
•Sense organ (i) Eye absent
(ii)Ear- Tympanum absent
•Fertilisation-Internal
•Development-Direct Scoliodon(Dog fish)

Unique feature-
•Streamlined body
•Notochord persists throughtout life
Pristis(Saw fish)
•Male pelvic fins bear claspers
•Absence of air bladder hence swim continuously to avoid
sinking •Many are viviparous

Example-Carcharodin(Great white shark )

Trygon(Sting ray)
Osteichthyes
•Habitat- Both marine and fresh water
•Temperature regulation- Poikilotherm
•Skeleton-Cycloid and ctenoid scales (Exoskeleton) and bony
endoskeleton
•Digestive system-Terminal mouth
•Respiratory system-4 pair of gill slits with operculum
•Circulatory system-3 chamber heart with 2 auricles and 1 ventricle
•Excretory system-Kidneys
•Sense organ -(i) Eye with eyelids
(ii)Tympanum absent
•Fertilsation -Usually external
•Development-Direct
Marine-Hippocampus(Sea horse)
Unique feature
•Streamlined body
•They have air bladder that regulated buoyancy
•Mostly oviparous
•Some of them have electric organ (Torpedo)
Example- Freshwater -Catla(Katla)
Marine-Exocoetus(Flying fish)
Freshwater-Labeo(Rohu)
Aquarium- Betta ( Fighting fish)
Pterophyllum (Angle fish)

Amphibia

•Habitat-Both land and in water

•Temperature regulation-Poikilotherm
•Skeleton-Scales are absent ,moist skin and bony endoskeleton
•Digestive system-Alimentary canal ,urinary canal and reproductive tracts open into a common
chamber called cloaca which opens to the exterior
•Respiratory system-Gills,skin and lungs
•Circulatory system-3 chamber heart with 2 auricles and 1 ventricle
•Excretory system-Kidneys
•Sense organs-(i) Eye with eyelids
(ii)Tympanum represents ear and many reptiles do not have external ear opening
•Fertilisation-External
•Development-Indirect

Unique feature
•Body divided into head and trunk ,tail in some e.g. Salamander
•They are oviparous
Example-Bufo(Toad)
Rana
Hyla(Tree frog)
Ichthyophis(Limbless amphibia)

*Oviparous- producing eggs rather than live babies

 Reptilia
•Habitat-Mostly terrestrial
•Habit-Creeping and crawling
•Temperature regulation-Poikilotherm
•Skeleton- Epidermal scales or scutes with dry cornified skin and bony endoskeleton
•Respiratory system-Lungs
•Circulatory system-3 chambered heart with 2 auricles and 1 ventricle (except crocodile 4 chambered )
•Sense organ-(i)Eyes with eyelids
(ii)Tympanum represents ear and many reptiles have external ear opening
•Fertilisation-Internal Chelone(Turtle)
•Development-Direct Chameleon(Tree lizard)
Unique feature
•Snakes and lizard shed their scales as skin cast
•They are oviparous Naja(Cobra)
Example-Hemidactylus(Wall lizard)
Aves
•Habitat-Mostly terrestrial
•Habit-Most of them can fly except flightless birds
•Temperature regulation-Homeotherms( Warm blooded)
Struthio(Ostrich)
•Skeleton-Scales on hind limbs,body covered by feathers skin is dry and endoskeleton is Bony ( Fully
ossified) Pneumatic bones
•Digestive system- Additional gizzard and crop and beak is present
•Respiratory system-Lungs and air sacs as supplements respiration
•Circulatory system-4 Chambered with 2 auricles and 2 ventricles Neophron(Vulture)
•Sense organ-(i) Tympanum represents era ,many birds have external ear opening
•Fertilisation-Internal
•Development-Direct

Unique feature
•Forelimbs modified into wings Psittacula(Parrot)
•Hindlimbs of birds are modified for walking ,swimming,or clasping the tree branches Pavo(Peacock)
•Skin is dry without glands except oil gland at the base of tail Example-
Aptenodytes(Penguin)
Mammalia
•Habitat-Terrestrial and aquatic
•Habit-Limbs adapted to fly and live in water
•Temperature regulation-Homeotherms(Warm blooded) Pteropus
•Skeleton-Bony endoskeleton Macropus (Flying fox)
•Digestive system-Different types of teeth in the jaws (Kangaroo)
•Respiratory system-Lungs
•Circulatory system 4 chambered heart with 2 auricles and 2 ventricles Balaenoptera
•Sense organ- Eyes with eyelids and external ear / pinna present (Blue whale )
•Fertilisation-Internal
•Development-Direct
Unique feature
•Presence of mammary glands to nourish young ones
•All are viviparous except egg laying Platypus
Example-Felis(Cat),Panthera leo(Lion)
 Morphology of
Flowering Plant

Plant Morphology
•Branches of science which deals with deals with the study of external
form,structure and various modification of plants
•Flowering plant body is differentiated into root system(underground
part) and aerial system(portion above the ground)
Root
•Roots are achlorophyllous and underground part of plants
•Elongated of radicle from primary root
•Primary root bears lateral root of several orders that are referred
to as secondary,tertiary etc roots
Types of root

Tap root Fibrous root Adventitious root

•Mainly in dicots •Mainly in monocots •Roots arise from parts of
•Includes primary root •Primary root is shorted plants other than radicle
and its branches lived and replaced by a large
number of roots originates
from the base of the stem

(Primary root)

(Secondary Originates from the

root) base of the stem Banyana tree mai
asani se dekha sakte
hai Adventitous roots
Functions of root

•Absorption of water •Provide anchorage of •Storage of reserve •Synthesis of plant growth

and mineral from soil plant parts food materials regulators(PGRs)
 Region of root

Root cap Region of meritematic Region of cell Region of maturation

activity elongation
•Thimble-like •Cells of this region are very •The cell of this •The cell of this region
structure which small ,thin-walled with region undergo differentiated into
cover the apex dense protoplasm rapid elongation permanent tissue
of the root •They divide repeatedly and enlargement •Some epidermal cells
•Protects the •They are responsible from this region forms
tender apex growth of the root very fine and delicate
of root as it in length thread-like structure
makes its way called root hairs which
through soil help in absorption of
water and minerals

(Zone of cell
division)

Stem
•Develops from the plumule of the embryo of a germinating seed
•It bear nodes and internodes
Node-Region of the stem where leaves are born
Internode-Portion between two nodes
•Bear buds which can be terminal or axillary
•Stem are generally green when young but after maturation they become woody and
dark brown
Internode
Node
Function of stem

Bearing flower,leaves Conducts water,minerals Storage of food Support Protection Vegetative

and fruits and photosynthates propagation
Leaf
•Laterally generally flat structure ,developed at node and bear a bud in its axil
•Axillary bud later developed into branches
•Arise from shoot apical meristem and arranged in acropetal order(Naya at top purana at base)
•Consists of 3 parts -Leaf base,Petiole and Lamina
•Leaf base-Leaf is attached to stem by this base and may bear two lateral small leaf like structure
called stipules
•Petiole- Help hold the blade to light ,long thin flexible petioles allow leaf blades to flutter in wind
,thus it helps in cooling the leaf and bringing fresh air to leaf surface
•Lamina/leaf blade- Green expanded part of leaf with veins and veinlets
•Pulvinus-Swollen leaf base of leguminous plants
•Stipules-2 lateral small leaf like
•In monocotyledons the leaf base expands into sheath covering the stem partially and wholly.
•The shape ,margin,apex,surface and extent of incision of lamina varies in different leaves

Venation

•The arrangement of veins and veinlet in the lamina of leaf is termed as venation
•Midrib-A middle prominent vein

Venation

Reticulate Parallel
•Veinlets from a network •Veins runs parallel to
•Found in dicotyledons each other within lamina
•Found in most monocots

Midrib

Veins-provide rigidity to lamina

and acts as channels of transport
for water ,minerals and food
materials
 Types of leaves

Simple leaf Compound leaf

Monstera deliciosa
leaf
Pinnately compound leaf Palmately compound leaf

Simple leaf
•When its lamina is entire or when incised ,the incision do not touch the midrib .

Mango leaf

Compond leaf

•When the incisions of the lamina reach up to the midrib breaking it into a number of leaflets

Leaflets Neem leaf

Simple leaf Compound leaf

•The lamina does not differentiate into leaflets •The lamina differentiates into two or more
leaflets
•The base of the leaf may have stipule •The stipules may occur at the base of the
whole leaf
•A bud lies in its axil •A bud lies in the axile of the whole leaf but
the individual leaflets do not bear axillary
buds
Pinnately compound leaf
•A number of leaflets are present on a compound axis,the rachis ,which represents the midrib of the
leaf

Neem

Palmately compound leaf

•The leaflets are attached at a common point i.e. at the tip of petiole

Silk cotton

Phyllotaxy
•Pattern of arrangement of leaves on the stem or branch.

Phyllotaxy

Alternate Opposite Whorled

•A single leaf arises at each •A pair of leaves arise at •If more than 2
node in alternate node each other and lie opposite leaves arise at
to each other a node and form
a whorl

Guava and Calotropis Alstonia

China rose, Mustard and
Sunflower
Inflorescence

•Inflorescence-Arrangement of flower on the floral axis

•The apex produces different kinds of floral appendages laterally at successive nodes instead of leaves
•Solitary flower-Shoot tip transfer into a flower

•During flowering Shoot apical meristem modifies into floral meristem

Internodes do not elongate and axis get condensed

Inflorescence

Racemose Cymose
•Main axis continues to grow •Main axis terminates
•Flower borne laterally in into a flower (limited
acropetally succession growth)
•Flower borne in
basipetally succession

Young flower

Naye flower tip par and

old flower base ke pass

Old flower Old flower tip par and new

flower base ke pass

Flower

•Sexual reproductive unit of angiosperm

•Thalamus/receptacle-A typical flower has four different kinds of whorls arranged successively on
the swollen end of the stalk or pedical
Parts of flower

Calyx Corolla Androecium Gynoecium

•Outermost •Composed of petals •Male reproductive part •Female
whorl •Brightly coloured to attract •Composed of stamens reproductive part
•Members called pollinators Stamens=filament+anther •Composed of one
sepal or more carpels
•Protect flower Carpel consist of
in bud stage stigma,style and
•Generally ovary
green
•Radial symmetry •Irregular •Bilateral symmetry
•Flower can be divided into •Can not be divided into 2 •Flower can be divided
2 equal halves in any planes similar halves by any into 2 similar halves only
through center vertical plane through the in particular vertical
Example-Datura,chilli and centre.Example-Canna planes .Example-Cassia
mustard and Gulmohar
Actinomorphic Asymmetric Zygomorphic
Based on symmetry

Have either only stamens or Uisexual

Trimerous Floral appendages are
only carpels
Based on multiple of 3
sexuality of
Flower Tetramerous Floral appendages of
flower
multiple of 4

Have both androecium and Bisexual Pentamerous Floral appendages of

gynoecium multiple of 5

Based on position of calyx,corolla and andr oecium in respect of ovary on thalamus

Hypogynous Perigynous Epigynous

•Gynoecium occupies •Gynoecium situated in •Margin of thalamus

highest position while center ,other parts located grows upward
other parts are situated on the rim of thalamus enclosing ovary
below it •Ovary half inferior completely and get
•Superior ovary Example-Rose fused with it other
Example-China rose Peach parts arise above the
Mustard Plum ovary
Brinjal •Ovary inferior
Example-Guava
Ye flow chart bahut important hai cucumber
Sunflower

Hypogynous Perigynous Epigynous

•Perianth-Calyx and corolla are not distinct ,like lily

•Bracteate-Flower with bracts-reduced leaf round at the base of the pedical
•Ebracteate-Flower with without bracts
 Calyx

Gamosepalous Polysepalous
•Sepals united •Sepals free

Corolla (Phool ki pankhudi)

Gamopetalous Polypetalous
•Petals united •Petals free

Aestivation
•The mode of arrnagement of sepals or petals in thr floral bud with respect to the other members of
the same whorl

Aestivation Important hai!

Valvate Twisted Imbricate Vexillary

•When sepals •If one margin •If the margin •Consist of 5 petals
and petals of the of sepals and
in a whorl appendages petals overlap
just touch overlaps that one another Standard Wings Keel
one another of the next one but not in a •Largest •Two Lateral •Smallest petals
at the and so on particular petals petals which •Anterior petals
margin Example- China direction •Overlaps get overlapped which get
without rose Example- the two by standard overlapped by
overlapping Cotton Cassia lateral •Overlap the wing
Example- Gulmohar petals two anterior
Calotropis petals
Example-Pea and Bean flower
Standard

Wings

Keel

Valvate Twisted Imbricate Papilionaceous

Androecium

•Each anther is usually bilobed and each lobe has two chamber,called pollen sacs
•Pollen grains are produced in pollen sacs
•Staminode-Sterile stamens
•Stamens of flower may be united with other members such as petals or among themselves
•There may be a variation in the length of filaments within a flower.Example-Salvia and Mustard
Important terms-
•Epipetalous-When stamens are attached to the petals.Example-Brinjal
•Epiphyllous-When stamens are attached to the perianth .Example-Lily
•Polyandrous-When stamens in a flower are free
•Monoadelphous-Stamens may be united into one bunch or one bundle.Example-China rose
•Diadelphous-Stamens may be united into two bundle.Example-Pea
•Polydelphous-Stamens may be united into more than two bundles.Example-Citrus

Gynoecium

Carpel

Ovary Style Stigma

•Ovary is a •Connects the •Tips of style
enlarged basal ovary to the •Receptive surface
part,on the which stigma for pollen grains
lies the elongated
tube
•Each ovary bears one or more ovules attached to a flattened ,cushion- like placenta
Importanat terms-
•Apocarpous-When more than one carpel is present,they may be free.Example-Lotus and rose
•Syncarpous-When carpel are fused,.Example-Mustard and Tomato

Placentation
(The arrangement of ovules whithin the ovary )

Marginal Axile Parietal Free central Basal

•Placenta forms •Ovules are •Ovules developed on the •Ovules are •Placenta
a ridge along the attached on inner wall borne on central develops at base
ventral suture of multilocular of the ovary/ axis and septum of ovary and a
the ovary and ovary on peripheral is absent single ovule is
ovules are born Example-China part Example- attached to
on this ridge rose •Ovary is one-chamber but Primrose it.Example-
forming 2 rows it becomes two chambered Dianthus Sunflower
Example-Pea due to false Marigold
septum.Example-Agemone

Example yaad
rakhana
 Fruit

Ripped into
Ovary Fruit

Seed Pericarp (May be dry /fleshy)

Epicarp Mesocarp Endocarp

Important terms-
•Parthenocarpic fruit- Fruit is formed without fertilisation of ovary
•Drupe fruit-Developed from monocarpellary superior ovaries and are one seeded
Example-Mango pericarp is well differentiated into an outer thin epicarp ,a middle fleshy edible
mesocarp and inner stony hard endocarp.Coconut is also a drupe , the mesocarp is fibrous

Seed

Ovule
(After fertilisation)
Into seed

Seed coat Embryo

(In Dicotyledonous seed)

Testa Tegmen
Radicle One/two Embryonal
(Outer layer) (Inner layer)
cotyledons axis
 Structure of Dicotyledonous seed

•The hilum is a scar on the seed coat throught which the developing seed were attached to the fruit
•Micropyle-Small pore above hilum
•Embryo consist of an embryonal axis and two cotyledons
•Cotyledons are often fleshy and full of reserve food material
•At the two ends of the embryonal axis are present the radicle and plumule
•Endospermic seed-The seed in which endosperm ( food storing tissue) is present ,endosperm is formed
as a result of double fertilisation Example-Castor
•Non-endospermic seed-Endosperm is not present in mature seed.Example-Bean,gram and pea
 Structure of Monoctyledonous seed

•Generally they are endospermic but some as in orchids are non-endospermic

•Endosperm is bulky and stores food
•Seed of cereals has seed coat which is membranous and generally fused with fruit wall
•Aleurone layer-Outer protein layer which cover the endosperm and separates the embryo
•The embryo is small and situated in a groove at one end of the endosperm
•It consist of one large and shield shaped scutellum and a short axis with a plumule and radicle

(Enclose plumule in sheaths)

(Enclose radicle in sheaths)

Semi-Technical Description of a typical Flowering plant

•Various morphological features are used to describe flowering plant.

•The requirement of description is -
1)Brief
2)Simple
3)Scientific language
4)in a proper sequence
The plant is described beginning with its habitat,vegetative characters-roots,stem,leaves and then
floral characters inflorescence and flower parts
After describing various parts of plant,a floral diagram and floral formula are presented
•A floral formula is represent by a some symbols-
Br-Bracteate
K-Calyx
C-Corolla
P-Perinath
A-Androecium
G-Gynoecium
G-Superior ovary Floral diagram and floral formula
G-Inferior ovary of mustard plants
♂-Male Family-Brassicaceae
♀-Female
⚥-Bisexual plants
⊕-Actinomorphic
%-Zygomorphic
Rules-
•Fusion is indicated by enclosing the figure within bracket and adhesion by a line drawn above the
symbols of the floral parts
•The position of the mother axis with respect to the flower is represented by an dot on the top of the
floral diagram
•Calyx,corolla,androecium and gynoecium are drawn in successive whorls,Calyx being the outermost and
the gynoecium being the centre
Use of floral diagram and floral formula-
•A floral diagram provides information about the number of parts of a flower,their arrangement and
the relation they have with one another
•Floral formula shows cohesion and adhesion within parts of whorls and between whorls

Description of some Important Family

Solanaceae (Poatato family)

Characters Solanaceae
Stem Herbaceous rarely wood,aerial,erect,cylindrical,branched,solid or hollow,hairy or
glabrous , underground stem in potato(Solanu, tuberosum)
Leaves Alternate,simple,rarely pinnately compound ,exstipulate;venation reticulate
Distibution Tropics,subtropics and even temperate zone
Inflorescence Solitary,axillary or cymose as in Solanum
Flower Bisexual,actinomorphic
Calyx Setals five ,united, persistent,valvate aestivation
Corolla Petals five,united,valvate aestivation
Androecium Stamens five,epipetalous
Gynoecium Bicarpellary obligated placed ,syncarpous,ovarysuperior ,bilocular ,placenta
swollen with many ovules,axile
Fruits Berry and capsule
Seeds Many,endospermous
Floral formula
Economic Many plants belonging to this family are source of food
impotance (tomato,brinjal,potato),spies(chilli),medicine(belladonna,ashwagandha);
fumigatory(tabacco),Ornamental(petunia)
 Anatomy of Flowering
plants

Anatomy
•Study of internal structure of any organisms (Papa of plant anatomy-Nehemiah Grew)
Tissue system

Group of tissues derived from a portion of meristem that performs a similar function in the plant body
irrespective of its position,these tissue form a tissue system
•On the basis of their structure and location there are three types of tissue system-Epidermal tissue
system, Ground tissue system and vascular tissue system

Epidermal tissue system (outer most covering of the whole plant

Epidermis -Outermost covering of primary plant body, elongated,compactly arranged
parenchymatous cells, which from a continous layer.Cells with small amount of cytoplasm lining
the cell wall and a large vacuole Covered with a waxy thick layer of cuticle(Absent in roots)
Stomata-Present in the epidermis of leaves, regulate the process of transpiration and gaseous
exchange.Composed of 2 bean-shaped cells,called guard cells which regulate opening and closing
stomatal pore possess chloroplast.Few epidermal cells in the vicinity of the guard cells,become
specialised in their shape and size, known as subsidiary cells.
Stomatal apparatus= stomatal aperture guard cells subsidiary cells
Root hairs-Unicellualar elongation of the epidermal cells and help absorb water and mineral
Tissue System

from soil
Trichomes-Epidermal hair on stem, usually multicellular.May be branched or unbranched and
soft or stiff,may even be secretory.Helps in preventing water loss dur to tranpiration

Ground All tissue except epidermis and vascular bundles constitute the ground tissue
tissue system Consist of simple tissue such as parenchyma,collenchyma and sclerenchyma
sarenchymatous cells are usually present in rays, in primary stems and root
cortex,pericycle,pith and medullary In leaves Ground tissue consists of thin-
walled chloroplast containing cells called mesophyll
Vascular
Presence /absent
tissue Open-Cambium present.possess the ability to form secondary xylem
of cambiun
system and phloem e.g. Dicot stem
Closed-Cambium absent,do not form secondary xylem and phloem
e.g.Monocot stem
Arrangement of
Radial-Xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are arranged in
xylem and
an alternate manner along different radii e.g.root
phloem
Conjoint-Xylem and phloem are jointly situated along the same
radius e,g,stem and leaves
 Orchidaceae is the largest
family in dicot
Anatomy of Dicot root and Monocot root
Features Dicot root
Epiblema Outermost layer,cells of epiblema protrude in Outermost layer,cells of epiblema protrude in
the form of unicellular root hairs
Cortex Consists of several layers oh thin-walled
parenchyma cells intercellular spaces
Endodermis Single layer of barrel-shaped cells without
any intercellular spaces,the tangential as well
as radial walls of the endodermal cells have
deposition of water-impermeable,waxy
material suberin in the form of casparian
strips
Pericycle Next to endodermis lies a few layers of thick-
walled parenchymatous cells ,initiation of
lateral roots and vascular cambium during
the secondary growth takes place in these
cells
Vascular Radial,exarch,2-4 xylem and phloem patches
Pith Poorely developed or absent
Compositae is the largest
family in dicot
Monocot root
the form of unicellular root hairs
Consists of several layers oh thin-walled
parenchyma cells intercellular spaces
Single layer of barrel-shaped cells without
any intercellular spaces,the tangential as well
as radial walls of the endodermal cells have a
deposition of water-impermeable,waxy
material suberin in the form of casparian
strips
Next to endodermis lies a few layers of thick-
walled parenchymatous cells ,initiation of
lateral roots and secondary growth is absent
Radial,exarch,usually more than 6 xylem
bundlebundles (polyarch)
Well developed and large
 Pith

Conjuctive tissue Dicot root(Primary) Monocot root

(Parenchymatous cells lie
between xylem and
phloem)
Anatomy of Dicot Stem and Monocot Stem

Features
Dicot stem Monocot stem
Epidermis Outermost protective layer , covered Outermost protective layer , covered with
with a thin layer of cuticle it may bear a thin layer of cuticle it may bear
trichomes and a few stomata trichomes and a few stomata
Hypodermis Few layers of collenchymatous cells just
below the epidermis,provide mechanical Sclerenchymatous
strength of the young stem
Cortex

Cortical Below hypodermis consist of rounded Large,conspicuous parenchymatous

layer thin walled parenchymatous cells with
conspicuous intercellular spaces
Endodermis Cells are rich in starch grains and the Absent
layer also called as starch sheath
Pericycle Present on inner side of the Absent
endodermis and above phloem in the
form of semi-linar patches of
sclerenchyma
Vascular Cojoint,open,endarch protoxylem and Conjoint and closed,peripheral vascular
bundles arranged in ring (Characteristic bundles are generally smaller than the
features of dicot stem),in between few centrally located ones and phloem
layers of radially placed parenchymatous parenchyma is absent,watercontaining
cells which constitute medulllary rays cavities are present within the vascular
bundles
Pith Large number of round,parechymatous
cells with large intercellular spaces Absent
occupy central portion of the stem
 T.S. of Dicot stem

T.S. of Monocot stem

Anatomy of Dicot(Dorsiventral ) Leaf and Monocot(Isobilateral )

Features Dicot leaf Monocot leaf

Epidermis Cover both upper surface (adaxial Covered by cuticle,In grasses certain adaxial
epidermis) and lower surface (abaxial epidermal cells along the veins modify
epidermis) of the leaf has as conspicuous themselves into large,empty,colourless cells
cuticle called bulliform cells ,when they are flaccid
due to water stress they make the leaves curl
inward to minimise water loss
Stomata Abaxial epidermis generally bear Equally distributed on both surface of
stomata than the adaxial epidermis
epidermis,latter may even lack stomata
Mesophyll Tissue between upper and lower epiermis Not differentiated into palisade and spongy
,posses chloroplast,parenchymatous and parenchyma
carry out photosynthesis .Differentiated
between two type of cells -
•Palisade parenchyma -Adaxially placed
made up of elongated cells,which are
arranged vertically and parallel to each
other
•Spongy parenchyma-Oval or round and
loosely arranged ,situated below the
palisade cells and extends to the lower
epidermis
Vascular Surrounded by a layer of thick walled Parallel venation in monocot leaves is
bundle bundle sheath cells,size of vascular reflected in near similar sizes of vascular
bundles are dependent on size of veins bundles(except in main veins)
and vein vary in thickness in the
reticulate venation
 Structural Organisation
in Animals

Tissue,Organ and Organ system

•Tissue-A group of similar cells along with intercellular substance substance perform a specific function.
•All complex animal consist of only 4 basic types of tissue and the classification of tissue is based on -
Structure of cells and Function performed by cells
Tissue

Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Muscular tissue Neural tissue

Organised in specific proportion 2 or more organs perform a common function

Tissue Organ Organ system
and pattern by their physical and/or chemical interaction

•Division of labour-Cells,tissue,organ and organ system split up the work in a way that exhibits division of
labour and contribute to the survival of the body as a whole
•Each organ in our body is made of one or more types of tissue.For example-Heart consists of all 4 types
of tissues
•Organ system organisation is essential for more efficient and better coordinated activities of billions of
cells constituting an organism
•Evolutionary trend-Complexity in organ and organ system displays certain discernable trend

Frog

•Phylum-Chordata
•Class-Amphibia
•Scientific name-Rana tigrina(Common species of frog found in India)
•Habitat-Fresh water and land
•Habit-Poikilotherms,Ability to change the colour to hide them from enemies(Camouflage) this colour
protection called mimicry,aestivation(summer sleep),hibernation(winter sleep)

Morphology

•Skin-Smooth,slippery due to presence of mucus and always maintained by in a moist condition,absorb

water through with skin
•Dorsal side-Olive green with dark irregular spots
•Ventral side-Pale yellow
•Body is divisible into head and trunk (tail absent)
•Above mouth,a pair of nostrils is present
•Eyes are bulged and covered by a nictitating membrane that protect them while in water
•On either side of eyes a membranous tympanum(ear) receives sound signals
•Limbs are of two type-
Forelimbs Hindlimbs
Digits 4 5
Size Smaller Larger and muscular
Web Absent present for swimming
Function Swimming , walking , leaping and burrowing

•Sexual dimorphism present

Male Female
Copulatory sac Present on first digit of forelimb Absent
Vocal sacs Prominent Absent

Digestive system

Alimentary canal Digestive glands

Short because frogs are carnivorous Liver and Pancreas

Food is captured by bilobed tongue

Mouth open into buccal cavity that

leads to oesophagus through pharynx

Action of HCL and gastric juices

secreted from wall of stomach

Chyme(Partially digested) passed

from stomach to first part of small
intestine(duodenum)

Duodenum receive bile from gall

bladder and pancreatic juices from
pancreas through a common bile duct

Bile emulsifies fat and pancreatic

juices digest carbohydrates and
protein

Digested food id absorbed by

numerous finger-like folds in inner
wall of intestine called villi and micro
villi,final digestion digestion takes
place in intestine

Undigested solid waste moves into

rectum and passed out through cloaca
 Respiration
Cutaneous respiration(In water)
•Skin act as respiratory organ
•Dissolved oxygen in water is exchange
through the skin by diffusion
•During aestivation and hibernation
gaseous exchange takes place through skin
O2
CO
2
Pulmonary respiration(On land)
•Buccal cavity,skin and lungs act as
respiratory organs
•Lungs are a pair of elongated,pink
coloured sac-like structures present in
upper part of trunk region(thorax)
 Vena cava(Receives blood)
Circulatory system
Atria
•Well-developed closed type
•Blood vascular system involves heart,blood vessels and blood Ventricle
•Heart is muscular structure situated in upper part of body cavity
•A triangular structure called sinus venosus joins the right atrium
•Ventricle opens into a sac like conus arteriosus on ventral side of Pericardium
heart (Covering
•Blood from heart is carried to all parts of body by arteries (arterial membrane)
system)
•Veins collect blood from different parts of body to heart and for venous system
•Blood composed of plasma and cells and the blood cells are RBC(red blood cell) or erythrocytes(WBC)
or leucocytes and plates
•RBC's are nucleated and contain red colored pigment called hemoglobin
•Blood carries nutrients,gases and water to respective sites during circulation
•Circulation of blood is achieved by pumping action of muscular heart
Portal system

Hepatic portal system Renal portal system

•Special venous connection •Special venous connection
between liver and intestine between kidney and lower
parts of body
Excretory system

•Frogs are ureotelic animal(excretes urea)

•Elimination of nitrogenous wastes is carried out by well developed excretory system
•Consists of-
1)A pair of kidney
2)Ureters
3)Cloaca
4)Urinary bladder
These are compact,dark red and bean like structures situated a little posteriorly in body cavity of both
sides of vertebral column
•Excretory wastes are carried by blood into kidney where it is separated and excreted
•Each kidney is composed of several structural and functional units called uriniferous
tubules/nephrons
•Two ureters emerge from kidney in male frog , act as urinogenital duct(Duct that transport both urine
and genital products) but in ureters and oviduct open separately in cloaca
•Thin-walled urinary bladder is present ventral to rectum which also opens in cloaca
 Control and coordination

Neural system Endocrine glands

(Coordination achieved
by hormones )
Autonomic Peripheral nervous Central nervous system
nervous system system (Brain and spinal cord)
(sympathetic and (10 pairs of Pituitary
parasympathetic) cranial nerves Thyroid
arising from brain Parathyroid
Thymus
Pineal body
Enclosed in a bony structure Pancreatic islets
called brain box(cranium) Adrenals
Gonads

Forebrain
Midbrain Hind-brain
•Includes olfactory
•Characterised by a pair of •Consists cerebellum and
lobes,paired cerebral
optic lobes medulla oblongata
hemispheres and unpaired
•Medulla oblongata passes out
diencephalon
through the foramen
magnum and continues into
spinal cord which enclosed in
vertebral column

Sense organ Function

Sensory papillae
Taste buds
Nasal epithelium
Eye
Tympanum with internal ear
Touch
Taste Cellular aggregations around nerve ending
Smell
Vision-Pair Simple eyes spherical structures situated in orbit in skull
Hearing and equilibrium-External ear absent

Well developed structure

Economic importance
•Frogs are beneficial for mankind because they eat insect and protect the crop
•Maintain ecological balance because these serve as an important link of food chain and food web
in ecosystem
•In some counties the muscular legs of frog are used as food by man
 Reproductive system

Male

Pathway of sperm
Testis

Vasa efferentia

Bidder's canal

Urinogenital duct

Cloaca

Cloacal aperture

Testis
Pair of yellowish ovoid testes which are found adhered to upper part of kidney by a double
fold of peritoneum called mesorchium

Vasa efferentia
•10-12 in number that arise from testes
•Enter in kidney on their side and open into Bidder's canal,then finally communicates with
urinogenital duct that comes out of kidney and open into cloaca

Cloaca
Small,medium chamber that is used to pass faecal matter,urine and sperm to exterior
 Female

Pathway of ova
Ovaries

Oviduct

Cloaca

Cloacal aperture

•Ureter
A mature female can lay 2500 to 3000 ova at a time
•Fertilisation is external and takes place in water
•Development involves a larval stage called tadpole
•Tadpole undergoes metamorphosis to from adult

Ovary
A pairs of ovaries are situated near kidney and there is no functional connection with
kidney

Oviduct
pair of oviduct arising from ovaries open into cloaca separately
 Cell

Cell
•Cell is the fundamental structure and functional unit of all living organisms
•Anything less than a complete structure of a cell does not ensure independent living
•Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first saw and described a live cell and Robert Brown later discovered the nucleus
•Invention of microscope and its improvement leading to electron microscope revealed all the structural
details of cell

Cell Theory
•In 1838 Matthias Schleiden,a German botanist,examined a large number of plants and observed that
all plants are composed of different kinds of cells which form tissues of plants
•At same time,Theodore Schwann (1839) ,a British Zoologist,studied different types of animals cells and
reported that cells had a thin outer layer which is today known as Plasma membrane,he also concluded
based on his studies on plant tissues that presence of cell wall is a unique character of the plant cells ,
on basis of this Schwann proposed hypothesis that bodies of animals and plants are composed of cells
and products of cells
•Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell theory,but this theory did not explains as to how
new cells were formed
•Rudolf Virchow (1855) first explained that cells divided and new cells are formed from pre-existing cells
(Omnis cellula-e-cellula)
•He modified the hypothesis of Schleiden and Schwann to give final cell theory -
1)all living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells
2)all cells arise from pre-existing cells

An Overview of Cell
•Cells differ greatly in size,shape and activities,like Mycoplasma(0.3µm)
smallest cell while largest isolated single cell is egg of an ostrich and
nerve cells are some of the largest cells
•Cells also vary greatly in their shape ,they may be disc-
like,polygonal,columnar,cuboid,thread-like or even irregular ,the shape of
cell vary according to function they perform
•Semi-fluid matrix called cytoplasm occupies the volume of the
cell,present in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells,cytoplasm is the
main arena of cellular activities in both the plant and animal cells
various chemical reactions occur in it to keep cell in the 'living state'
•Inside each cell is a dense membrane bound structure called nucleus,this
nucleus contain chromosomes which in turn contain genetic material,DNA
•Cell that have membrane bound nucleus are called eukaryotic whereas
cells that lack a membrane bound nucleus are prokaryotic
•
 Eukaryotic cells have other
•Study membrane
of internal bound distinct
structure structures called organelles
of any organisms

Anatomy of Flowering Plants

endoplasmic reticulum (ER),golgi complex ,lysosomes,mitochondria,microbodies and
vacuoles but prokaryotic cells lack such membrane bound organelles
•Ribosomes are non-membrane bound organelles found in all cells both eukaryotic
and prokaryotic,ribosome are found not only in cytoplasm but also within 2
organelles-chloroplasts(in plants) and mitochondria and on rough ER
Anatomy
•Animal cells contain another non-membrane bound organelle called centrosome
which helps in cell division (Papa of plant anatomy-Nehemiah Grew)
Tissue system
Prokaryotic cells
•Group of tissues
•Prokaryotic cells derived from a portion
are represented of meristem
by bacteria,blue that
green performs a similar
algae,mycoplasma function in the plant body
and
irrespective of its position,these
PPLO(Pleuro-Pneumonia tissue form a tissue system
Like Organisms)
•On the
•They arebasis of their
generally structure
smaller and location
and multiply there
rapidly areeukaryotic
than three typescells
of tissue system

Prokaryotic
Epidermal tissue system (Outer cellsof the whole plant body)
most covering
Based on shape
Epidermis •Outermost covering of primary plant body,elongated,compactly arranged
r parenchymatous cells,which from a continous layer
Bacillus Coccus Vibrio Spirillum
Rod-like Spherical Comma shaped Spiral
Stomata •Present in the epidermis of leaves,regulate the process of transpiration and
•Organisation of prokaryotic cell is fundamental similar even
gaseous exchange
though prokaryotes exhibit
•Cells with smalla wide
amountvariety of shapes lining
of cytoplasm and functions
the cell wallcells
andwhich
a large vacuoleopening and
•Composed of 2 bean-shaped cells,called guard regulate
•All prokaryotes have awith
•Covered cellawall
waxysurrounding
thickpore
layer the cell membranein roots)
of cuticle(Absent
closing stomatal ,possess chloroplast
except in mycoplasma
•Few epidermal cells,in the vicinity of the guard cells become specialised in their
•There is no well-defined nucleus ,the genetic material is basically
shape and size,known as subsidiary cells
naked not enveloped by a nuclear membrane
•Stomatal apparatus= stomatal aperture+guard cells+subsidiary cells
•In addition to genomic DNA (the single chromosome/circular
Root hairs •Unicellualar elongation of the epidermal cells and help absorb water and mineral
DNA) ,many bacteria have small circular DNA outside the genomic
from soil
Tissue system

DNA called plasmids

•DNA is usedTrichomes•Epidermal
to monitor bacterialhair on stem,usually
transformation withmulticellular
foreign
DNA •May be branched or unbranched and soft or stiff,may even be secretory
•Helps form
A specialised differentiated in preventing water losscalled
of cell membrane due to transpiration
mesosome is the characteristic
•All tissueofexcept
prokaryotes ,they
epidermis andare essentially
vascular bundles constitute the ground tissue
Ground
infoldings of cell membrane
•Consist of simple tissue such as parechyma,collenchyma and sclerenchyma s
tissue •Parenchymatous cells are usually present in cortex,pericycle,pith and medullary
Cell Envelope
systemand its Modifications
rays, in primary stems and root
•In leavesGround tissue consists of thin-walled chloroplast containing cells called
•Cell envelope consists of a tightly bound 3 layered structure -
mesophyll
1) Outermost glycocalyx -Can differ in composition and thickness among different bacteria,could be
•Open-Cambium present,possess the ability to form secondary
loose sheath called slime layer in some while in others it may be a thick and tough called capsule
Vascular (Prsesence/absence xylem and phloem e.g.Dicot stem
2)Middle cell wall- Determines the shape of cell and provides a strong structural support to prevent
tissue of cambium)
bacterium from bursting or collapsing •Closed-Cambium absent,do not form secondary xylem and phloem
system
3)Innermost
(Consistplasma
of membrane-Selectively permeable
e.g.Monocot in nature and interacts with outside world,this
stem
membrane
xylemisand
similar structurally to that of eukaryotes
(Arrangement
Although each layer of envelope perform •Radial-Xylem
phloem) distinct function
and,they act within
phloem together as a simple
a vascular protective
bundle are unit
of xylem and
Bacteriain an alternate manner along different radii e.g.root
arranged
phloem)
(Based on differences in cell envelope and manner in which they respond to staining

•Conjoint-Xylem and phloem are jointly situated along the same

Gram positive radius e,g,stem and leaves Gram negative
Take up gram stain Does not take up gram stain
 •Study of internal structure of any organisms
•A special membranous structure is mesosome which is formed by extensions of plasma membrane into cell
Anatomy of Flowering Plants
,these extensions are in form of vesicles,tubules and lamellae and they help in cell wall formation,DNA
replication , distribution to daughter cells , respiration ,secretion processes,to increase surface area of
plasma membrane and enzymatic content
•In some prokaryotes like cyanobacteria,there are other membranous extensions into cytoplasm called
chromatophores
Anatomy which contain pigments
•Bacterial cells may be motile or non-motile (Papa of plant anatomy-Nehemiah Grew)
•If motile ,they have thin filamentous extensive from their cell wall called flagella ,bacteria shows a range
Tissue system
in number and arrangement of flagella and bacterial flagellum is composed of 3 parts-
•Group of tissues derived
1)Filaments-longest from
portion anda portion
extends of meristem
from that performs
cell surface to outsidea similar function in the plant body
irrespective
2)Hook of its position,these tissue form a tissue system
•On the body
3)Basal basis of their structure and location there are three types of tissue system
•Besides flagella,Pili and Fimbriae are also surface structures of the bacteria but do not play a role in
Epidermal tissue system (Outer most covering of the whole plant body)
motility
Pili-Elongated tubular•Outermost
Epidermis structures covering
made of of
a special
primary protein
plant body,elongated,compactly arranged
Fimbriae-Small
r bristle parenchymatous
like fibres sprouting out of cell
cells,which from a continous layer
•In some bacteria,they•Cells with small
are know to helpamount
attachof cytoplasm
bacteria lininginthe
to rocks cell wall
streams andand
alsoa to
large
hostvacuole
tissues
•Covered with a waxy thick layer of cuticle(Absent in roots)
RibosomesStomata
and Inclusion Bodies
•Present in the epidermis of leaves,regulate the process of transpiration and
gaseous exchange
•Composed
•In prokaryotes,ribosomes of 2 bean-shaped
are associated with plasma cells,called
membrane guard cells
of the which regulate
cell,about opening
15 nm by 20 nmand
in size
closing stomatal
and are made of 2 subunits-50S and 30Spore ,possess
units whichchloroplast
when present together form 70S prokaryotic
ribosomes •Few epidermal cells,in the vicinity of the guard cells become specialised in their
•Ribosomes are sites ofshape andsynthesis
protein size,known as subsidiary cells
•Several ribosomes may•Stomatal
attach toapparatus=
single mRNA stomatal
and formaperture+guard cells+subsidiary
a chain called polyribosomescells
or polysome
Rootofhairs
•The ribosomes •Unicellualar
a polysome elongation
translate of the
the mRNA intoepidermal
proteins cells and help absorb water and mineral
from soil cells are stored in cytoplasm in form of inclusion bodies
Tissue system

•Reserve material in prokaryotic

•These are not bounded by any membrane
Trichomes•Epidermal system andmulticellular
hair on stem,usually lie free in cytoplasm e.g. phosphate granules
,cyanophycean granule•May and be
glycogen
branchedgranules
or unbranched and soft or stiff,may even be secretory
•Gas vacuoles are found in blue
•Helps green and purple
in preventing anddue
water loss green photosynthetic bacteria
to transpiration

•All tissue except epidermis and vascular bundles constitute the ground tissue
Ground •Consist of simple tissue such as parechyma,collenchyma and sclerenchyma s
tissue •Parenchymatous cells are usually present in cortex,pericycle,pith and medullary
system rays, in primary stems and root
•In leavesGround tissue consists of thin-walled chloroplast containing cells called
mesophyll
•Open-Cambium present,possess the ability to form secondary
Vascular (Prsesence/absence xylem and phloem e.g.Dicot stem
Eukaryotic cells
tissue of cambium)
system •Closed-Cambium absent,do not form secondary xylem and phloem
•Eukaryotic cells possess an organised nucleus with astem
e.g.Monocot nuclear envelope,In addition eukaryotic cells have
(Consist of
variety of complex locomotory and cytoskeletal structures and their genetic material is organised into
xylem and (Arrangement
chromosomes
phloem) of xylem and •Radial-Xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are
•All eukaryotic cells are not identical,they includes all protists,plants,animals and fungi
phloem) arranged in an alternate manner along different radii e.g.root
Plant cell-Possess cell wall,plastids and a large central vacuole absent in animal cells
Animal cell-Have centrioles which are absent in almost all plants cells
•Conjoint-Xylem and phloem are jointly situated along the same
radius e,g,stem and leaves
 •Study of internal structure of any organisms

Anatomy of Flowering Plants

Anatomy
(Papa of plant anatomy-Nehemiah Grew)
Tissue system
•Group of tissues derived from a portion of meristem that performs a similar function in the plant body
irrespective of its position,these tissue form a tissue system
•On the basis of their structure and location there are three types of tissue system

Epidermal tissue system (Outer most covering of the whole plant body)

Epidermis •Outermost covering of primary plant body,elongated,compactly arranged

r Plants parenchymatous cells,which from a continous layer
•Cells with small amount of cytoplasm lining the cell wall and a large vacuole
cell
•Covered with a waxy thick layer of cuticle(Absent in roots)
Stomata •Present in the epidermis of leaves,regulate the process of transpiration and
gaseous exchange
•Composed of 2 bean-shaped cells,called guard cells which regulate opening and
closing stomatal pore ,possess chloroplast
•Few epidermal cells,in the vicinity of the guard cells become specialised in their
shape and size,known as subsidiary cells
•Stomatal apparatus= stomatal aperture+guard cells+subsidiary cells
Root hairs •Unicellualar elongation of the epidermal cells and help absorb water and mineral
from soil
Tissue system

Trichomes•Epidermal hair on stem,usually multicellular

•May be branched or unbranched and soft or stiff,may even be secretory
•Helps in preventing water loss due to transpiration

•All tissue except epidermis and vascular bundles constitute the ground tissue
Animal
Ground •Consist of simple tissue such as parechyma,collenchyma and sclerenchyma s
cell
tissue •Parenchymatous cells are usually present in cortex,pericycle,pith and medullary
system rays, in primary stems and root
•In leavesGround tissue consists of thin-walled chloroplast containing cells called
mesophyll
•Open-Cambium present,possess the ability to form secondary
Vascular (Prsesence/absence xylem and phloem e.g.Dicot stem
tissue of cambium)
system •Closed-Cambium absent,do not form secondary xylem and phloem
(Consist of e.g.Monocot stem
xylem and (Arrangement
phloem) of xylem and •Radial-Xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are
phloem) arranged in an alternate manner along different radii e.g.root

•Conjoint-Xylem and phloem are jointly situated along the same

radius e,g,stem and leaves
 Cell Membrane
•Study of internal structure of any organisms

Anatomy of Flowering Plants

•Detailed structure of membrane was studied only after advent of electron microscope (1950s)
•Meanwhile,chemical studies on cell membrane,especially in human red blood cells (RBCs),enabled the
scientists to deduce the possible structure of plasma membrane
Composition -Lipid
•These studies showed that cell membrane is mainly composed of lipids and proteins ,majority of lipids
Anatomy
are phospholipids that are arranged in a bilayer andofratio
(Papa ofanatomy-Nehemiah
plant protein and lipids varies
Grew)considerably in
different
Tissuecell types .For example- In humans membrane of erythrocytes has approximately 52% protein
system
and 40% lipids
•Group of tissues
•Also,lipids derived from
are arranged withina membrane
portion of with
meristem
polarthat
headperforms
towards aouter
similar function
sides in the plant
and hydrophobic body
tails
irrespective
towards inner of its position,these
part,this ensures tissue form
that the a tissuetail
nonpolar system
of saturated hydrocarbons is protected from
•On the basis
aqueous of their structure
environment,in additionand location theremembrane
to phospholipids are three types of tissue cholesterol
also contains system
•Later,biochemical investigation clearly revealed that cell membrane also possess protein and
Epidermal tissue system (Outer most covering of the whole plant body)
carbohydrates
Protein Epidermis •Outermost covering of primary plant body,elongated,compactly arranged
•Depending r on ease ofparenchymatous
extraction,membrane proteins
cells,which cana be
from classified
continous as integral and peripheral
layer
•Cells with small amount of cytoplasm lining the cell wall and a large vacuole
•Covered Lie
withona surface
waxy thick layer of cuticle(Absent in roots)
of membrane
Stomata •Present in the epidermis of leaves,regulate the process of transpiration and
gaseous exchange
•Composed of 2 bean-shaped cells,called guard cells which regulate opening and
closing stomatal pore ,possess chloroplast
•Few epidermal cells,in the vicinity of the guard cells become specialised
Fluid in their
mosaic model of
shape and size,known as subsidiary cells plasma membrane
•Stomatal apparatus= stomatal aperture+guard cells+subsidiary cells
Root hairs •Unicellualar elongation of the epidermal cells and help absorb water and mineral
from soil
Tissue system

Trichomes•Epidermal hair on stem,usually multicellular

•May be branched or unbranched and soft or stiff,may even be secretory
Partially orwater
•Helps in preventing totally
lossburied
due tointranspiration
membrane

Structure- •All tissue except epidermis and vascular bundles constitute the ground tissue
Ground •Consist ofof cell
simple tissue such
•Improved model of structure membrane wasasproposed
parechyma,collenchyma and sclerenchyma
by Singer and Nicolson(1972) widely s
tissue •Parenchymatous cells
accepted as fluid mosaic model,according to are
thisusually
model-present in cortex,pericycle,pith and medullary
system rays, in primary
The quasi-fluid of lipids enables lateralstems and root
movement of proteins within the overall bilayer ,this ability to
move within the membrane •In leavesGround
is measured tissue
as its consists
fluidity of thin-walled chloroplast containing cells called
Transport of moleculesmesophyll
across cell membrane-
•Membrane is selectively permeable to some •Open-Cambium present,possess
molecules present the of
on either side ability
it to form secondary
Vascular (Prsesence/absence
Passive transport-Molecules xylemacross
can move briefly and phloem e.g.Dicot
membrane stemany requirement of energy
without
Osmosis-tissue
Movement of cambium)
of water by diffuse,neutral solutes may move across the membrane by process of
system along concentration gradient( •Closed-Cambium absent,do not form secondary xylem and phloem
simple diffusion from higher concentration to lower) and water also move
(Consist of e.g.Monocot stem
across this membrane from higher to lower concentration
xylem and (Arrangement
Active transport-Few ions or molecules are transported across the membrane against their concentration
phloem)
gradient i,e, fromof xylem
lower to and •Radial-Xylem
higher concentration and phloem within
, such transportation a vascular
are energy bundleprocess
dependent are in
phloem)
which ATP is utilised arranged in an alternate manner along different radii e.g.root
Function-
•Most important functions of the plasma•Conjoint-Xylem
membrane is theand phloemof
transport aremolecules
jointly situated
across italong the same
•Fluid nature of membrane is also important radius e,g,stem
from and leaves
the point of view of functions like cell
growth,formation of intercellular junctions, secretion,endocytosis ,cell division etc.
 Cell Wall •Study of internal structure of any organisms

Anatomy of Flowering Plants

•A Non-living rigid structure called the cell wall forms an outer covering for the plasma membrane of
fungi and plants
•Cell wall of a young plant cell, the primary wall is capable of growth which gradually diminishes as the
cell matures and the secondary wall is formed in inner (towards membrane) side of cell
•Middle lamella is a layer mainly calcium pectate which holds or glues different neighboring cell
Anatomy
together
(Papa of plant anatomy-Nehemiah Grew)
•Cell wall and middle lamellae may be traversed by plasmodesmata which connect the cytoplasm of
Tissue system
neighbouring cells
•Algae have
•Group cell wall
of tissues ,made
derived of cellulose,galacatan,mannans
from and minerals
a portion of meristem that performs like function
a similar calcium carbonates,while in
in the plant body
other plantsofitits
irrespective consists of cellulose,hemicellulose,pectins
position,these and proteins
tissue form a tissue system
•Cellthe
•On wallbasis
not of
only givestructure
their shape toand
cell location
and protects
therethe
arecell from
three mechanical
types of tissue damage
system and infection,it also
helps in cell-to-cell interaction and provides barrier to undesirable macromolecules
Epidermal tissue system (Outer most covering of the whole plant body)
Endomembrane system
Epidermis •Outermost covering of primary plant body,elongated,compactly arranged
•While each
r of the membranous organelles
parenchymatous is distinct
cells,which frominaterms of itslayer
continous structure and function ,many of
these are considered together as small
•Cells with an endomembrane system because
amount of cytoplasm their
lining the cellfunctions
wall and are coordinated
a large vacuole
•Endomembrane system includewith
•Covered endoplasmic reticulum(ER),golgi
a waxy thick complex,lysosomes
layer of cuticle(Absent in roots) and vacuoles ,since
the functionsStomata
of mitochondria,chroloplast and of
•Present in the epidermis peroxisomes are not
leaves,regulate thecoordinated with above and
process of transpiration
components,these aregaseous
not considered
exchangeas part of endomembrane system
Endoplasmic Reticulum(ER)
•Composed of 2 bean-shaped cells,called guard cells which regulate opening and
•Electron microscopicclosing
studiesstomatal pore ,possess
of eukaryotic chloroplast
cells reveal presence of network or reticulum of tiny tubular
•Few
structures scattered in epidermal
cytoplasm cells,in
called the vicinity
endoplasmic of the guard cells become specialised in their
reticulum(ER)
shape and
•ER divides the intracellular size,known
space as subsidiary
into 2 distinct cells
compartments-
1)Liminal compartment •Stomatal apparatus= stomatal aperture+guard cells+subsidiary cells
(inside ER)
2)Extra luminal •Unicellualar elongation of the epidermal cells and help absorb water and mineral
(Cytoplasm)
Root hairs
from soil
Tissue system

Trichomes•Epidermal hair on stem,usually multicellular

•May be branched or unbranched and soft or stiff,may even be secretory
•Helps in preventing water loss due to transpiration

•All tissue exceptEndoplasmic

epidermis and vascular bundles constitute the ground tissue
Reticulum
Ground
•Consist of simple tissue such as parechyma,collenchyma and sclerenchyma s
tissue
•Parenchymatous cells are usually present in cortex,pericycle,pith and medullary
system
rays, in primary stems and root
•In leavesGround tissue consists of thin-walledSmooth endoplasmic
chloroplast reticulum(SER)
containing cells called
Rough endoplasmic reticulum(RER)
mesophyll •When endoplasmic reticulum does
•When endoplasmic reticulum bear
•Open-Cambium present,possess the ability
not bear ribosometo form secondary
on their surface
ribosome on their surface
Vascular (Prsesence/absence xylem and phloem e.g.Dicot Function-
stem
Function-
tissue of cambium) SER site for synthesis of lipid and in
RER is frequently observed in cell •Closed-Cambium absent,do not form secondary
system animal cell lipid-likexylem and phloem
steroidal
actively involved in protein synthesis e.g.Monocot stem
(Consist of hormones are synthesised
and secretion
xylem and (Arrangement
phloem) of xylem and •Radial-Xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are
phloem) arranged in an alternate manner along different radii e.g.root

•Conjoint-Xylem and phloem are jointly situated along the same

radius e,g,stem and leaves
 •Study of internal structure of any organisms

Anatomy of Flowering Plants

Anatomy
(Papa of plant anatomy-Nehemiah Grew)
Tissue system
•Group of tissues derived from a portion of meristem that performs a similar function in the plant body
irrespective of its position,these tissue form a tissue system
•On the basis of their structure and location there are three types of tissue system

Epidermal tissue system (Outer most covering of the whole plant body)

Epidermis •Outermost covering of primary plant body,elongated,compactly arranged

r parenchymatous cells,which from a continous layer
•Cells with small amount of cytoplasm lining the cell wall and a large vacuole
•Covered with a waxy thick layer of cuticle(Absent in roots)
Stomata •Present in the epidermis of leaves,regulate the process of transpiration and
gaseous exchange
•Composed Endoplasmic
of 2 bean-shaped cells,called guard cells which regulate opening and
Reticulum
closing stomatal pore ,possess chloroplast
•Few epidermal cells,in the vicinity of the guard cells become specialised in their
shape and size,known as subsidiary cells
Golgi apparatus •Stomatal apparatus= stomatal aperture+guard cells+subsidiary cells
Root(1898) •Unicellualar elongation of the epidermal cells and help absorb water and mineral
hairs first
•Camillo Golgi observed densely stained reticular structure near the nucleus
from soil
Tissue system

•They consist of many flat,disc-shaped or cisternae of 0.5µm to 1.02 diameter and these are stacked
Trichomes•Epidermal
parallel to each other hair on stem,usually multicellular
•The Golgi cisternae are •May be branchedarranged
concentrically or unbranched
near theand soft or
nucleus stiff,may
with distincteven be secretory
convex cis or forming
face and concave trans •Helps in preventing
or maturing water
face and cisloss
anddue to transpiration
trans faces of organelle are entirely different
,but interconnected
•All tissue except epidermis and vascular bundles constitute the ground tissue
Ground is the
•Golgi apparatus important
•Consist site oftissue
of simple formation
such asofparechyma,collenchyma
glycoprotein and glycolipids
and sclerenchyma s
tissue •Parenchymatous cells are usually present in cortex,pericycle,pith and medullary
Function-system rays, in primary stems and root
•Golgi apparatus principally perform the function of packing materials,to delivered either to the
•In leavesGround tissue consists of thin-walled chloroplast containing cells called
inter-cellular targets or secreted
mesophyll
•Open-Cambium present,possess the ability to form secondary
Vascular (Prsesence/absence xylem and phloem e.g.Dicot stem
tissue of cambium)
system •Closed-Cambium absent,do not form secondary xylem and phloem
(Consist of e.g.Monocot stem
xylem and (Arrangement
phloem) of xylem and •Radial-Xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are
phloem) arranged in an alternate manner along different radii e.g.root

•Conjoint-Xylem and phloem are jointly situated along the same

radius e,g,stem and leaves
 •Materials to be•Study
packaged in form structure
of internal of vesiclesof
from
anythe ER fuse with cis face of golgi apparatus and move
organisms

Anatomy of Flowering Plants

towards the maturing face ,this explains why golgi apparatus remains in close association with
endoplasmic reticulum
•A number of protein synthesised by ribosomes on endoplasmic reticulum are modified in the cisternae
of Golgi apparatus before they are released from its trans face
Lysosomes
Anatomy
•These are membrane bound vesicular structures formed by process of packaging in golgi apparatus
(Papa of plant anatomy-Nehemiah Grew)
•The isolated vesicles have been found to be very rich in almost all types of hydrolytic
Tissue system lipases, proteases,carbohydrases) optimally active at acidic pH
enzymes(Hydrolases-
Function-
•Group of tissues derived from a portion of meristem that performs a similar function in the plant body
•These enzymes
irrespective of itsare capable of digesting
position,these tissue form carbohydrates,proteins,lipids
a tissue system and nucleic acids
Vascuoles
•On the basis of their structure and location there are three types of tissue system
•The vacuole is membrane-bound space found in cytoplasm, contains water,sap,excretory product and
Epidermalnot
other materials tissue system
useful for (Outer
the cellmost
and covering
vacuole isofbound
the whole
by a plant
singlebody)
membrane called tonoplast
•In plant cells the vacuoles can occupy up to 90% of the volume of the cell
Epidermis •Outermost covering of primary plant body,elongated,compactly arranged
In plants-
r parenchymatous cells,which from a continous layer
•Tonoplast facilitates•Cells
the transport
with smallofamount
a number of ions andlining
of cytoplasm otherthe
materials
cell wallagainst concentration
and a large vacuole
gradients into the vacuole , hence
•Covered withtheir
a waxyconcentration
thick layer ofis significantly
cuticle(Absenthigher in vacuole than in the
in roots)
cytoplasm
Stomata •Present in the epidermis of leaves,regulate the process of transpiration and
In Amoeba-
gaseous exchange
•Contractile vacuole is important for osmoregulation and excretion
•Composed of 2 bean-shaped cells,called guard cells which regulate opening and
•Food vacuoles are formed by engulfing the food material
closing stomatal pore ,possess chloroplast
Mitochondria (Site•Few epidermal
of aerobic cells,in the vicinity of the guard cells become specialised in their
respiration)
•Mitochondria unless shape and size,known
specifically stained are asnot
subsidiary cells under the microscope
easily visible
•Number of mitochondria •Stomatal apparatus=
per cell is variablestomatal
depending aperture+guard cells+subsidiary
on physiological cellsand in terms of
activity of cells
shape and Root hairs •Unicellualar
size also,considerable elongation
degree of the epidermal
of variability is observedcells and help absorb water and mineral
from soil or cylindrical having a diameter of 0.2-0.1µm (average 0.5µm)
Tissue system

•Typically it is sausage-shaped
Trichomes•Epidermal
•Each mitochondria hair on stem,usually
is a double membrane-bound multicellular
structure with outer membrane and inner membrane
•May beinto
dividing its lumen distinctly branched or unbranched
2 aqueous compartments andi.e.soft
i.e. orouter
stiff,may even be secretory
compartment and inner
compartment •Helps in preventing water loss due to transpiration
•Inner compartment is filled with a dense homogeneous substance called matrix
•All tissue except epidermis and vascular bundles constitute the ground tissue
•Outer membrane
Ground forms the continuous limiting boundary of organelle and inner membrane forms a
•Consist of simple tissue such as parechyma,collenchyma and sclerenchyma s
number tissue
of infoldings called cristae towards matrix,cristae increase surface area
•Parenchymatous cells are usually present in cortex,pericycle,pith and medullary
system rays, in primary stems and root
•In leavesGround tissue consists of thin-walled chloroplast containing cells called
mesophyll
•Open-Cambium present,possess the ability to form secondary
Vascular (Prsesence/absence xylem and phloem e.g.Dicot stem
tissue of cambium)
system •Closed-Cambium absent,do not form secondary xylem and phloem
(Consist of e.g.Monocot stem
xylem and (Arrangement
phloem) of xylem and •Radial-Xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are
phloem) arranged in an alternate manner along different radii e.g.root
•Two membrane have their own specific enzymes associated with mitochondrial function
•They produce cellular energy in form of ATP,hence they are called 'power houses of cell'
•Conjoint-Xylem and phloem are jointly situated along the same
•Matrix also possess single circular DNA molecule,a few RNA molecules,ribosomes (70S) and components
radius e,g,stem and leaves
required for synthesis of proteins and they divide by fission
 Plastids •Study of internal structure of any organisms

Anatomy of Flowering Plants

•Found in all plant cells and in euglenoids
•They bear some specific pigments,thus imparting specific colours to plants
Plastids
Based on type of pigments plastids

Anatomy
Chloroplasts (Papa of plant anatomy-Nehemiah Grew) Leucoplasts
Chromoplast
Tissue
•Contain system
chlorophyll •In chromoplasts fat •Colorless plastids
and carotenoids soluble carotenoid of varied shapes
•Group of tissues derived from a portion of meristem
pigments likethat performs a similar functionandin the plant body
pigments which are size with stored
irrespective of its position,these tissue form a tissue system
carotene,xanthophylls
responsible for nutrients
•On the basis of their structure and location there are three
and other are present types of tissue system •Cells wit
trapping light energy
essential for that gives part of the •Covered
Epidermal tissue system (Outer most covering of the whole plant body)
photosynthesis plant a yellow,orange
Epidermis •Outermost coveringand of primary
red colourplant body,elongated,compactly arranged
r parenchymatous cells,which from a continous layer
Amyloplasts Elaioplasts Aleuroplasts
•Store •Store oils •Store
Stomata carbohydrates and fats protein
(starch)
e.g.Potato

Root hairs •Unicellualar elongation of the epidermal cells and help absorb water and mineral
from soil
Tissue system

Trichomes•Epidermal hair on stem,usually multicellular

•May be branched or unbranched and soft or stiff,may even be secretory
•Helps in preventing water loss due to transpiration

•All tissue except epidermis and vascular bundles constitute the ground tissue
Ground •Consist of simple tissue such as parechyma,collenchyma and sclerenchyma s
tissue •Parenchymatous cells are usually present in cortex,pericycle,pith and medullary
system rays, in primary stems and root
•In leavesGround tissue consists of thin-walled chloroplast
1)A number of organisedcontaining cellsincalled
2) Arranged stacks
mesophyll flattened membranous like piles of coins called
Space limited by inner •Open-Cambium sacs,present
present,possess the ability grana/intergranal
in stroma to form secondary
Vascular
membrane of (Prsesence/absence
chloroplast xylem and phloem e.g.Dicot stem thylakoids
tissue of cambium) Flat membranous tubules connecting the
3) Chlorophyll pigments
system •Closed-Cambium
thylakoids of differentabsent,do
grana not form secondary xylem and phloem
are present in them
(Consist of e.g.Monocot stem
xylem and (Arrangement
phloem) of xylem and •Radial-Xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are
phloem) arranged in an alternate manner along different radii e.g.root

•Conjoint-Xylem and phloem are jointly situated along the same

radius e,g,stem and leaves
 •Study of internal structure of any organisms
Ribosomes
Anatomy of Flowering Plants
•Ribosomes are granules structures first observed under the electron microscope as dense particles by
George Palade (1953)
•They are composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and protein ,not surrounded by any membrane
Anatomy
•Each ribosome has 2 subunits,larger and smaller subunits
(Papa of plant anatomy-Nehemiah Grew)
Tissue system
•Group of tissues derived from a portion
60S of meristem that performs a similar function in the plant body
irrespective of its position,these tissue form a tissue system
•On the basis of their structure and location there are three types of tissue system •Cells wit
•Covered
Epidermal tissue system (Outer most covering of the whole plant body)

Epidermis •Outermost covering of primary plant body,elongated,compactly arranged

r parenchymatous cells,which from a continous layer

Stomata 40S 80S

Eukaryotic ribosomes 60S+40S=80S

50S

Root hairs •Unicellualar elongation of the epidermal cells and help absorb water and mineral
from soil
Tissue system

Trichomes•Epidermal hair on stem,usually multicellular

•May be branched or unbranched and soft or stiff,may even be secretory
•Helps in preventing water loss due to transpiration
30S
•All tissue except epidermis and vascular bundles
70S constitute the ground tissue
Ground •Consist of simple tissue such as parechyma,collenchyma and sclerenchyma s
tissue •Parenchymatous cells are usually present in cortex,pericycle,pith and medullary
system rays, in primaryProkaryotic
stems andribosomes
root 50S+30S=70S
•In leavesGround tissue consists of thin-walled chloroplast containing cells called
•Typical maths rule does not apply in biology
mesophyll
•Open-Cambium present,possess the ability to form secondary
•'S'Svedberg's unit(Prsesence/absence
Vascular stands for sedimentation
xylemcoefficient
and phloem , ite.g.Dicot
is indirectly
stema measure for density and size
tissue of cambium)
system •Closed-Cambium absent,do not form secondary xylem and phloem
Cytoskeleton e.g.Monocot stem
(Consist of
xylem and
•An elaborate network of filamentous proteinaceous structures consisting of microtubules,microfilaments
(Arrangement
phloem) filaments
and intermediate •Radial-Xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are
present in cytoplasm
of xylem and
Function- phloem) arranged in an alternate manner along different radii e.g.root
•Gives mechanical support,motility,maintenance of shape of cell
•Conjoint-Xylem and phloem are jointly situated along the same
radius e,g,stem and leaves
 •Study of internal structure of any organisms

Anatomy of Flowering Plants

Cilia and Flagella

Anatomy
•Cilia and flagella are hair-like outgrowth of cell membrane and
(Papa of plant anatomy-Nehemiah Grew)
both are covered with plasma membrane
Tissue system
•Both emerge from centriole-like structure celled basal bodies
Cilia-
•Group of tissues derived from a portion of meristem that performs a similar function in the plant body
•They are small
irrespective of itsstructures whichtissue
position,these work form
like oars,causing
a tissue systemmovements
of
•Oneither the cell
the basis or thestructure
of their surrounding fluid
and location there are three types of tissue system
Flagella-
Epidermal
•They are tissue system
comparatively longer (Outer most covering
and responsible of the
for cell whole plant body)
movement
•Prokaryotic bacteria•Outermost
also posses covering
flagella ofbutprimary
these are structurally
plant body,elongated,compactly arranged
Epidermis
different from
r that ofparenchymatous
eukaryotic flagella cells,which from a continous layer
Structure- •Cells with small amount of cytoplasm lining the cell wall and a large vacuole
•Core is called axoneme,possesses
•Covered witha number
a waxy of microtubules
thick running
layer of cuticle(Absent in roots)
parallel to the long axis
Stomata •Present in the epidermis of leaves,regulate the process of transpiration and
•Axoneme usually has 9gaseous
doublets of radially arranged peripheral
exchange
microtubules and a pair of centrally
•Composed of 2located
bean-shapedmicrotubules , such
cells,called guard cells which regulate opening and
arrangement of axonemal microtubules
closing stomatal pore us referred
,possess to as 9+2 array
chloroplast
•Central tubules are connected by bridges
•Few epidermal and
cells,in thealso enclosed
vicinity by guard
of the a cells become specialised in their
central sheath,which isshapeconnected to one of as
and size,known thesubsidiary
tubules ofcells
each
9
peripheral doublets by•Stomatal
a radial spoke
apparatus= stomatal aperture+guard cells+subsidiary cells
•Peripheral doublets are also interconnected by linkers
Root hairs •Unicellualar elongation of the epidermal cells and help absorb water and mineral
from soil
Tissue system

Trichomes•Epidermal hair on stem,usually multicellular

•May be branched or unbranched and soft or stiff,may even be secretory
•Helps in preventing water loss due to transpiration

•All tissue except epidermis and vascular bundles constitute the ground tissue
Ground •Consist of simple tissue such as parechyma,collenchyma and sclerenchyma s
tissue •Parenchymatous cells are usually present in cortex,pericycle,pith and medullary
system rays, in primary stems and root
•In leavesGround tissue consists of thin-walled chloroplast containing cells called
mesophyll
•Open-Cambium present,possess the ability to form secondary
Vascular (Prsesence/absence xylem and phloem e.g.Dicot stem
tissue of cambium)
system •Closed-Cambium absent,do not form secondary xylem and phloem
(Consist of e.g.Monocot stem
xylem and (Arrangement
phloem) of xylem and •Radial-Xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are
phloem) arranged in an alternate manner along different radii e.g.root
Electron micrograph
•Conjoint-Xylem and phloem are jointly situated along the same
radius e,g,stem and leaves
 •Study of internal structure of any organisms

Anatomy of Flowering Plants

Centrosome and Centrioles

•Centrosome is an organelle usually containing 2 cylindrical structures called centrioles and they are
surrounded by amorphous structures materials
•Both centrioles in a centrosome lie perpendicular to each other in which each has an organisation like
Anatomy
cartwheel and they are made up of 9 evenly spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin protein,each of
(Papa of plant anatomy-Nehemiah Grew)
peripheral fibril is a triplet
Tissue triplets
•Adjacent system are also linked
•Central
•Group ofpart of the
tissues proximal
derived from region of centriole
a portion is also
of meristem proteinaceous
that and called
performs a similar hub,which
function in theisplant
connected
body
with tubulesofofits
irrespective peripheral triplets
position,these by radial
tissue form aspokes made of protein
tissue system
•Centriole form
•On the basis of basal
their body of cilia
structure andorlocation
flagellathere
and spindle fibres
are three typesthat give rise
of tissue to spindle apparatus
system
during cell division in animal cells
Epidermal tissue system (Outer most covering of the whole plant body)

Epidermis •Outermost covering of primary plant body,elongated,compactly arranged

r parenchymatous cells,which from a continous layer
•Cells with small amount of cytoplasm lining the cell wall and a large vacuole
•Covered with a waxy thick layer of cuticle(Absent in roots)
Stomata •Present in the epidermis of leaves,regulate the process of transpiration and
gaseous exchange
•Composed of 2 bean-shaped cells,called guard cells which regulate opening and
closing stomatal pore ,possess chloroplast
•Few epidermal cells,in the vicinity of the guard cells become specialised in their
shape and size,known as subsidiary cells
•Stomatal apparatus= stomatal aperture+guard cells+subsidiary cells
Root hairs •Unicellualar elongation of the epidermal cells and help absorb water and mineral
from soil
Tissue system

Trichomes•Epidermal hair on stem,usually multicellular

•May be branched or unbranched and soft or stiff,may even be secretory
•Helps in preventing water loss due to transpiration

Nucleus •All tissue except epidermis and vascular bundles constitute the ground tissue
Ground •Consist of simple tissue such as parechyma,collenchyma and sclerenchyma s
tissue •Parenchymatous cells are usuallymaterial
present of
in nucleus
cortex,pericycle,pith and dyes
medullary
•First described by Robert Brown as early as 1831,later stained by basic was
system rays, by
in primary
given the name chromatin Flemmingstems and root
•Loose and indistinct •In leavesGround
network tissue consists
of nucleoprotein fibres of thin-walled
called chromatinchloroplast containing cells called
mesophyll
•Interphase nucleus (nucleus of a cell when it is not dividing) has highly extended and elaborate
nucleoprotein fibres called chromatin,nuclear •Open-Cambium
matrix andpresent,possess the ability
one or more spherical to form
bodies secondary
called nucleoli
•Larger Vascular
and more(Prsesence/absence
numerous nucleoli are xylem
presentand
in phloem e.g.Dicot
cells actively stem out protein synthesis
carrying
•Nucleartissue
envelopeof,which
cambium)
consists of 2 parallel membranes with a space between (10 to 59 nm( called
system •Closed-Cambium absent,do not form secondary xylem and phloem
perinuclear space,from a barrier between the material present inside nucleus and cytoplasm
(Consist of e.g.Monocot stem
•At a number of placed nuclear envelope is interrupted by minute pores(Nuclear pore),which are formed
xylem and (Arrangement
by the fusion of its two membranes
phloem) of xylem and •Radial-Xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are
phloem) arranged in an alternate manner along different radii e.g.root

•Conjoint-Xylem and phloem are jointly situated along the same

radius e,g,stem and leaves
 •Study of internal structure of any organisms

Anatomy of Flowering Plants

Contains nucleolus and chromatin
(Nuclear matrix )

Site of active ribosomal RNA synthesis

Nuclear pores are passage through which
Anatomy
movement of RNA and protein molecules
(Papa of plant anatomy-Nehemiah Grew)
taken place in both direction between
Tissue system nucleus and cytoplasm
•Group of tissues derived from a portion of meristem that performs
Outer membrane usuallya remains
similar function in the plant body
irrespective of its position,these tissue form acontinuous
tissue system
with ER and also bears
•On the basis of their structure and locationribosomes
there are on
three
it types of tissue system

Epidermal tissue system (Outer most covering of the whole plant body)

spherical •Outermost
•Nucleoli areEpidermis covering
structure present in of primary plant body,elongated,compactly arranged
nucleoplasm
•Content ofr nucleolus isparenchymatous
continuous with cells,which
the rest offrom a continous
nucleoplasm as itlayer
is not a membrane bound structure
•Cells with small amount of cytoplasm lining the cell wall and a large vacuole
•During different stages of cell division,cells show structured chromosomes in place of nucleus
•Covered with a waxy thick layer of cuticle(Absent in roots)
•Chromatin contains DNA and some basic proteins called histones ,some non-histone proteins also RNA
Stomata •Present
•Every chromosome(Visible in dividing
only in the epidermis
cells) of leaves,regulate
essentially the process
has a primary of transpiration
constriction and
or the centromere
on the side of which discgaseous
shapedexchange
structures called kinetochores
•Composed of 2 bean-shaped cells,called guard cells which regulate opening and
closing stomatal pore ,possess chloroplast
•Few epidermal cells,in the vicinity of the guard cells become specialised in their
shape and size,known as subsidiary cells
•Stomatal apparatus= stomatal aperture+guard cells+subsidiary cells
Root hairs •Unicellualar elongation of the epidermal cells and help absorb water and mineral
from soil
Tissue system

Trichomes•Epidermal hair on stem,usually multicellular

•May be branched or unbranched and soft or stiff,may even be secretory
•Helps in preventing water loss due to transpiration

•All tissue except epidermis and vascular bundles constitute the ground tissue
Ground •Consist of simple tissue such as parechyma,collenchyma and sclerenchyma s
tissue •Parenchymatous cells are usually present in cortex,pericycle,pith and medullary
system rays, in primary stems and root
•In leavesGround tissue consists of thin-walled chloroplast containing cells called
mesophyll
•Open-Cambium present,possess the ability to form secondary
Vascular (Prsesence/absence xylem and phloem e.g.Dicot stem
tissue of cambium)
system •Closed-Cambium absent,do not form secondary xylem and phloem
(Consist of e.g.Monocot stem
xylem and (Arrangement
phloem) of xylem and •Radial-Xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are
phloem) arranged in an alternate manner along different radii e.g.root

•Conjoint-Xylem and phloem are jointly situated along the same

radius e,g,stem and leaves
 •Study of internal structure of any organisms
Based on the position of centromere,chromosomes can be classified into 4 types-
Anatomy of Flowering Plants
1)Metacentric-Middle centromere forming 2 equal arms of the chromosome
2)Sub-metacentric-Centromere slightly away from middle of chromosome resulting into 1 shorter arm
and one larger arm
3)Acrocentric-Centromere is situated close to its end forming one extremely short and one very large arm
Anatomy
4)Telocentric-Terminal centromere(Absent in human)
•Sometimes a few chromosomes have non-staining secondary
(Papa of plantconstrictions at a constant
anatomy-Nehemiah Grew) location,this
gives appearance
Tissue systemof a small fragment called satellite

•Group of tissues derived from a portion of meristem that performs a similar function in the plant body
irrespective of its position,these tissue form a tissue system
•On the basis of their structure and location there are three types of tissue system

Epidermal tissue system (Outer most covering of the whole plant body)

Epidermis •Outermost covering of primary plant body,elongated,compactly arranged

r parenchymatous cells,which from a continous layer
•Cells with small amount of cytoplasm lining the cell wall and a large vacuole
•Covered with a waxy thick layer of cuticle(Absent in roots)
Stomata •Present in the epidermis of leaves,regulate the process of transpiration and
gaseous exchange
•Composed of 2 bean-shaped cells,called guard cells which regulate opening and
closing stomatal pore ,possess chloroplast
•Few epidermal cells,in the vicinity of the guard cells become specialised in their
shape and size,known as subsidiary cells
•Stomatal apparatus= stomatal aperture+guard cells+subsidiary cells
Root hairs •Unicellualar elongation of the epidermal cells and help absorb water and mineral
from soil
Tissue system

Microbodies
Trichomes•Epidermal hair on stem,usually multicellular
•May be branched or unbranched and soft or stiff,may even be secretory
•Many membrane bound minute vesicles called microbodies that contain various enzymes ,are present in
•Helps in preventing water loss due to transpiration
both plant and animal cells
•All tissue except epidermis and vascular bundles constitute the ground tissue
Ground •Consist of simple tissue such as parechyma,collenchyma and sclerenchyma s
tissue •Parenchymatous cells are usually present in cortex,pericycle,pith and medullary
system rays, in primary stems and root
•In leavesGround tissue consists of thin-walled chloroplast containing cells called
mesophyll
•Open-Cambium present,possess the ability to form secondary
Vascular (Prsesence/absence xylem and phloem e.g.Dicot stem
tissue of cambium)
system •Closed-Cambium absent,do not form secondary xylem and phloem
(Consist of e.g.Monocot stem
xylem and (Arrangement
phloem) of xylem and •Radial-Xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are
phloem) arranged in an alternate manner along different radii e.g.root

•Conjoint-Xylem and phloem are jointly situated along the same

Purple onion peel under the microscope
radius e,g,stem and leaves
 Biomolecules

•All carbon compound that we get from living tissue called as biomolecules

Chemical analyse
Living tissue + Trichloroacetic acid
(CL­3CCOOH)

Grding
Thick slurry

Strain through a cheesecloth/cotton

Filtrate/Acid-soluble pool Retentate/Acid-insoluble fraction

Roughly cytoplasmic composition Macromolecule

Inorganic Micromolecule Proteins Nucleic acids Polysaccharides Lipids

Water Amino acids Monosaccharides

•Have molecular weights in the range
Ions
of ten thousand daltons or above
Gases •Have molecular weights less •Polymeric form
than one thousand daltons
•Have monomeric form
•Have molecular weights less than 800 daltons
•Not strictly macromolecules - When cell
Elemental Analysis membrane and other membrane fragments in
the form of vesicles get separated along with
•Elemental analysis gives elemental composition of living
acid insoluble pool and hence in
tissues in the form of hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine, carbon
macromolecules fraction
etc.

Living tissue Dried living tissue Burning dried living tissue, results
All water evaporate
(Wet weight) (Dry weight) in oxidation of all carbon
compound

Ash that contains inorganic

elements (like calcium,magnisum
etc)
 Amino Acid
•Organic compounds containing an amino group and
acidic group as substituents on the same α-carbon
•There are four substituent groups occupying the four
valency positions, that are hydrogen, carboxyl group,
amino group and a variable group designated as R group.
•Based on the nature of R group there are many amino
acids but those occur in protein are only of 20 types

Zwitterionic form
R group -Hydrogen
•A particular property of amino acids is the
ionizable nature of -NH₂ and COOH groups.
•In solutions of different pH, the structure of
amino acids changes.
•Molecule that contains an equal number of
R group -Methyl
both positively and negatively charged
group

R group -Hydroxy
methyl

Lipids
•Generally water insoluble
•They could be simple fatty acid that has a carboxyl group to an R group, R group could be a methyl (-
CH₃) or ethyl (-C₂H₅) or higher number of -CH₃ groups (1 Carbon to 19 carbons )
Example- Palmitic acid has 16 carbons including carboxyl
carbon

Arachidonic acid has 20 carbons including carboxyl

carbon
•Fatty acid could be saturated (without double bond) or unsaturated (with one or
more C=C double bonds )
Many lipids are esters of fatty acids and glycerol

Monoglycerides Diglycerides Triglycerides

Fats Oils

Higher -Melting point- Lower

Solid -State in winter - Liquid

Ghee -Example- Gingelly oil
•Some lipids have phosphorous and a phosphorylated organic compound.
Example- O

•Cholesterol is an important lipid, which maintain the integrity and fluidity of cell membrane

Nucleic Acids (Polynucleotides)

Nucleotide

Heterocyclic compound Monosaccharide Phosphoric acid / Phosphate

•Heterocyclic compounds in •Sugar found in polynucleotide is

nucleic acids are the either ribose ( a monosaccharides
nitrogenous bases named pentose ) or 2' deoxyribose
adenine,guanine,uracil,
cytosine and thymine
DNA •Consist of only
•Skeletal heterocyclic ring
(Contains deoxyribose ) nucleotides
is called as purine and
pyrimidine respectively RNA •Both function as
•Purine- (Contains ribose ) genetic material
Adenine
Guanine
•Pyrimidine-
Uracil
Cytosine
Thymine Uracil only found
in RNA

Heterocyclic nitrogenous base + monosaccharides =Nucleosides

 Metabolites

Primary metabolites Secondary metabolites

•Identifiable function •Do not understand the
•Play known roles in role/function at the moment
normal physiological •Some has ecological importance
processes and many of them are useful to
Example-Amino acids. human welfare
sugar and lipids Example-Rubber, drugs and
pigments

Polysaccharides
Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides Polysaccharides
•These molecules cannot be further •They are long chains of sugars,
hydrolyzed into smaller sugar units containing different
monosaccharides as building blocks
•Units linked together by glycosidic
bond
Diagrammatic •The right end is called the
representation of
portion of glycogen
reducing end and left end is acid
the non-reducing end

Homopolysaccharides Heteropolysaccharides
•Same monomer units •Different monomer units
Glycosidic bond

Starch Cellulose Inulin Glycogen Chitin

Found in - Plants Plants Plants Animals Animals

Monomer- Glucose Glucose Glucose Glucose N-acetyl glucosamine

Function- Store house of Provide structural Structural Store house of Exoskeleton of

energy in plant support to cell support to cell energy in animal arthropods
tissues wall wall tissues

Branching- No No No Yes Yes

Coloring with I₂-Blue No colour No colour Red Yellow

•Starch forms helical portion and can hold I₂ molecules in the helical portion while cellulose does not
contains complex helices and hence cannot hold I₂
•Paper made from plant pulp and cotton fibre is cellulosic

Protein
•They are heteropolymer of amino acid acids linked by peptide bonds
•There are 20 type of amino acids ( e.g., alanine, proline, lysine, etc)
•Amino acids can be essential ( dietary protein) or non- essential ( alanine)
•Collagen is the most abundant protein in animal world and Ribulose bisphosphate Carboxylase-
Oxygenase (RuBisCO) is the most abundant protein in the world of the biosphere
•Function-

Structure of protein
 Structure of protein

Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary

•Positional •Thread is folded •Long protein chain is •More than one polypeptide or
information of of a helix (similar folded upon itself like subunits
sequence of amino to a revolving a hallow woolen •The manner in which these
acid staircase) ball(Gives a 3-D view of individual folded polypeptides or
•A protein thread •Only right a protein) subunits are arranged with respect
does not exist handed helices are •This structure is to each other(e.g. linear string of
throughout as an observed absolutely necessary spheres,spheres arranged one upon
extended rigid rod for the many biological each other in the form of a cube
activites of proteins or plate etc.)
•Adult human haemoglobin
consists of 4 subunits (2 subunits
of α types and 2 subunits of ß
types)

Left end Right end

•First •Last amino
amino acid acid (C-
(N- terminal
terminal amino acid)
amino
acid)
 Enzymes (Almost all enzymes are protein)
•Enzymes(Biocatalyst)-Proteins with 3-D structures including an active sites, converts a substrate into a
product
•Active site - An active site of an enzyme is a crevice or pocket into which a substrate fits
•They are mostly all tertiary structure and highly specific
•Ribozymes- Some nucleic acid that behave like enzymes
•Inorganic catalysts work efficiently at a high temperature and high pressures, while enzymes get
damaged at high temperature ( above 40°) except enzymes of thermophilic organisms ( enzymes stable
and retain their catalytic power even at high temperatures upto 80°-90°)
•They remain unchanged at the end of reaction and not used up in the reaction because their sole
purpose is to increase rate of reaction by lowering activation energy( The minimum energy required to
initiate a chemical reaction )
•Each enzyme (E) has a substrate (S) binding site in its molecules so that a highly reactive enzyme-
substrate complex (ES) is produced and the unchanged enzyme with an intermediate of the enzyme-
product complex (EP)
E+S ⇋ES EP E+P
Formation of many more ‘altered structural states’ between stable substrate and product
•For metabolic conversion,substrate has to diffuse towards the active site which results in obligatory
formation of an ‘ES’ complex (transition phenomenon)

•P is at lower level than S- Exothermic reaction

•S is at lower level than P- Endothermic reaction
 Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

Temperature pH Concentration of Substrate Inhibition

•Each enzyme shows its •Enzyme shows •Reaction ultimately reaches a •When the binding
highest activity at a highest activity maximum velocity which is not of the chemical
particular temperature at a particular exceeded by any further rise in shuts off enzyme
called optimum temperature pH called concentration of the substrate activity, process
•Low temperature preserve optimum pH because the enzyme molecules are called inhibition and
enzyme in a temporarily fewer than the substrate the chemical called
inactive state molecules and after saturation of inhibitor
•High temperature destroys these molecules, there are no free •Competitive
enzymatic activity because enzyme molecules to bind with inhibitor- Inhibitor
protein are denatured by the additional substrate closely resembles the
heat molecules substrate in its
molecules structure,
which results in
competing with
substrate for active
site. Consequently,
substrate cannot
bind and as results
enzyme activity
decline Eg.-
inhibition of succinic
dehydrogenase by
malonate which
closely resembles the
substrate succinate
in structure. Such
competitive
inhibitors are often
used in the control
of bacterial
pathogens
Classification and Nomenclature of Enzyme
•Thousands of enzymes have been discovered, isolated and studied. Most of these enzymes have been
classified into different groups based on the type of reactions they catalyse.
•Enzymes are divided into 6 classes each with 4-13 subclasses and named accordingly by a four-digit
number

Oxidoreductases/ Enzymes which catalyse oxidoreduction between two substrates S and S’

dehydrogenases S reduced + S’ oxidised S oxidised + S’ reduced

Enzymes catalysing a transfer of a group, G (other than hydrogen)

Transferases between a pair of substrate S and S
S - G + S’ S + S’ - G

Hydrolases Enzymes catalysing hydrolysis of ester, ether, peptide, glycosidic, C-C, C-

halide or P-N bonds

Lyases Enzymes that catalyse removal of groups from substrates by mechanisms

other than hydrolysis leaving double bonds

Isomerases Includes all enzymes catalysing inter-conversion of optical, geometric or

positional isomers.

Ligases Enzymes catalysing the linking together of 2 compounds, e.g., enzymes

which catalyse joining of C-O, C-S, C-N, P-O etc. bonds

CO- Factor
•Non-protein constituents called cofactors are bound to the the enzyme to make the enzyme
catalytically active
•Catalytic activity is lost when the co-factor is removed from the enzyme.
Enzyme

Simple Enzyme Conjugated Enzyme

•Protein

Apo-Enzyme Holoenzyme Co-factor

•Protein part •Non-protein part

Prosthetic groups Co-enzymes Metal ions

•Organic compounds and are
distinguished from other
cofactors in that they are
tightly bound to the apoenzyme
Example-Peroxidase and
catalase, which catalyze the
breakdown of hydrogen
peroxide to water and oxygen,
haem is the prosthetic group
•Organic compounds but
their association with the
apoenzyme is only transient,
usually occurring during the
course of catalysis
Example- Coenzyme
nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (NAD) and NADP
contain the vitamin niacin
• A number of enzymes require
metal ions for their activity
which form coordination bonds
with side chains at the active
site and at the same time form
one or more cordination bonds
with the substrate
Example-Zinc is a cofactor for
the proteolytic enzyme
carboxypeptidase
 Cell cycle and
Cell division

Cell division

Growth and reproduction are characteristics of cells, indeed of all living organisms
. All cells reproduce by dividing into two, with each parental cell giving rise to two daughter cells each time they divide
Cycles of growth and division allow a single cell to form a structure consisting of millions of cells

Cell Cycle
Cell cycle- The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome, synthesise the other constituents of the cell
and eventually divides into two daughter cells
Although cell growth (in terms of cytoplasmic increase) is a continuous process but DNA synthesis occurs only during
ne specific stage in the cell cycle
The replicated chromosomes (DNA) are then distributed to daughter nuclei by a complex series of events during cell
division and all these events are under genetic control
A typical eukaryotic cell cycle is illustrated by human cells in culture divide once in approximately every 24 hours,
duration of cell cycle can vary from organism to organism and also from cell type to cell type
xample- Cell cycle of yeast is only about of 90 minutes

Phases of Cell Cycle

Interphase Mitosis phase

(Resting phase)
•The interphase lasts more than
95% of the duration of cell cycle
(Sabse Bada hissa cell division ka )
•During interphase the cell is
preparing for division by
undergoing both cell growth and
DNA replication in an orderly
manner.
G phase S phase
1 2
(Gap 1) (Synthesis)
(M-phase)
•Actual cell division or mitosis
occurs and the interphase
represents the phase between
two successive M phases
•In the 24-hour cell cycle of a
human cell, actual cell division
only lasts about an hour.
•Starts with starts with the
nuclear division, corresponding
to the separation of daughter
G phase chromosomes (karyokinesis) and
(Gap 2) usually ends with division of
cytoplasm (cytokinesis)

Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

 G0phase
Interphase
•Certain adult animal cells, like heart cells, and others divide
occasionally to replace lost cells, exiting G 1 phase to enter the
inactive stage called quiescent stage (G0) in the cell cycle
•Cells in this stage remain metabolically active but no longer
proliferate unless called on to do so depending on the requirement
of the organism

G1phase
•The interval between mitosis and initiation of DNA replication
•During G1 phase the cell is metabolically active and
continuously grows but does not replicate its DNA
S phase
•Synthesis phase marks the period during which DNA synthesis
or replication takes place ( amount of DNA per cell doubles)
•There is no increase in the chromosome number
•In animal cells, DNA replication begins in the nucleus, and the
G2phase centriole duplicates in the cytoplasm
•Proteins are synthesised in preparation
for mitosis while cell growth continues.
•In animals, mitotic cell division is only seen in the diploid somatic cells. However, there are few exceptions
to this where haploid cells divide by mitosis, for example, male honey bees
•The plants can show mitotic divisions in both haploid and diploid cells

M Phase (Most dramatic period of cell cycle)

•Equational division- The number of chromosomes in the parent and progeny cells is the same
M Phase

Karyokinesis Cytokinesis

Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

Cytokinesis

•Cytokinesis-The cell itself is divided into two daughter cells by the separation of cytoplasm, at the end of
cell division gets completed
•In an animal cell, cytokinesis occurs as a furrow forms, deepens, and eventually divides the cell cytoplasm
into two.
•In plant cells, wall formation starts from the center and grows outward to meet lateral walls. The new cell
wall begins with a precursor, the cell plate. In animal cells, a furrow appears in the plasma membrane,
deepens, and eventually divides the cell cytoplasm into two
•In some organisms karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis as a result of which multinucleate condition
arises leading to the formation of syncytium (e.g., liquid endosperm in coconut)
 Prophase
•Prophase which is the first stage of karyokinesis of mitosis follows the S and G2phases of interphase.
• Initiation of condensation of chromosomal material,chromosomal material becomes untangled during
the process of chromatin condensation
•The centrosome, begins to move towards opposite poles of the cell
•The completion of prophase can thus be marked by the following characteristic events
(i)Chromosomal material condenses to form compact mitotic chromosomes
(ii)Centrosome which had undergone duplication during interphase, begins to move towards opposite
poles of the cell. Each centrosome radiates out microtubules called asters. The two asters together with
spindle fibres forms mitotic apparatus.

•Cells at the end of prophase, when viewed under the microscope, do not show golgi complexes,
endoplasmic reticulum, nucleolus and the nuclear envelope

Metaphase
The key features of metaphase are:
(i)Spindle fibres attach to kinetochores of chromosomes.
(ii)Chromosomes are moved to spindle equator and get aligned along metaphase plate through spindle
fibres to both poles.
•The complete disintegration of the nuclear envelope marks the start of the second phase of mitosis,
hence the chromosomes are spread through the cytoplasm of the cell
•At this point, chromosome condensation is finished, and they are clearly visible under the microscope,
making this the optimal stage for studying chromosome morphology.
•. At this stage, metaphase chromosome is made up of two sister chromatids, which are held together by
the centromere
•Kinetochores-Small disc-shaped structures at the surface of the centromere, it serve as the sites of
attachment of spindle fibres (formed by the spindle fibres) to the chromosomes that are moved into
position at the centre of the cell
•the metaphase is characterised by all the chromosomes coming to lie at the equator with one
chromatid of each chromosome connected by its kinetochore to spindle fibres from one pole and its
sister chromatid connected by its kinetochore to spindle fibres from the opposite pole
•The plane of alignment of the chromosomes at metaphase is referred to as the metaphase plate.

Spindle fibre
Centrosome
Chromosomes at equator
(Metaplate)

Anaphase
•Anaphase stage is characterised by the following key events:
(i)Centromeres split and chromatids separate.
(ii)Chromatids move to opposite poles.
•As chromosomes move away from the equatorial plate, each centromere stays directed toward the pole,
leading at the edge, with chromosome arms trailing behind.

At the start of anaphase, each chromosome at the metaphase

plate splits simultaneously. The resulting daughter chromatids,
now called daughter chromosomes, move toward opposite poles to
form the future daughter nuclei
 Telophase (Final stage of karyokinesis)
•This is the stage which shows the following key events:
(i)Chromosomes cluster at opposite spindle poles and their identity is lost as discrete
elements.
(ii)Nuclear envelope develops around the chromosome clusters at each pole forming two
daughter nuclei.
(iii)Nucleolus, golgi complex and ER reform
•The chromosomes that have reached their respective poles decondense and lose their
individuality
•The individual chromosomes can no longer be seen and each set of chromatin
material tends to collect at each of the two poles

Decondensing
chromosomes
Formation of Nuclear envelope

Significance of Mitosis

Cell repair Growth of multicellular Restore the nucleo-

organisms cytoplasmic ratio
Meristematic tissues undergo mitotic Some lower plants and in some social
divisions in the apical and lateral insects haploid cells also divide by mitosis
cambium, ensuring continuous plant
growth.
Meiosis
•Meiosis-Specialised kind of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half
results in the production of haploid daughter cells
•Meiosis ensures the production of haploid phase in the life cycle of sexually
reproducing organisms whereas fertilisation restores the diploid phase
Key feature

•Meiosis involves two •Meiosis I is initiated •Meiosis involves pairing •Four haploid
sequential cycles of after the parental of homologous cells are
nuclear and cell chromosomes have chromosomes and formed at the
division called meiosis replicated to recombination between end of meiosis
I and meiosis II but produce identical non-sister chromatids II.
only a single cycle of sister chromatids at of homologous
DNA replication. the S phase chromosomes
 Meiosis

Meiosis I (Reductional division) (Equational division) Meiosis II

Prophase Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I Prophase II

•Homologous •The nuclear •Initiated immediately
•The bivalent
chromosomes membrane and after cytokinesis,
chromosomes align on
split, while sister nucleolus usually before the
equatorial plate
chromatids stay reappear, chromosomes have
•Microtubules from
connected at cytokinesis fully elongated
opposite spindle poles
their centromere. follows and this •Nuclear membrane
attach to homologous
is called as dyad disappears by the end
chromosome kinetochores.
of cells of prophase II
Leptotene •Chromosomes again
•Chromosomes become gradually visible under the become compact
light microscope and compaction of chromosomes
continues throughout leptotene Metaphase II
Zygotene •Chromosomes align at the
•Chromosomes pair in a process called synapsis, and equator and the microtubules
these paired chromosomes are homologous. from opposite poles of the
•Electron micrographs of this stage indicate that spindle get attached to the
chromosome synapsis is accompanied by the kinetochores of sister
formation of complex structure called synaptonemal chromatids
complex
Anaphase II
•Complex formed by a pair of synapsed homologous •The process starts with the
chromosomes is called a bivalent or a tetrad centromere splitting,
’First two stages of prophase I are relatively short- releasing sister chromatids,
lived compared pachytene and microtubules attached
Pachytene to kinetochores shorten,
enabling them to move
•Four chromatids of each bivalent chromosomes
towards opposite cell poles.
becomes distinct and clearly appears as tetrads
•Appearance of recombination nodules, the sites at
Telophase II
which crossing over occurs between non-sister
chromatids of the homologous chromosomes. Meiosis concludes at
•Crossing over, the exchange of genetic material Telophase II, where two
between homologous chromosomes, is an enzyme- sets of chromosomes are
mediated process involving recombinase. enclosed by a nuclear
•Crossing over causes genetic material recombination envelope. Cytokinesis then
on two chromosomes, completed by the end of forms a tetrad of cells,
pachytene, leaving them linked at crossover sites. namely, four haploid
daughter cells.
 Diplotene
•The beginning of diplotene is recognised by the dissolution of the synaptonemal
complex and the tendency of the recombined homologous chromosomes of the
bivalents to separate from each other except at the sites of crossovers
•These X-shaped structures(site of crossing over) are called chiasmata.
•In oocytes of some vertebrates, diplotene can last for months or years.

Diakinesis
•Marked by terminalisation of chiasmata
•Chromosomes are fully condensed and the meiotic spindle is assembled to prepare
the homologous chromosomes for separation
•By the end of diakinesis, the nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope also
breaks down
•Diakinesis represents transition to metaphase
Interkinesis
•The stage between the two meiotic divisions
•Generally short lived.
•There is no replication of DNA during interkinesis
•Interkinesis is followed by prophase II, a much simpler prophase than prophase I.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS

Meiosis ensures the consistent It enhances genetic diversity in

chromosome number in sexually populations, crucial for
reproducing organisms across evolution.
generations, despite
paradoxically halving the
chromosome count.
 Photosynthesis in
Higher plants

WHAT DO WE KNOW?

Starch formation experiment on a variegated leaf or a leaf partially covered with black paper, exposed to
light, revealed that photosynthesis occurred exclusively in the green sections when light was present.

Another experiment involved enclosing a leaf part in a test tube with KOH-soaked cotton (CO₂ absorber)
and exposing the other half to air. This setup, when placed in light, demonstrated the necessity of CO₂ for
photosynthesis.

EARLY EXPERIMENTS
Joseph Priestley
Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) conducted experiments in 1770.
Experiment focus: Revealing the crucial role of air in the growth
of green plants.
Priestley discovered oxygen in 1774.
Observation: A candle in a closed space (bell jar) extinguishes,
and a mouse suffocates.but when mouse placed with mint plant
in bell jar mouse stays alive, and the candle continues to burn.
Conclusion: Both a burning candle and a breathing animal
somehow alter the air.
Hypothesis: Plants restore to the air whatever breathing animals and burning candles remove.

Jan Ingenhousz
Jan Ingenhousz (1730-1799) demonstrated the essential role of
sunlight in a plant process.
Sunlight is essential to plants for purification of air that is tainted
by burning candles or breathing animals.
An elegant experiment involving an aquatic plant revealed the
formation of small bubbles around green parts in bright sunlight.
The bubbles were later identified as oxygen by Ingenhousz.
The experiment established that only the green parts of plants could release oxygen.

Julius von Sachs

In 1854 Julius von Sachs provides evidence for glucose production during plant growth.
Glucose is typically stored as starch in plants.
Sachs's later studies reveal the presence of chlorophyll in plants, now known to be
located in chloroplasts within plant cells
He found that the green parts in plants is where glucose is made, and that the glucose
is usually stored as starch.
 T.W Engelmann
T.W. Engelmann (1843 – 1909) conducted experiments involving a prism
to split light into spectral components.
Green alga Cladophora was illuminated with the split light in the
presence of aerobic bacteria.
Bacteria were utilized to identify evolution sites during photosynthesis.
Observations revealed bacteria accumulation, particularly in the blue and red light
regions of the split spectrum.
Engelmann described the first action spectrum of photosynthesis based on these
findings.
The action spectrum closely resembles the absorption spectra of chlorophyll a and b
Cornelius van Niel
Microbiologist Cornelius van Niel (1897-1985) demonstrated that photosynthesis is a
light-dependent reaction based on studies of purple and green bacteria.
Photosynthesis involves the reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates using
hydrogen from an oxidizable compound.This can be expressed by:
2H 2 A+CO 2 Light 2A+CH2O+H2O
In green plants, H2O serves as the hydrogen donor and is oxidized to O2.
Some organisms, like purple and green sulfur bacteria, do not release O during
2
photosynthesis; instead, H2S is the hydrogen donor, leading to the production of
sulfur or sulphate.
Van Niel inferred that the O2produced by green plants comes from H 2O, not carbon
dioxide.
This inference was later confirmed using radioisotope techniques.
The correct equation, that would represent the overall process of photosynthesis is
therefore: 6CO +12H O Light C6H12 O6+6H2O+6O2
2 2

WHERE DOES PHOTOSYNTHESIS TAKE PLACE?

Usually the chloroplasts align themselves along the walls of the mesophyll
2
cells, such
that they get the optimum quantity of the incident light.
Chloroplast has a membranous system comprising grana, stroma lamellae, and matrix
stroma.
Clear division of labor exists within the chloroplast.

In the stroma, enzymatic reactions

The membrane system is responsible
synthesize sugar, eventually forming
for trapping light energy and
starch.
synthesizing ATP and NADPH.
 The light-driven reactions are termed
light reactions or photochemical
reactions.
The dark reactions, also known as
carbon reactions, are not directly
light-driven but depend on the
products of light reactions (ATP and
NADPH).
•It's important to note that dark reactions do not occur in darkness and are still light-
dependent.

HOW MANY TYPES OF PIGMENTS ARE INVOLVED IN

PHOTOSYNTHESIS?

Leaf pigments of any green plant can be separated through paper chromatography.
A chromatographic separation of the leaf pigments shows that the colour that we see
in leaves is not due to a single pigment but due to four pigments

Chlorophyll a Chlorophyll b Xanthophylls Carotenoids

(bright or blue green (yellow green) (yellow) (yellow to yellow-orange)
in the chromatogram)

Graph showing the absorption

spectrum of chlorophyll a, b
and the carotenoids

Graph showing action

spectrum of photosynthesis

Graph displaying photosynthesis

action spectrum overlaid on
chlorophyll a absorption spectrum.
These graphs, together, show that most of the photosynthesis takes place in the blue
and red regions of the spectrum; some photosynthesis does take place at the other
wavelengths of the visible spectrum
Chlorophyll is the primary pigment responsible for capturing light.
Other thylakoid pigments, including chlorophyll b, xanthophylls, and carotenoids
(referred to as accessory pigments), also absorb light.
These accessory pigments transfer energy to chlorophyll a.
They not only broaden the range of incoming light wavelengths usable for
photosynthesis but also safeguard chlorophyll a from photo-oxidation.

WHAT IS LIGHT REACTION?

Light reactions, also known as the 'Photochemical' phase, involve light absorption,
water splitting, oxygen release, and the generation of high-energy chemical
intermediates—ATP and NADPH.
Multiple protein complexes play a role in this process, with pigments organized into two
distinct photochemical light-harvesting complexes (LHC) within Photosystem I (PS I)
and Photosystem II (PS II).

The LHC, consisting of hundreds of pigment molecules bound to proteins, forms

antennae in each photosystem, enhancing photosynthesis efficiency by absorbing various
light wavelengths.
Both photosystems have all pigments, except one chlorophyll a molecule, creating a light-
harvesting system.
The reaction center, where chlorophyll a is found, differs between the two photosystems.
In PS I, the reaction center chlorophyll a, known as P700, absorbs light at 700 nm, while
in PS II, it is called P680 and absorbs light at 680 nm.

The light harvesting complex

THE ELECTRON TRANSPORT

Photosystem II (PS II) absorbs 680

nm red light, exciting electrons to a
higher orbit.
Excited electrons move to an electron
acceptor, then transfer to a
cytochrome-based transport system.

Electron movement downhill in redox

potential, bypassing usage in the
transport chain, passes on to
photosystem PS I.

Electrons in PS I are excited by 700 nm

red light and transferred to a higher
redox acceptor.

These electrons move downhill again, this

time to an NADP+ molecule, reducing it to
NADPH + H+.

The entire electron transfer scheme,

starting from PS II to NADP+
reduction, is known as the Z scheme
due to its characteristic shape was
proposed by Hill and Bendall
This shape is formed when all the
carriers are placed in a sequence on a
redox potential scale.
 Splitting of Water
Electrons moved from photosystem II require replacement, which is accomplished by
electrons resulting from water splitting associated with PS II.
Water splitting at PS II generates 2H+, [O], and electrons, producing oxygen as a net
photosynthesis product.
2H2O 4H++O2+4e-

Photosystem II supplies electrons to replace those taken from photosystem I.

The water splitting complex, linked to PS II, is situated on the inner side of the
thylakoid membrane.

Cyclic and Non-cyclic Photo-phosphorylation

Living organisms extract energy from oxidizable substances and store it as bond energy,
with ATP serving as a carrier.
The process through which ATP is synthesised by cells (in mitochondria and
chloroplasts) is named phosphorylation
Photo-phosphorylation, the light-dependent synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic
phosphate, occurs in the presence of light.
Non-cyclic photo-phosphorylation happens when both photosystems work sequentially
(PS II followed by PS I).
Electron transport chain connects the two photosystems, forming the Z scheme,
leading to the synthesis of ATP and NADPH + H+.

Cyclic photo-phosphorylation, occurring when only PS I is active, results in ATP

synthesis without NADPH + H+ production.
In stroma lamellae, cyclic electron flow happens, circulating the electron within the
photosystem.
Grana lamellae have both PS I and PS II, while stroma lamellae lack PS II and NADP
reductase.
Excited electrons in cyclic flow return to PS I via the electron transport chain, leading
to ATP synthesis.
Cyclic photophosphorylation occurs when only light beyond 680 nm is available for
excitation.
 Cyclic photophosphorylation

Chemiosmotic Hypothesis Postulated by Peter Mitchell

Chemiosmotic hypothesis explains ATP synthesis in photosynthesis, similar to

respiration. Proton gradient across thylakoid membranes drives ATP synthesis, with
protons accumulating inside the membrane (lumen). In respiration, protons accumulate
in the mitochondria's intermembrane space during electron transport.

Step that causes a proton gradient to develop

(a) Since splitting of the water molecule takes place on the inner side of the membrane,
the protons or hydrogen ions that are produced by the splitting of water
accumulate within the lumen of the thylakoids.
(b) As electrons move through the photosystems, protons are transported across the
membrane. This happens because the primary accepter of electron (Pheophytin)
which is located towards the outer side of the membrane transfers its electron not
to an electron carrier but to an H carrier. Hence, this molecule removes a proton
from the stroma while transporting an electron. When this molecule passes on its
electron to the electron carrier on the inner side of the membrane, the proton is
released into the inner side or the lumen side of the membrane.
(c)The NADP reductase enzyme is located on the stroma side of the membrane. Along
with electrons that come from the acceptor of electrons of PS I, protons are
necessary for the reduction of NADP+ to NADPH+ H+ . These protons are also
removed from the stroma.

ATP synthesis through chemiosmosis

In the chloroplast, protons decrease in the stroma but accumulate in the lumen,
creating a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane and a pH decrease in the
lumen.
The gradient is broken down due to the movement of protons across the membrane to
the stroma through the transmembrane channel of the CF0 of the ATP synthase

ATP synthase enzyme consists of two parts

CF0
Embedded in the thylakoid
membrane and forms a
transmembrane channel that
carries out facilitated diffusion of
protons across the membrane
CF1
Protrudes on the outer surface of the
thylakoid membrane on the side that
faces the stroma. ATP synthase, which
makes the enzyme synthesis several
molecules of energy-packed ATP.
 Chemiosmosis involves a membrane, proton pump, gradient, and ATP synthase.
Energy pumps protons across the membrane, creating a high concentration in the
thylakoid lumen. ATP synthase allows proton diffusion, releasing energy to activate
the enzyme for ATP formation. ATP, along with NADPH from electron movement, is
used immediately in stroma for biosynthetic reactions, including CO 2 fixation and
sugar synthesis.

WHERE ARE THE ATP AND NADPH USED?

Oxygen is released from the chloroplast, while ATP and NADPH play a crucial role in
driving the processes leading to the production of food, specifically sugars.
This marks the biosynthetic phase of photosynthesis, which is not directly reliant on
light presence but is influenced by the byproducts of the light reaction, namely ATP
and NADPH, in addition to CO 2 and H2O.
Verification of this phenomenon is straightforward: after light becomes unavailable,
the biosynthetic process persists temporarily before halting. Upon reintroduction of
light, the synthesis recommences.
It's worth noting that the continuation and cessation of the biosynthetic process are
tied to the availability and absence of light, respectively.
Melvin Calvin utilization of radioactive carbon-14 in studies on algal photosynthesis
resulted in the revelation that the initial product of CO2 fixation was a 3-carbon
organic acid.
Additionally, he played a role in elucidating the entire biosynthetic pathway, and
consequently, it was named the Calvin cycle in his honor.
The initial product recognized was 3-phosphoglyceric acid, (PGA).
Scientists investigated if all plants produce PGA as the initial product of CO2 fixation
or if different plants yield alternative products.
Broad-ranging experiments revealed a distinct group of plants wherein the primary
stable product of CO2fixation was an organic acid containing 4 carbon atoms—
identified as oxaloacetic acid (OAA).
Subsequently, two main types of CO2 assimilation during photosynthesis were recognized

C 3 pathway C4 pathway
Initial product - C3 acid (PGA) Initial product - C 4acid (OAA).

The Primary Acceptor of CO 2

First product was a C3 acid, the primary acceptor would be a 2-carbon compound; they
spent many years trying to identify a 2-carbon compound before they discovered the 5-
carbon RuBP.
 The Calvin Cycle

Calvin and his co-workers then worked out the whole pathway and showed that the
pathway operated in a cyclic manner; the RuBP was regenerated
Calvin pathway occurs in all photosynthetic plants; it does not matter whether they
have C3 or C4 (or any other) pathways
Carboxylation
Carboxylation in the Calvin cycle is the crucial
fixation of CO2 into a stable organic intermediate,
catalyzed by RuBisCO. This enzyme, also known as
RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase or RuBisCO, converts
CO2 into two molecules of 3-PGA.

Regeneration Reduction
Series of reactions leading to
Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor
glucose formation. Involves 2 ATP
molecule RuBP is crucial if the cycle
and 2 NADPH per fixed CO2
is to continue uninterrupted. The
molecule.Requires fixation of six CO2
regeneration steps require one ATP
molecules and six cycle turns for
for phosphorylation to form RuBP
one glucose molecule.

The Calvin cycle proceeds in three stages :

(1) carboxylation, during which CO2 combines
with ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate;
(2) reduction, during which carbohydrate is
formed at the expense of the
photochemically made ATP and NADPH;
(3) regeneration during which the CO2
acceptor ribulose1,5-bisphosphate is formed
again so that the cycle continues

Hence for every CO2 molecule entering

the Calvin cycle, 3 molecules of ATP and
2 of NADPH are required.
 THE C4 PATHWAY Hatch and Slack Pathway

Plants that are adapted to dry tropical regions have the C4 pathway(cyclic
process).Example-maize and sorghum
C4 plants are special: They have a special type of leaf anatomy, they tolerate higher
temperatures, they show a response to high light intensities, they lack a process called
photorespiration and have greater productivity of biomass.
The particularly large cells around the vascular bundles of the C4 plants are called
bundle sheath cells, and the leaves which have such anatomy are said to have ‘Kranz’
anatomy (‘Kranz’ means ‘wreath’ and is a reflection of the arrangement of cells)
The bundle sheath cells may form several layers around the vascular bundles; they are
characterised by-
(i)having a large number of chloroplasts
(ii)thick walls impervious to gaseous exchange
(iii)no intercellular spaces
Mechanism of C4 pathway -
(i)The primary CO2 acceptor is a 3-carbon molecule phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) and is
present in the mesophyll cells. The enzyme responsible for this fixation is PEP
carboxylase or PEPcase. It is important to register that the mesophyll cells lack
RuBisCO enzyme. The C 4 acid OAA is formed in the mesophyll cells
(ii)It then forms other 4-carbon compounds like malic acid or aspartic acid in the
mesophyll cells itself, which are transported to the bundle sheath cells. In the bundle
sheath cells these C 4 acids are broken down to release CO 2 and a 3-carbon molecule

(iii)The 3-carbon molecule is transported

back to the mesophyll where it is
converted to PEP again, thus, completing
the cycle.
(iv)The CO2 released in the bundle sheath
cells enters the C3 or the Calvin pathway
, a pathway common to all plants.
(v)The bundle sheath cells are rich in an
enzyme Ribulose bisphosphate
carboxylase-oxygenase (RuBisCO), but
lack PEPcase.Thus, the basic pathway
that results in the formation of the Sugarcane is C4plant
sugars, the Calvin pathway, is common to
the C 3 and C 4 plants.
 Diagrammatic representation of the Hatch and Slack Pathway

PHOTORESPIRATION

Features of RuBisCo-
(i)RuBisCO has a much greater affinity for CO 2 when the CO2 : O 2 is nearly
equal(binding is competitive)
(ii)RuBisCO that is the most abundant enzyme in the world and it is characterised by
the fact that its active site can bind to both CO2 and O 2
(iii)It is the relative concentration of O2 and CO 2 that determines which of the two
will bind to the enzyme.
In C3 plants some O2 does bind to RuBisCO, and hence CO2 fixation is decreased. Here
the RuBP instead of being converted to 2 molecules of PGA binds with O2 to form one
molecule of phosphoglycerate and phosphoglycolate (2 Carbon) in a pathway called
photorespiration (Discovered by Decker and Tio in tobacco)
Photorespiration does not synthesize
Differences between C3and C 4 Plants
sugars or ATP; instead, it releases CO
2
and consumes ATP. The pathway
lacks ATP and NADPH synthesis, and Bundle
Mesophyll
its biological function remains Sheath
unknown. Mesophyll Mesophyll
C4plants avoid photorespiration by
elevating CO2concentration at the 1 2
enzyme site.The breakdown of C4
acid in bundle sheath cells releases
RuBP PEP
CO2 , increasing intracellular CO 2
5 3
concentration.This ensures RuBisCO
acts primarily as a carboxylase, PGA OAA
minimizing oxygenase activity.
3 4
Yes Yes
Yes Yes
Mesophyll Bundle
Sheath
Medium High

Negligible Negligible

High Negligible

High Negligible

Negligible Negligible

20-25oC 30-40oC
Rice and Maize and
Wheat Sugarcane

RubisCo
 FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Internal Factor External Factor

•Number, size, age and orientation of leaves •Sunlight
mesophyll cells and chloroplasts •Temperature
•Internal CO2 concentration and the amount of •CO2 concentration
chlorophyll •Water
•Genetic predisposition and the growth of the plant
During photosynthesis, multiple factors influence the rate, but typically, one factor
becomes the primary limiting cause, dictating the overall rate. The rate is determined
by the factor present at sub-optimal levels at any given point.
Blackman’s (1905) Law of Limiting Factors this states the following:
“If a chemical process is affected by more than one factor, then its rate will be
determined by the factor which is nearest to its minimal value: it is the factor
which directly affects the process if its quantity is changed”

Light
Light affect photosynthesis in three different ways-
(i)light quality
(ii)light intensity
(iii) duration of exposure to light
Linear correlation exists between incident light and CO2 fixation rates under low light
intensities; however, at higher intensities, the rate plateaus due to limiting factors
Notably, light saturation occurs at 10% of full sunlight, suggesting that light is seldom
limiting in nature, except for shaded or dense forest environments. Exceeding a certain
light .threshold leads to chlorophyll breakdown and a decline in photosynthesis
 Carbon dioxide Concentration

CO2 is the primary constraint on photosynthesis, with atmospheric levels ranging

from 0.03% to 0.04%. Enhancing concentration to 0.05% boosts CO 2 fixation, but
exceeding this can lead to harmful effects over time.
C3 and C 4 plants exhibit varied responses to CO2 concentrations.
In low light conditions, both groups remain unresponsive to elevated CO2 levels while
under high light intensities, both C 3 and C4 plants demonstrate increased
photosynthesis rates.
What is important to note is that the C 4 plants show saturation at about 360 µlL-1 while
C3 responds to increased CO2 concentration and saturation is seen only beyond 450
µlL.-1 Thus, current availability of CO 2 levels is limiting to the C 3plants
Increased photosynthesis rates boost productivity in greenhouse crops like tomatoes and
bell peppers.
These crops thrive in a carbon dioxide-enriched environment, resulting in elevated
yields.

Temperature

Dark reactions, being enzyme-driven, are regulated by temperature. While light

reactions are also temperature-sensitive, their impact is less pronounced.
C4 plants exhibit increased photosynthesis rates in higher temperatures, whereas C 3
plants have a lower temperature optimum.
The temperature optimum for photosynthesis varies among plants based on their
habitat adaptation; tropical plants generally have a higher optimum compared to those
adapted to temperate climates.
 Water
Water's role in the light reaction lies more in its impact on the plant than in direct
influence on photosynthesis. Water stress induces stomatal closure, diminishing Carbon
dioxide availability.
Water stress leads to leaf wilting, reducing leaf surface area and metabolic activity.
 Respiration in Plants

The breaking of the C-C bonds of complex compounds through oxidation within the cells, leading to release of
considerable amount of energy is called respiration and the compounds that are oxidised during this process
are known as respiratory substrates
•The compounds that are oxidised during this process are known as respiratory substrates. Usually carbohydrates are
oxidised to release energy, but proteins, fats and even organic acids can be used as respiratory substances in some plants,
under certain conditions
•The procedure Involves a sequence of gradual stepwise reactions regulated by enzymes, and the captured energy is
retained as chemical energy in the form of ATP, which is disintegrated whenever and wherever energy needs to be used.

DO PLANTS BREATHE?

Yes, plants require O 2 for respiration to occur and they also give CO 2 . Hence, plants
have systems in place that ensure the availability of O 2 .
Unlike animals, plants lack specialized respiratory organs
There are multiple reasons explain why plants can function without dedicated respiratory
organs-
(i)Each plant part manages its gas-exchange independently, with minimal gas
transport between them.
(ii)Plants have low respiratory rates in roots, stems, and leaves compared to animals.
Significant gas exchange occurs mainly during photosynthesis, and each leaf
efficiently meets its oxygen needs during these periods due to internal release.
(iii)Distance that gases must diffuse even in large, bulky plants is not great.
(iv)The complete combustion of glucose, which produces CO2 and H2O as end products,
yields energy most of which is given out as heat.

C6H12 O +6O2 6CO2+6H 2O +Energy

The plant cell strategically catabolizes glucose in multiple small steps, ensuring that not
all liberated energy is lost as heat. This approach allows the energy released to be
effectively coupled to ATP synthesis.
Many present-day organisms are adapted to anaerobic conditions. Some are facultative
anaerobes, while others have an obligate requirement for anaerobic conditions.
Regardless, all living organisms possess the enzymatic machinery for the partial
oxidation of glucose without oxygen, known as glycolysis.
 GLYCOLYSIS (EMP pathway)
The term glycolysis has originated from the Greek words, glycos for sugar, and lysis for
splitting.
The scheme of glycolysis was given by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof, and J. Parnas
In anaerobic organisms, it is the only process in respiration
Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell of all living organisms
Glucose in plants is derived from sucrose, the end product of photosynthesis, or storage
carbohydrates.
Sucrose is converted into glucose and fructose by invertase, facilitating their entry into
the glycolytic pathway.
Hexokinase phosphorylates glucose and fructose, forming glucose-6-phosphate, which
then isomerizes to fructose-6-phosphate.
The subsequent steps of glucose and fructose metabolism in glycolysis are identical.
Glycolysis involves ten enzyme-controlled reactions(where 1,3 and 10 are
irreversible),leading to the production of pyruvate from glucose.

ATP is utilised at two steps

First in the conversion Second in the conversion of

of glucose into glucose fructose 6-phosphate to
6-phosphate fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate

Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate splits into dihydroxyacetone phosphate and 3-

phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL).
NADH + H+ is formed during the conversion of PGAL to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPGA).
Two redox-equivalents are transferred from PGAL to NAD+ during oxidation.
PGAL, oxidized with inorganic phosphate, transforms into BPGA.
The conversion of each BPGA to 3-phosphoglyceric acid (PGA) yields energy and forms
one ATP.
ATP synthesis also occurs during the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to
pyruvic acid.
4 ATP molecules are directly synthesised in this pathway from one glucose molecule
Pyruvic acid is then the key product of glycolysis
Cells manage pyruvic acid from glycolysis in three main ways.

Fermentation Alcoholic fermentation Aerobic respiration

Aerobic, Need oxygen supply

Under anaerobic condition
Steps of glycolysis
 FERMENTATION

In fermentation, glucose undergoes incomplete

Major pathways of
oxidation in anaerobic conditions, with pyruvic
acid converting to C2O and ethanol through
anaerobic respiration
the actions of enzymes pyruvic acid
decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase.
During oxygen deficiency in bacteria and
animal cells(exercising muscles), pyruvic acid is
converted to lactic acid by lactate
dehydrogenase, using NADH+H+ as a reducing
agent, which is subsequently reoxidized to NAD+.
Both lactic acid and alcohol fermentation
release minimal energy, with less than seven
percent of glucose energy released, and not all
of it is captured as high-energy ATP bonds.
The processes are hazardous, yielding either acid or alcohol. Yeasts are fatally poisoned
when alcohol concentration reaches approximately 13 percent
13% the maximum concentration of alcohol in beverages that are naturally fermented

AEROBIC RESPIRATION

Aerobic respiration is the process of fully oxidizing organic substances in the presence
of oxygen, releasing CO 2, water, and a significant amount of energy from the
substrate.In eukaryotes these steps take place within the mitochondria and this
requires oxygen
The crucial events in aerobic respiration are:
(i)The complete oxidation of pyruvate by the stepwise removal of all the hydrogen
atoms, leaving three molecules of CO2 .(Takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria)
(ii) The passing on of the electrons removed as part of the hydrogen atoms to
Pyruvate, generated through glycolytic carbohydrate catabolism in the cytosol,
undergoes oxidative decarboxylation in the mitochondrial matrix via pyruvic
dehydrogenase.
The reactions catalysed by pyruvic dehydrogenase require the participation of several
coenzymes, including NAD+ and Coenzyme A.
Mg 2+
Pyruvic acid +CoA+NAD+ Acetyl CoA +CO2+NADH + H +
Pyruvate dehydrogenase

•In this process, two NADH molecules are generated through the metabolism of two
pyruvic acid molecules, derived from one glucose molecule in glycolysis.
 (Krebs’ cycle after the scientist
Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
Hans Krebs)
Occurs inside mitochondrial matrix of eukaryotic cells
First reaction of Kerb’s cycle is condensation,then isomerisation-
AcetyCoA
OAA Citrate synthase
Citric Acid Isomeises Isocitrate
Two consecutive decarboxylation steps result in the formation of α-ketoglutaric acid
and succinyl-CoA.
Succinyl-CoA is oxidized to OAA, enabling the cycle to proceed.
The conversion of succinyl-CoA to succinic acid yields GTP through substrate-level
phosphorylation.
GTP is converted to GDP in a coupled reaction, concurrently synthesizing ATP from
ADP.
Three instances of NAD+ reduction to NADH + H+ and one instance of FAD+ reduction
to FADH2 occur in the cycle.
The ongoing oxidation of acetyl CoA in the TCA cycle necessitates the continuous
replenishment of oxaloacetic acid.
Regeneration of NAD+ and FAD+ from NADH and FADH2 is also required for the
cycle to persist.

The summary equation for this phase of respiration may be written as follows:
 Electron Transport System (ETS)
and Oxidative Phosphorylation

The metabolic pathway through which the electron passes from one carrier to another,
is called the electron transport system (ETS) and it is present in the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
NADH+H+ and FADH are oxidised through the electron transport system and the
electrons are passed on to O2 resulting in the formation of H2O
Electrons from NADH (produced in the mitochondrial matrix during the citric acid
cycle) are oxidized by NADH dehydrogenase (complex I).
Electrons are transferred to ubiquinone in the inner membrane, which also receives
reducing equivalents from FADH2 (complex II) generated during succinate oxidation.

NADH (Citric Acid Cycle)

Oxidized by NADH
dehydrogenase (complex I)

Ubiquinone

Cytochrome bc1 Complex (Complex III)

Cytochrome c (Mobile Carrier)

Cytochrome c Oxidase Complex

(Complex IV)
Reduced ubiquinone (ubiquinol) is oxidized, transferring electrons to cytochrome c
through cytochrome bc1 complex (complex III).
Cytochrome c, a small protein on the inner membrane's outer surface, acts as a mobile
carrier for electron transfer between complexes III and IV.
Complex IV, or cytochrome c oxidase, contains cytochromes a and a3, along with two
copper centers
Electrons move through complexes I to IV in the electron transport chain, coupled to
ATP synthase (complex V).
ATP is produced from ADP and inorganic phosphate during this process.
The number of ATP molecules generated depends on the electron donor: 3 ATP from
the oxidation of one NADH and 2 ATP from one FADH2.
Oxygen's role in respiration is crucial, serving as the final hydrogen acceptor and
driving the process by removing hydrogen.
Oxygen's presence is essential for oxidative phosphorylation, where the energy of
oxidation-reduction is utilized to create a proton gradient for phosphorylation.
Unlike photophosphorylation, which uses light energy, oxidative phosphorylation relies
on the energy of oxidation-reduction.

Electron Transport System (ETS)

 Energy from the electron transport system is harnessed by ATP synthase (complex
V).
ATP synthase comprises two main components: F1 (peripheral membrane protein
complex) and F0 (integral membrane protein complex).

F1 contains the ATP synthesis site, while F0 forms the proton channel across the inner
membrane.
Proton passage through F0 is coupled to the F1 catalytic site, resulting in ATP
production.
For each ATP produced, 4H+ traverse F0, moving from the intermembrane space to the
matrix along the electrochemical proton gradient

THE RESPIRATORY BALANCE SHEET

Calculating the net ATP gain from oxidizing a glucose molecule is often a theoretical
exercise due to the complex and simultaneous nature of metabolic pathways in living
systems.
In reality, pathways operate concurrently, with substrates entering and leaving as
needed, and ATP being utilized on demand.
Enzymatic rates are regulated by various factors, making assumptions challenging.
Despite these complexities, performing such calculations is valuable for understanding
the efficiency of the living system in energy extraction and storage.
The theoretical net gain of ATP during aerobic respiration of one glucose molecule is
38 ATP molecules.
 Comparisation fermentation and aerobic respiration:

Fermentation Aerobic respiration

Fermentation accounts for only
a partial breakdown of glucose
Net gain of only two molecules of
ATP for each molecule of glucose
degraded to pyruvic acid
NADH is oxidised to NAD+ rather
slowly in fermentation
Aerobic respiration it is completely
degraded to Carbon dioxide and
water.
Many more molecules of ATP are
generated under aerobic conditions
Reaction is very vigorous in case of
aerobic respiration

AMPHIBOLIC PATHWAY

Glucose is the preferred respiratory substrate, with all carbohydrates typically

converted to glucose before entering the respiratory pathway. Other substrates,
while respirable, do not initiate the respiratory pathway at the outset.
Fats are initially broken down into glycerol and fatty acids. Fatty acids are
degraded to acetyl CoA before entering the pathway, while glycerol is converted to
PGAL before entering.

Proteins undergo degradation by proteases, and the resulting individual amino acids,
post-deamination, enter the Krebs' cycle at various stages or may enter as pyruvate
or acetyl CoA.

The respiratory pathway is traditionally viewed as catabolic since it breaks down

substrates like fatty acids to acetyl CoA. However, when synthesizing fatty acids,
acetyl CoA is withdrawn from the respiratory pathway. This dual role extends to
protein breakdown and synthesis, making the respiratory pathway both catabolic and
anabolic. Given its involvement in both processes, it is more accurate to consider the
respiratory pathway as an amphibolic pathway rather than solely catabolic.
Respiratory pathway involved in both anabolism and catabolism is called amphibolic
pathway
Interrelationship among metabolic pathways showing respiration
mediated breakdown of different organic molecules to CO2 and H20
 RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT
•The ratio of the volume of CO2 evolved to the volume of O2 consumed in respiration is
called the respiratory quotient (RQ) or respiratory ratio

•The respiratory quotient depends upon the type of respiratory substrate used during
respiration

•When carbohydrates undergo complete oxidation, the Respiratory Quotient (RQ) is 1,

signifying equal evolution of CO2 and consumption of O 2

•When fats are used in respiration, the RQ is less than 1

•Proteins are respiratory substrates the ratio would be about 0.9.

•Pure proteins or fats are never used as respiratory substrates
 PLANT GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT

Leaves, flowers, and fruits of the same tree have limited dimensions and fall
periodically.
All plant organs are composed of various tissues, questioning the relationship
between cell structure, tissue, organ, and their functions.
Inquiry about the possibility of altering the structure and function of plant cells,
tissues, and organs.
All plant cells originate from the zygote, but they exhibit different structural and
functional attributes.
Development in plants involves growth and differentiation, leading to a highly
ordered succession of events.
The process results in the formation of a complex body organization, including
roots, leaves, branches, flowers, fruits, and seeds.
The initial step in plant growth is seed germination, influenced by favorable
environmental conditions.
Seeds enter a period of suspended growth or rest in the absence of favorable
conditions.
Upon the return of favorable conditions, seeds resume metabolic activities, and
growth resumes

Germination and seedling development in bean

 GROWTH

Growth is a fundamental characteristic of living beings.

Definition: Irreversible, permanent increase in size of an organ, its parts, or an
individual cell.
Growth accompanied by metabolic processes (anabolic and catabolic).
Metabolic processes occur at the expense of energy.
Example: Expansion of a leaf is considered growth.

Plant Growth Generally is Indeterminate

Plant growth is unique due to the presence of

meristems.
Meristems are located at specific points in the
plant body.
Cells in meristems can divide and self-perpetuate,
contributing to unlimited growth.
The product of meristem activity loses the capacity
to divide, forming the plant body.
Open form of growth involves continuous addition
of new cells by meristem activity.
Root apical meristem and shoot apical meristem are
responsible for primary growth.
They contribute to the elongation of plants along
Diagrammatic
their axis.
representation of locations
Lateral meristems, vascular cambium, and cork
of root apical meristem,
cambium appear later in dicotyledonous plants and
shoot aplical meristem and
gymnosperms.
vascular cambium. Arrows
Lateral meristems cause an increase in organ girth,
exhibit the direction of
known as secondary growth
growth of cells and organ
 Growth is Measurable

Growth at a cellular level results from an increase in protoplasm.

Measurement of growth is challenging, so various parameters are used.
Parameters include increase in fresh weight, dry weight, length, area, volume, and
cell number.
A maize root apical meristem can generate over 17,500 new cells per hour.
Watermelon cells may increase in size by up to 3,50,000 times.
Maize growth is expressed as an increase in cell number, while watermelon growth
is expressed as an increase in cell size.
Pollen tube growth is measured in terms of its length.
Growth in a dorsiventral leaf is denoted by an increase in surface area

Phases of Growth

Meristematic Elongation Maturation.

Detection of zones of elongation

by the parallel line technique.
Zones A, B, C, D immediately
behind the apex have elongated
most

Meristematic phase characterized by constantly dividing cells at root and shoot

apex.
Cells rich in protoplasm, large nuclei, primary cell walls, thin and cellulosic with
abundant plasmodesmatal connections
Proximal cells to meristematic zone represent elongation phase.
Elongation phase features increased vacuolation, cell enlargement, and new cell
wall deposition.
Maturation phase occurs further away from the apex.
Cells in maturation phase attain maximal size in wall thickening and
protoplasmic modifications.
 Growth Rates

The increased growth per unit time is termed as growth rate. Thus, rate of growth
can be expressed mathematically
An organism, or a part of the organism can produce more cells in a variety of
ways like Arithmetic Or Geometric growth

Arithmetic Growth
Arithmetic growth involves mitotic cell division.
After division, one daughter cell continues to divide, while the other differentiates
and matures.
The simplest example is a root elongating at a constant rate.
Graph shows a linear curve when organ length is plotted against time.
Mathematically expressed as L t = L0 + rt
Lt = length at time ‘t’
L0 = length at time ‘zero’
r = growth rate / elongation per unit time.

Constant linear growth, a

plot of length L against
time t
 Geometrical growth
Initial growth is slow in most systems (lag phase).
Rapid increase follows in an exponential rate (log or exponential phase).
Progeny cells retain ability to divide after mitotic cell division.
Growth slows down in stationary phase due to limited nutrient supply.
Plotting growth against time results in a sigmoid or S-curve.
Sigmoid curve is characteristic of living organisms in a natural environment.
Applies to cells, tissues, and organs of a plant

The exponential growth can be expressed as -

W1 = W0ert
An idealised sigmoid growth
curve typical of cells in
culture, and many higher
plants and plant organs
W1 = final size (weight, height, number
etc.)
W0 = initial size at the beginning of the
period
r = growth rate
t = time of growth
e = base of natural logarithms
Here, r is the relative growth rate and is
also the measure of the ability of the
plant to produce new plant material,
referred to as efficiency index. Hence, the
final size of W1 depends on the initial
size, W0 .

Quantitative comparisons of living system growth can be done in two ways.

(i)Absolute growth rate involves measuring and comparing total growth per unit
time.
(ii)Relative growth rate expresses the growth of a system per unit time on a
common basis (e.g., per unit initial parameter).
Figure depicts two leaves, A and B, of different sizes, showing absolute area
increase in a given time.
Leaves A1 and B1 are the outcomes of this growth comparison

Diagrammatic comparison of absolute and

relative growth rates. Both leaves A and B
have increased their area by 5 cm2 in a given
time to produce A1 , B1 leaves
 Conditions for Growth

Water, oxygen, and nutrients are crucial elements for plant growth.
Plant cells grow through cell enlargement, which requires water.
Turgidity of cells is essential for extension growth.
Plant growth is closely tied to the water status of the plant.
Water serves as a medium for enzymatic activities necessary for growth.
Oxygen is essential for releasing metabolic energy needed for growth.
Nutrients (macro and micro essential elements) are required for protoplasm
synthesis and as an energy source.
Each plant organism has an optimum temperature range for growth.
Deviation from this range can be detrimental to plant survival.
Environmental signals like light and gravity influence specific growth phase

DIFFERENTIATION, DEDIFFERENTIATION AND

REDIFFERENTIATION

Cells from root apical, shoot-apical meristems, and cambium mature through
differentiation.
Differentiation involves structural changes in cell walls and protoplasm.
Example-Tracheary element formation involves loss of protoplasm and
development of lignocellulosic secondary cell walls.
Anatomical features in plants are correlated with their functions.
Plants exhibit dedifferentiation, where differentiated cells regain the capacity to
divide under certain conditions.
Dedifferentiation example: Formation of meristems like interfascicular cambium
and cork cambium from fully differentiated parenchyma cells.
Meristems/tissues from dedifferentiation can divide and produce cells that
mature to perform specific functions (redifferentiation)

DEVELOPMENT
Development encompasses all changes in an organism's life cycle from seed
germination to senescence.
Figure illustrates the sequence of processes in the development of a higher plant
cell.
The diagrammatic representation is also applicable to tissues and organs.
 Sequence of the developmental process in a plant cell

Plants exhibit plasticity, responding to

environmental factors or life phases.
Various pathways lead to the formation of
diverse structures in plants.
Plasticity is exemplified by heterophylly in
cotton, coriander, and larkspur.
In heterophyllous plants, juvenile leaves
differ in shape from mature leaves.
Buttercup demonstrates heterophyllous
development with distinct leaf shapes in air
and water. Heterophylly in (a) larkspur
Heterophylly serves as an illustration of and (b) buttercup
plant plasticity
Growth, differentiation, and development are interconnected events in plant life.
Development is viewed as the combined outcome of growth and differentiation.
Intrinsic factors (genetic and intercellular chemicals like plant growth
regulators) and extrinsic factors (light, temperature, water, oxygen, nutrition)
influence plant development

PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS

Plant growth regulators (PGRs): small, diverse molecules

Examples of PGRs: indole compounds (e.g., indole-3-acetic acid, IAA), adenine
derivatives (e.g., N6-furfurylamino purine, kinetin), carotenoid derivatives (e.g.,
abscisic acid, ABA), terpenes (e.g., gibberellic acid, GA3), gases (e.g., ethylene, C2 H4)
PGRs termed as plant growth substances, plant hormones, or phytohormones in
literature
PGRs (Plant Growth Regulators) can be categorized into two groups based on their
functions.
Group 1: Growth promoters involved in activities like cell division, cell enlargement,
pattern formation, tropic growth, flowering, fruiting, and seed formation.
Examples of growth promoters include auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins.
Group 2: PGRs that play a role in plant responses to wounds and stresses, both
biotic and abiotic.
Also involved in growth inhibiting activities like dormancy and abscission.
Abscisic acid is an example of a PGR belonging to the inhibitory group.
Ethylene, a gaseous PGR, can fit either group but primarily acts as an inhibitor of
growth activities.

The Discovery of Plant Growth Regulators

Discovery of major groups of PGRs accidental

Charles and Francis Darwin observed phototropism in canary grass coleoptiles
Tip of coleoptile identified as the site of transmittable influence causing bending
Auxin isolated by F.W. Went from oat seedlings' coleoptile tips
'Bakanae'’ (foolish seedling) disease in rice caused by Gibberella fujikuroi,
symptoms induced by sterile filtrates.Active substances identified as gibberellic
acid
Skoog and team observed callus proliferation in tobacco stems' internodal
segments with auxins and additional supplements
Kinetin identified and crystallized by Miller et al. (1955) as cytokinesis-promoting
substance
Mid-1960s, three inhibitors: inhibitor-B, abscission II, and dormin, identified as
chemically identical and named abscisic acid (ABA)
H.H. Cousins (1910) confirmed release of volatile substance from ripe oranges
hastening banana ripening.Volatile substance identified as ethylene, a gaseous
PGR

Experiment used to demonstrate

that tip of the coleoptile is the
Gibberellic Acid source of auxin. Arrows indicate
direction of light
 Physiological Effects of Plant Growth Regulators

Auxins
Auxins, initially isolated from human urine,
are represented by indole-3-acetic acid (IAA)
and other natural/synthetic compounds with
growth-regulating properties.
Generally produced in growing apices of
stems and roots, auxins migrate to their
action regions.
IAA and indole butyric acid (IBA) isolated
from plants; NAA and 2, 4-D are synthetic
auxins. Apical dominance in plants :
Used extensively in agriculture and (a) A plant with apical bud
horticulture. intact
Auxins, like IAA and IBA, promote rooting in (b) A plant with apical bud
stem cuttings for plant propagation. removed Note the growth of
Auxins induce flowering, e.g., in pineapples, lateral buds into branches
and prevent early fruit/leaf drop but after decapitation
promote abscission of mature leaves/fruits.
Apical dominance in higher plants inhibits lateral buds' growth; decapitation
(shoot tip removal) promotes lateral bud growth.
Applied in tea plantations and hedge-making; auxins induce parthenocarpy in
tomatoes.
Auxins serve as herbicides; 2, 4-D kills dicotyledonous weeds without affecting
mature monocotyledonous plants.
2, 4-D used to create weed-free lawns; auxins control xylem differentiation and
assist in cell division.

Gibberellins
Gibberellins are a type of plant growth regulator (PGR).
Over 100 gibberellins identified in various organisms like fungi and higher
plants.
Denoted as GA1, GA2, GA3, etc., with Gibberellic acid (GA3) being the most
studied.
All GAs are acidic and induce diverse physiological responses in plants.
GAs can increase the length of the plant axis, used to elongate grape stalks.
GAs cause elongation and improved shape in fruits like apples, delaying
senescence.
GA3 is utilized in the brewing industry to accelerate the malting process.
Gibberellins applied to sugarcane crops increase stem length, boosting yield by up
to 20 tonnes per acre.
GAs expedite maturation in juvenile conifers, leading to early seed production.
Gibberellins induce bolting (internode elongation before flowering) in beets,
cabbages, and rosette plants.

Cytokinin
Cytokinin discovered as kinetin, a modified form of adenine from autoclaved
herring sperm DNA.
Kinetin do not naturally occurring in plants.
Zeatin isolated from corn-kernels and coconut milk in search for natural
substances with cytokinin-like activities.
Discovery of zeatin led to identification of several naturally occurring
cytokinin and some synthetic compounds with cell division promoting activity.

Natural cytokinin synthesized in regions of rapid cell division like root apices,
developing shoot buds, and young fruits.
Functions of cytokinin include promoting new leaves, chloroplasts in leaves, lateral
shoot growth, and adventitious shoot formation.
Cytokinin help overcome apical dominance.
They promote nutrient mobilization, contributing to the delay of leaf senescence.
Ethylene

Ethylene is a gaseous PGR synthesized in large amounts during senescence and

fruit ripening.
Influences on plants include horizontal growth of seedlings, axis swelling, and
apical hook formation in dicot seedlings.
Ethylene promotes senescence and abscission of plant organs, particularly leaves
and flowers.
Highly effective in fruit ripening, enhancing respiration rate, termed respiratory
climactic.
Breaks seed and bud dormancy, initiates germination in peanut seeds, and
sprouting of potato tubers.

Promotes rapid internode/petiole elongation in deep water rice plants, aiding in

staying above water.
Stimulates root growth and root hair formation, increasing absorption surface.
Used to initiate flowering and synchronize fruit-set in pineapples, inducing
flowering in mango.
Widely used in agriculture due to its regulation of various physiological processes.
Ethephon, a common ethylene source, is absorbed and transported in plants,
releasing ethylene slowly.
Ethephon hastens fruit ripening in tomatoes and apples, accelerates abscission in
flowers and fruits.
Promotes female flowers in cucumbers, increasing yield.
Abscisic acid
Abscisic acid (ABA) discovered for regulating abscission and dormancy.
ABA acts as a general plant growth inhibitor and metabolic inhibitor.
ABA inhibits seed germination and stimulates stomatal closure.
ABA increases plant tolerance to various stresses, earning the title of the stress
hormone.
ABA plays a crucial role in seed development, maturation, and dormancy.
ABA induces dormancy to help seeds withstand desiccation and unfavorable
conditions.
In most situations, ABA acts as an antagonist to gibberellins (GAs).
Plant growth regulators (PGRs) have roles in various phases of plant growth, with
complementary or antagonistic effects.
Events like dormancy, abscission, senescence, and apical dominance involve
interactions of multiple PGRs.
PGRs, along with genomic control and extrinsic factors, contribute to plant
growth and development.
Extrinsic factors such as temperature and light control plant growth through
PGRs.
Extrinsic factor-controlled events include vernalization, flowering, dormancy, seed
germination, and plant movements.
Light and temperature play roles as extrinsic factors in the initiation of
flowering.
 BREATHING AND
EXCHANGE OF GASES

Oxygen (O2) utilized by organisms for breaking down molecules like

glucose, amino acids, fatty acids to derive energy.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) released as a byproduct during catabolic
reactions.
Continuous supply of O 2 to cells and removal of CO2 are essential.
The exchange of O 2from the atmosphere with CO2 produced by cells is known
as breathing or respiration

RESPIRATORY ORGANS
Breathing mechanisms vary based on habitat and
organizational levels in animals.
Lower invertebrates (sponges, coelenterates, flatworms)
exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide through simple diffusion
over their body surface.
Earthworms use a moist cuticle, and insects have tracheal tubes
for transporting atmospheric air.
Aquatic arthropods and mollusks use gills (branchial
respiration), while terrestrial forms use lungs (pulmonary
respiration).
Vertebrates exhibit different respiratory methods: fishes use
gills, and amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals respire
through lungs.
Amphibians like frogs can also respire through their moist skin
(cutaneous respiration).

Human Respiratory System

Nasal chamber connects to pharynx, a common passage for food and air.
Pharynx leads to larynx (a cartilaginous box for sound production),hence called
the sound box
Epiglottis covers glottis during swallowing to prevent food entry into the larynx
Trachea is a straight tube dividing into right and left primary bronchi at the 5th
thoracic vertebra.
Each bronchi undergoes repeated divisions to form the secondary and tertiary
bronchi and bronchioles ending up in very thin terminal bronchioles.
The tracheae, primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi, and initial bronchioles
are supported by incomplete cartilaginous rings
Terminal bronchioles lead to alveoli, thin, irregular-walled, vascularized structures.
Lungs comprise a branching network of bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli.
Lungs covered by double-layered pleura with pleural fluid to reduce friction.
The outer pleural membrane is in close contact with the thoracic lining whereas
the inner pleural membrane is in contact with the lung surface.
External nostrils to terminal bronchioles form the conducting part.
Function-Conducting part transports, clears, humidifies, and warms atmospheric
air.
Exchange part facilitates oxygen and Carbon dioxide diffusion between blood and
atmospheric air.
Function-Exchange part facilitates oxygen and carbon dioxide diffusion between
blood and atmospheric air.
Lungs in thoracic chamber, an air-tight space.
Thoracic chamber boundaries: dorsally by vertebrae, ventrally by sternum,
laterally by ribs, lower side by diaphragm.
Changes in thoracic cavity volume affect lung (pulmonary) cavity.
Essential for breathing; direct alteration of pulmonary volume not possible.

Pathway
Nostrils

Nasal chamber

Pharynx

Larynx

Trachea
Bronchus

Primary

Secondary
Inside
Initial bronchiole
Lungs
Terminal bronchiole

Alveoli
 Diagrammatic view of human respiratory
system (sectional view of the left lung is
also shown)

Respiration involves the following steps:

(i) Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which atmospheric air is drawn in and
CO2 rich alveolar air is released out.
(ii) Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO 2 ) across alveolar membrane.
(iii) Transport of gases by the blood.
(iv) Diffusion of O2 and CO 2 between blood and tissues.
(v) Utilisation of O 2 by the cells for catabolic reactions and resultant release of CO2
 MECHANISM OF BREATHING

Breathing Process:
Two stages: inspiration and expiration.
Inspiration involves drawing in atmospheric air; expiration releases alveolar air.
Movement of air is facilitated by a pressure gradient between lungs and
atmosphere.
Pressure Dynamics:
Inspiration occurs when intra-pulmonary pressure is less than atmospheric
pressure.
Expiration happens when intra-pulmonary pressure is higher than atmospheric
pressure.
Muscle Involvement:
Diaphragm and specialized muscles (external and internal intercostals) create
pressure gradients.
Contraction of diaphragm increases thoracic chamber volume in antero-
posterior axis.
Contraction of external intercostal muscles lifts ribs and sternum, increasing
thoracic volume dorso-ventrally.
Volume and Pressure Relationship:
Increase in thoracic volume leads to an increase in pulmonary volume.
Increased pulmonary volume decreases intra-pulmonary pressure, causing
inspiration.
Relaxation of muscles decreases thoracic volume, increasing intra-pulmonary
pressure, leading to expiration.
Additional Muscles and Frequency:
Abdominal muscles aid in increasing the strength of inspiration and expiration.
Average breathing rate for a healthy human: 12-16 times per minute.
Clinical Assessment:
The volume of air involved in breathing movements can be estimated by using a
spirometer which helps in clinical assessment of pulmonary functions
 Mechanism of breathing showing : (a) inspiration (b) expiration

Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

Tidal Volume (TV): Volume of air inspired or expired during a normal respiration.
It is approx. 500 mL., i.e., a healthy man can inspire or expire approximately 6000
to 8000 mL of air per minute.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): Additional volume of air, a person can inspire
by a forcible inspiration. This averages 2500 mL to 3000 mL.
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): Additional volume of air, a person can expire by
a forcible expiration. This averages 1000 mL to 1100 mL.
Residual Volume (RV): Volume of air remaining in the lungs even after a forcible
expiration. This averages 1100 mL to 1200 mL. By adding up a few respiratory
volumes described above, one can derive various pulmonary capacities, which can
be used in clinical diagnosis.
Inspiratory Capacity (IC): Total volume of air a person can inspire after a normal
expiration. This includes tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume ( TV+IRV).
Expiratory Capacity (EC): Total volume of air a person can expire after a normal
inspiration. This includes tidal volume and expiratory reserve volume (TV+ERV).
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC): Volume of air that will remain in the lungs
after a normal expiration. This includes ERV+RV.
Vital Capacity (VC): The maximum volume of air a person can breathe in after a
forced expiration. This includes ERV, TV and IRV or the maximum volume of air a
person can breathe out after a forced inspiration.
Total Lung Capacity (TLC): Total volume of air accommodated in the lungs at the
end of a forced inspiration. This includes RV, ERV, TV and IRV or vital capacity +
residual volume
 EXCHANGE OF GASES

Alveoli are primary gas exchange sites, facilitating the exchange of O2 and CO2.
Gas exchange also occurs between blood and tissues via simple diffusion.
Diffusion is based on pressure/concentration gradients, affected by gas solubility
and membrane thickness.
Partial pressure, represented as pO2 for oxygen and pCO 2 for carbon dioxide, is the
pressure contributed by an individual gas in a gas mixture.
Atmospheric air and the two diffusion sites have different partial pressures for O 2
and CO2

Partial Pressures (in mm Hg) of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide at Different

Parts Involved in Diffusion in Comparison to those in Atmosphere
Gradient for CO 2 moves in the opposite direction: from tissues to blood and blood
to alveoli.
CO 2 solubility is 20-25 times higher than O2.
Higher diffusion of CO2 compared to O 2due to higher solubility

Diffusion membrane consists of three layers

Squamous epithelium Endothelium of alveolar Basement

of alveoli capillaries substance.

Total thickness of diffusion membrane is less than a millimeter.

Favorable conditions in the body for oxygen diffusion from alveoli to tissues and
carbon dioxide diffusion from tissues to alveoli
A Diagram of a section of an alveolus with a pulmonary capillary.

TRANSPORT OF GASES

Blood is the medium of transport for oxygen and carbon dioxide . About 97 per
cent of oxygen is transported by RBCs in the blood.
The remaining 3 per cent of oxygen is carried in a dissolved state through the
plasma. Nearly 20-25 per cent of carbon dioxide is transported by RBCs whereas
70 per cent of it is carried as bicarbonate.
About 7 per cent of carbon dioxide is carried in a dissolved state through plasma

Transport of Oxygen

Hemoglobin: Red iron-containing pigment in RBCs.

oxygen binds reversibly with hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin.
Each hemoglobin molecule can carry up to four oxygen molecules.
Binding influenced by partial pressure of oxygen , carbon dioxide levels, hydrogen
ion concentration, and temperature.
Oxygen dissociation curve (sigmoid) relates percentage saturation of hemoglobin
with O2 to pO 2
This curve is called the Oxygen dissociation curve and is highly useful in studying
the effect of factors like pCO2 , H+ concentration, etc., on binding of O 2 with
hemoglobin

Alveoli conditions (high pO2, low pCO2, low H+, lower temperature) favor
oxyhemoglobin formation.
Tissue conditions (low pO2, high pCO2, high H+, higher temperature) favor oxygen
dissociation from oxyhemoglobin.
Indicates oxygen binds in lungs and dissociates in tissues.
Normal physiological conditions: 100 ml of oxygenated blood delivers around 5 ml
of oxygen to tissues

Transport of Carbon dioxide

Hemoglobin carries carbon dioxide as carbamino-hemoglobin (20-25%).

Binding of carbon dioxide to hemoglobin is influenced by the partial pressure of
carbon dioxide(pCO2) and partial pressure of O 2 (pO2 ).
High pCO 2 and low pO2 in tissues lead to increased carbon dioxide binding, while
low pCO 2 and high pO 2 in alveoli cause dissociation of carbon dioxide from
carbamino-hemoglobin
Red blood cells (RBCs) have high carbonic anhydrase concentration; plasma also
contains minute quantities.
Carbonic anhydrase facilitates the conversion of carbon dioxide to HCO3- and H+
at tissue sites with high pCO2.
At alveoli with low pCO2, the reaction proceeds in the opposite direction, forming
carbon dioxide and H2O.
Carbon dioxide, trapped as bicarbonate at the tissue level, is transported to the
alveoli and released as carbon dioxide
Approximately 4 ml of carbon dioxide is delivered to the alveoli per 100 ml of
deoxygenated blood

REGULATION OF RESPIRATION

Respiratory rhythm in humans is regulated by the neural system.

The respiratory rhythm center in the medulla region of the brain is responsible
for maintaining and moderating the respiratory rhythm.
The pneumotaxic center in the pons region can moderate the functions of the
respiratory rhythm center.
Neural signals from the pneumotaxic center can reduce the duration of
inspiration, altering the respiratory rate.
A chemosensitive area near the rhythm center is highly sensitive to CO2 and
hydrogen ions.
Increase in carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions can activate the chemosensitive
area, signaling the rhythm center to make necessary adjustments in the
respiratory process.
Receptors in the aortic arch and carotid artery recognize changes in carbon
dioxide and H+ concentration and send signals to the rhythm center for remedial
actions.
The role of oxygen in the regulation of respiratory rhythm is insignificant
 DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Asthma is a difficulty in breathing causing wheezing due to inflammation of

bronchi and bronchioles.
Emphysema is a chronic disorder in which alveolar walls are damaged due to
which respiratory surface is decreased. One of the major causes of this is
cigarette smoking.
Occupational Respiratory Disorders: In certain industries, especially those
involving grinding or stone-breaking, so much dust is produced that the defense
mechanism of the body cannot fully cope with the situation. Long exposure can
give rise to inflammation leading to fibrosis (proliferation of fibrous tissues)
and thus causing serious lung damage. Workers in such industries should wear
protective masks.
 BODY FLUIDS AND
CIRCULATION

Efficient waste removal is vital for tissue health.

Various animal groups employ different transport methods.
Simple organisms (sponges, coelenterates) circulate water through body cavities
for substance exchange.
More complex organisms use specialized fluids.
Blood is the primary fluid for material transport in higher organisms, including
humans.
Lymph, another body fluid, assists in transporting specific substances.
Blood
Blood is a special connective tissue consisting of a fluid matrix, plasma, and
formed elements

Plasma
Plasma: Constitutes 55% of blood, straw-colored and viscous.
Composition: 90-92% water, 6-8% proteins (fibrinogen, globulins, albumins).
Functions: Fibrinogen aids blood clotting, globulins support the body's defense
mechanisms, albumins maintain osmotic balance.
Minerals: Contains Na+, Ca++, Mg++, HCO3–, Cl–.
Additional Components: Includes glucose, amino acids, lipids in transit.
Coagulation Factors: Present in plasma in an inactive form.
Clotting: Fibrinogens required for clotting; plasma without clotting factors is
called serum.

Formed Elements

Erythrocytes Leucocytes Platelets

Constitute nearly 45 per cent of the blood.

 Erythrocytes
Red Blood Cells (RBC): Most abundant blood cells, around 5-5.5 million/mm³ in
a healthy adult man.
Formation: Produced in red bone marrow in adults.
Structure: Biconcave shape, lack nucleus in most mammals.
Composition: Contain hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein, giving them a
red color.
Hemoglobin Levels: Healthy individuals have 12-16 gms of hemoglobin per 100
ml of blood.
Function: Significantly involved in the transport of respiratory gases.
Lifespan: RBCs live for an average of 120 days before being destroyed in the
spleen, known as the "graveyard of RBCs.

Leucocytes
Leucocytes or white blood cells (WBC), colorless (no hemoglobin).
Nucleated, lower in number: 6000-8000 mm–3 of blood.
Generally short-lived

Type of WBCs

Granulocytes Agranulocytes

Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils

Lymphocytes Monocytes

Granulocytes
Neutrophils: 60-65% of total WBCs, phagocytic cells , destroy foreign organisms.
Basophils: 0.5-1% of total WBCs, secrete histamine, serotonin, heparin, involved in
inflammatory reactions.
Eosinophils: 2-3% of total WBCs, resist infections, associated with allergic
reactions

NEVER LET MONKEY EAT BANANA

Neutrophils: 60-65% Basophils: 0.5-1%
LYMPHOCYTES: 20-25% Eosinophils: 2-3%
MONOCYTES: 6-8%
 Agranulocytes
Lymphocytes (20-25%): Two major types - 'B' and 'T' lymphocytes.
'B' and 'T' lymphocytes play roles in the body's immune responses.
Monocytes (6-8%): Phagocytic cells.
Monocytes destroy foreign organisms entering the body.

Thrombocytes
Platelets, or thrombocytes, are cell fragments derived from megakaryocytes in
the bone marrow.
Normal blood platelet count: 1,500,00-3,500,00 platelets mm–3.
Platelets release substances crucial for blood coagulation.
A decrease in platelet count can result in clotting disorders.
Reduced platelets may lead to excessive blood loss from the body.

Blood Groups

ABO grouping Rh grouping

A B AB O Rh positive Rh negative

ABO grouping
ABO grouping is based on the presence or absence of surface antigens (A and
B) on RBCs.
Plasma contains natural antibodies (proteins produced in response to
antigens) corresponding to the antigens.
Blood groups A, B, AB, and O have different distributions of antigens and
antibodies.
Matching donor and recipient blood types is crucial for blood transfusions to
prevent clumping and RBC destruction
 Blood Groups and Donor Compatibility

From the above mentioned table it is evident that group ‘O’ blood can
be donated to persons with any other blood group and hence ‘O’ group
individuals are called ‘universal donors’. Persons with ‘AB’ group can
accept blood from persons with AB as well as the other groups of blood.
Therefore, such persons are called ‘universal recipients’

Rh grouping
Rh Antigen: Present on RBCs of about 80% of humans, making them Rh positive
(Rh+ve), while those without are Rh negative (Rh-ve).
Transfusion Considerations: Matching Rh groups is crucial to avoid the formation
of antibodies when an Rh-ve person is exposed to Rh+ve blood.
Rh Incompatibility: Can occur in pregnancies where an Rh-ve mother carries an
Rh+ve fetus. During the first pregnancy, the bloods are separated, but exposure
during delivery may lead to antibody development in subsequent pregnancies.
Erythroblastosis Foetalis
Special case of Rh incompatibility between Rh-ve blood of a pregnant mother
with Rh+ve blood pf the foetus
Rh antigen to the Rh-ve blood of the mother in First pregnancy
Reason- As two blood are separated by the placenta .During delivery of first child
exposure of maternal blood to small amount of Rh+ve blood from foetus. Mother
body starts preparing antibodies againts Rh antigen in her blood First foetus
delivery will be normal but subsequent pregnancies,Rh antibodies from
mother(Rh-ve) can leak into the blood of the foetus and destroy the RBC of
foetal . this would leads fatal to the foetus or could cause serve anaemia and
jaundice to the bady
Prevention: Administering anti-Rh antibodies to the Rh-ve mother after the first
delivery can prevent complications in subsequent pregnancies
 Coagulation of Blood

Blood coagulation is a response to injury or trauma, preventing excessive blood loss.

The dark reddish-brown scum formed at a cut or injury site is a clot or coagulum,
primarily composed of fibrin threads trapping damaged blood elements.
Fibrins are formed by converting inactive fibrinogens in plasma via the enzyme
thrombin, derived from prothrombin in the plasma.
Thrombokinase, an enzyme complex, is essential for the conversion, involving a
cascade process with various factors in an inactive state.
Platelets release factors when stimulated by injury, activating the coagulation
mechanism.
Tissues at the injury site can also release factors initiating coagulation.
Calcium ions play a crucial role in the clotting process

LYMPH (TISSUE FLUID)

Blood passing through capillaries releases water and

water-soluble substances into tissues, forming interstitial
fluid or tissue fluid.
This fluid, with a mineral distribution similar to plasma,
facilitates the exchange of nutrients and gases between
blood and cells.
The lymphatic system collects and drains interstitial fluid
back to major veins.
The fluid in the lymphatic system, called lymph, is
colorless and contains specialized lymphocytes for
immune responses.
Lymph serves as a carrier for nutrients, hormones, and
absorbs fats through lacteals in intestinal villi

CIRCULATORY PATHWAYS

Open Close
Open circulatory system
Open circulatory system is present in arthropods and molluscs in which blood
pumped by the heart passes through large vessels into open spaces or body cavities
called sinuses

Closed circulatory system

Vertebrates have a muscular heart.
Fishes: 2-chambered heart (atrium, ventricle), single circulation.
Amphibians and reptiles (except crocodiles): 3-chambered heart (two atria, one
ventricle), incomplete double circulation.
Crocodiles, birds, and mammals: 4-chambered heart (two atria, two ventricles),
complete double circulation.
Fishes pump deoxygenated blood, oxygenated by gills
In amphibians and reptiles, the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the
gills/lungs/skin and the right atrium gets the deoxygenated blood from other
body parts. However, they get mixed up in the single ventricle which pumps out
mixed blood (incomplete double circulation)
Birds and mammals maintain separate circulatory pathways in the ventricles.
Birds and mammals exhibit double circulation.
 Human Circulatory System

Human circulatory system: heart, closed blood vessels, and circulating blood.
Heart , the mesodermally derived organ, located in the thoracic cavity, slightly
tilted to the left, protected by pericardium
Heart has four chambers: two atria (upper) and two ventricles (lower).
Inter-atrial septum separates right and left atria; inter-ventricular septum
separates left and right ventricle
Atrio-ventricular septum separates atrium and ventricle of the same side.
The opening between the right atrium and the right ventricle is guarded by a
valve formed of three muscular flaps or cusps, the tricuspid valve, whereas a
bicuspid or mitral valve guards the opening between the left atrium and the left
ventricle.
The valves in the heart allows the flow of blood only in one direction, i.e., from
the atria to the ventricles and from the ventricles to the pulmonary artery or
aorta. These valves prevent any backward flow
The entire heart is composed of cardiac muscles, with thicker walls in the
ventricles compared to the atria.
Specialized cardiac musculature known as nodal tissue is distributed in the heart.
The sino-atrial node (SAN) is located in the right upper corner of the right
atrium, and the atrio-ventricular node (AVN) is found in the lower left corner of
the right atrium near the atrio-ventricular septum.
The atrio-ventricular bundle (AV bundle) extends from the AVN, passing through
the atrio-ventricular septa, and divides into right and left bundles on the top of
the inter-ventricular septum.
These bundles give rise to purkinje fibres, minute fibres throughout the ventricular
musculature.
Nodal musculature can generate action potentials autonomously, being
autoexcitable.
The sino-atrial node (SAN) can generate the maximum number of action
potentials (70-75 min–1) and serves as the pacemaker, initiating and maintaining
the rhythmic contractile activity of the heart.
The average human heart beats 70-75 times per minute.
 Cardiac Cycle

Initial State: Joint Diastole

All four chambers of the heart are in a relaxed state, known as joint diastole.
Tricuspid and bicuspid valves are open, allowing blood from the pulmonary veins
and vena cava to flow into the left and right ventricles through the respective
atria.
Semilunar valves are closed at this stage.
Atrial Systole:
The Sinoatrial Node (SAN) generates an action potential.
Atrial systole is initiated, causing simultaneous contraction of both atria.
Blood flow into the ventricles increases by approximately 30%.
Ventricular Systole:
Action potential is conducted to the ventricles through the Atrioventricular Node
(AVN) and AV bundle, leading to ventricular systole.
Ventricular muscles contract, coinciding with atrial diastole.
Ventricular systole increases ventricular pressure, resulting in the closure of
tricuspid and bicuspid valves to prevent backflow into the atria.
Semilunar valves guarding the pulmonary artery (right side) and aorta (left side)
are forced2 open, allowing blood to flow into circulatory pathways.
Ventricular Diastole:
2
Ventricles relax (ventricular diastole), and ventricular pressure falls.
Semilunar valves close to2 prevent backflow into the 2ventricles.
The exchange
Tricuspid and of O 2 from
bicuspid the atmosphere
valves open due to with
atrialCOpressure,
2 produced by cells
allowing is known
blood as
to move
breathing
freely intoor respiration
the ventricles.
The heart returns to a relaxed state (joint diastole).
Repetition of the Cycle:
RESPIRATORY ORGANS
SAN generates a new action potential, repeating the sequence.
This cyclically repeated process is termed the cardiac cycle, consisting of systole
Breathing
and diastolemechanisms varyand
of both atria based on habitat and
ventricles.
organizational
Cardiac Output levelsCalculation:
in animals.
Lower invertebrates (sponges, coelenterates, flatworms)
The heart beats 72 times per minute, indicating a cardiac cycle duration of 0.8
exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide through simple
seconds.
diffusion over their body surface.
Each ventricle pumps out approximately 70 mL of blood (stroke volume).
Earthworms use a moist cuticle, and insects have tracheal
Cardiac output is calculated by multiplying stroke volume by heart rate (beats
tubes for transporting atmospheric air.
per minute), averaging 5000 mL or 5 litres in a healthy individual.
Aquatic arthropods and mollusks use gills (branchial
The body can alter stroke volume, heart rate, and, consequently, cardiac output.
respiration), while terrestrial forms use lungs (pulmonary
Clinical
respiration).
Significance: Heart Sounds
Two prominent
Vertebrates sounds
exhibit duringrespiratory
different each cardiac cycle: fishes
methods:
First heart
use gills, andsound (lub) is associated
amphibians, withand
reptiles, birds, the mammals
closure of tricuspid and bicuspid
valves.
respire through lungs.
Second heartlike
Amphibians sound
frogs(dub)
can is associated
also with thetheir
respire through closure of semilunar valves.
moist
These sounds arerespiration).
skin (cutaneous of clinical diagnostic significance.

Electrocardiograph
Human Respiratory(ECG)
System

Nasal chamber connects to pharynx, a common passage for food and air.
Hospital TV scene: Patient on monitoring machine during cardiac arrest.
Pharynx leads to larynx (a cartilaginous box for sound production),hence called
Machine: Electrocardiograph (ECG).
the sound box
ECG purpose: Graphical representation of heart's electrical activity.
Epiglottis covers glottis during swallowing to prevent food entry into the larynx
Monitoring shows voltage traces and sound signals.
Trachea is a straight tube dividing into right and left primary bronchi at the 5th
Typical TV sound: "pip... pip... pip... peeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee."
thoracic vertebra.
ECG captures cardiac cycle data.
 2

2
2 2
The exchange of O 2 from the atmosphere with CO2 produced by cells is known as
breathing ECG
Standard or respiration
involves connecting a patient to a machine with three leads (wrist
and left ankle) for continuous heart monitoring.
Detailed evaluation requires multiple leads attached to the chest region.
RESPIRATORY ORGANS
Peaks in ECG labeled from P to T correspond to specific heart electrical activities.
P-wave signifies atrial excitation, leading to atrial contraction.
Breathing
QRS complex mechanisms
represents vary based on
ventricular habitat and initiating ventricular
depolarization,
organizational
contraction and levels in animals.
systole.
Lower invertebrates
T-wave (sponges,
signifies ventricular coelenterates,marking
repolarization, flatworms)
the end of systole.
exchange oxygen
Counting and carbon
QRS complexes dioxideheart
determines through
beatsimple
rate.
diffusion
Similar ECGover their for
shapes body surface.
a given lead configuration in different individuals;
Earthwormssuggest
deviations use a moist cuticle, and
abnormalities insects have tracheal
or diseases.
tubes clinical
ECG's for transporting
significanceatmospheric air.
lies in detecting deviations for diagnosis
Aquatic arthropods and mollusks use gills (branchial
respiration), while terrestrial forms use lungs (pulmonary
respiration).
DOUBLE CIRCULATION
Vertebrates exhibit different respiratory methods: fishes
use gills, and amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals
respire through
Blood flows lungs.fixed routes in arteries and veins.
through
Amphibians
Arteries andlikeveinsfrogs
havecan alsolayers:
three respiretunica
through theirtunica
intima, moist media, and tunica
skin (cutaneous respiration).
externa.
Tunica media is thinner in veins.
Right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary artery, while the left ventricle
pumps blood into the Human
aorta. Respiratory System
Pulmonary circulation involves the passage of deoxygenated blood to the lungs
Nasal chamber
and return connects toblood
of oxygenated pharynx, a common
to the passage for food and air.
left atrium.
Pharynx
Systemic leads to larynx
circulation (a cartilaginous
transports boxblood
oxygenated for sound
fromproduction),hence called
the aorta to tissues and
the sound
returns box
deoxygenated blood to the right atrium via venules, veins, and vena cava
Epiglottis covers glottis during swallowing to prevent food entry into the larynx
Trachea is a straight tube dividing into right and left primary bronchi at the 5th
thoracic vertebra.
 2

2
2 2
The exchange of O 2 from the atmosphere with CO2 produced by cells is known as
breathing or respiration

RESPIRATORY ORGANS

Breathing mechanisms vary based on habitat and

organizational levels in animals.
Lower invertebrates (sponges, coelenterates, flatworms)
exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide through simple
diffusion over their body surface.
Systemic circulation: Provides nutrients and oxygen to tissues, removes carbon
Earthworms use a moist cuticle, and insects have tracheal
dioxide and harmful substances for elimination.
tubes for transporting atmospheric air.
Hepatic portal system: Vascular connection between digestive tract and liver;
Aquatic arthropods and mollusks use gills (branchial
hepatic portal vein carries blood from intestine to the liver before systemic
respiration), while terrestrial forms use lungs (pulmonary
circulation.
respiration).
Coronary system: Exclusive blood vessel system for circulation to and from cardiac
Vertebrates exhibit different respiratory methods: fishes
musculature
use gills, and amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals
respire through lungs.
Amphibians like frogs can also respire through their moist
skin (cutaneous respiration).
REGULATION OF CARDIAC ACTIVITY

Heart activities areHuman Respiratory

intrinsically System muscles (nodal tissue),
regulated by specialized
making it myogenic.
The medulla
Nasal chamber oblongata
connectshouses a neural
to pharynx, center that
a common can modulate
passage cardiac
for food and air.
function through
Pharynx leads the autonomic
to larynx nervous box
(a cartilaginous system (ANS). production),hence called
for sound
Sympathetic
the sound boxnerves (part of ANS) increase heart rate, ventricular contraction
strength,
Epiglottis and cardiac
covers glottisoutput.
during swallowing to prevent food entry into the larynx
Parasympathetic signals
Trachea is a straight tube(another
dividingANS
intocomponent) decrease
right and left primaryheart rate, at
bronchi action
the 5th
potential conduction speed, and cardiac output.
thoracic vertebra.
Adrenal medullary hormones can also enhance cardiac output.
 DISORDERS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

High Blood2 Pressure (Hypertension): Hypertension is the term for blood pressure
that is higher than normal (120/80). In this measurement 120 mm Hg (millimetres
of mercury pressure) 2 is the systolic, or pumping, pressure and 80 mm Hg is the
diastolic, or resting, pressure.
2 If repeated checks of2blood pressure of an
individual
The exchangeis 140/90 (140 the
of O 2 from overatmosphere
90) or higher, it CO
with shows hypertension. High blood
2 produced by cells is known as
pressure leads
breathing to heart diseases and also affects vital organs like brain and
or respiration
kidney.
Coronary Artery Disease (CAD): Coronary Artery Disease, often referred to as
atherosclerosis, affectsRESPIRATORY
the vessels that supply ORGANS
blood to the heart muscle. It is
caused by deposits of calcium, fat, cholesterol and fibrous tissues, which makes
the lumen mechanisms
Breathing of arteries narrower.
vary based on habitat and
Angina: It is also
organizational called
levels ‘angina pectoris’. A symptom of acute chest pain appears
in animals.
when no
Lower enough oxygen
invertebrates is reaching
(sponges, the heart
coelenterates, muscle. Angina can occur in men
flatworms)
and women
exchange of any
oxygen andage but itdioxide
carbon is morethrough
commonsimple
among the middle-aged and
elderly. It occurs due to conditions
diffusion over their body surface. that affect the blood flow.
Heart Failure:
Earthworms useHeart
a moist failure means
cuticle, and the statehave
insects of heart when it is not pumping
tracheal
blood for
tubes effectively enough
transporting to meet theair.
atmospheric needs of the body. It is sometimes called
congestive
Aquatic heart failure
arthropods and because
molluskscongestion of the lungs is one of the main
use gills (branchial
symptoms ofwhile
respiration), this disease.
terrestrial Heart failure
forms is not(pulmonary
use lungs the same as cardiac arrest (when
the heart stops beating) or a heart attack (when the heart muscle is suddenly
respiration).
damaged byexhibit
Vertebrates an inadequate
differentblood supply).methods: fishes
respiratory
use gills, and amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals
respire through lungs.
Amphibians like frogs can also respire through their moist
skin (cutaneous respiration).

Human Respiratory System

Nasal chamber connects to pharynx, a common passage for food and air.
Pharynx leads to larynx (a cartilaginous box for sound production),hence called
the sound box
Epiglottis covers glottis during swallowing to prevent food entry into the larynx
Trachea is a straight tube dividing into right and left primary bronchi at the 5th
thoracic vertebra.
 EXCRETORY PRODUCTS
AND THEIR ELIMINATION

Metabolism Excess ingestion

The process of excreting ammonia is
Accumulation Ammonotelism and kidneys do not
Ammonia, urea, uric acid, carbon dioxide, play any significant role in ammonia
water and ions like Na+ , K+ , Cl– , removal
phosphate, sulphate, etc
Various animals excretes various nitrogenous waste
Major nitrogenous Nature Water required Toxicity Feature
waste & Example for elimination
Ammonia Ammonotelic Large amount Most toxic Excretion occurs
Many bony through
fishes, diffusion across
aquatic body surfaces or
amphibians gill surfaces (in
and aquatic fish), mainly as
insects ammonium ions.
Urea Ureotelic Lesser Lesser Metabolically
Mammals, toxic generated
many ammonia is
terrestrial converted to
amphibians urea in the liver,
and marine released into the
fishes blood, filtered
by the kidneys,
and excreted.
Some urea may
be retained in
the kidney
matrix for
osmolarity
regulation.
uricotelic Least Least Excrete wastes as
Uric acid
Reptiles, toxic in form of
land snails pellet/paste
and insects
In most of the invertebrates, these structures are simple tubular forms whereas
vertebrates have complex tubular organs called kidneys

A survey of animal kingdom presents a variety of excretory structures

Structure Example Features

Protonephridia Platyhelminthes (Flatworms, e.g., Protonephridia are primarily
or flame cells Planaria), rotifers, some annelids and concerned with ionic and fluid
the cephalochordate(Amphioxus.) volume regulation, i.e.,
osmoregulation
Nephridia Earthworms and other annelids Aids in waste removal and
fluid-ion balance.
Malpighian Cockroaches Help in the removal of
tubules nitrogenous wastes and
osmoregulation
Antennal Prawns
Tubule adjacent to the
glands or
excretory pore is green, the
green glands
gland is called a green gland.

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Human excretory system consists of a pair of kidney, a pair of ureters, a urinary

bladder and a urethra
Kidneys
Reddish-brown, bean-shaped, located
between the last thoracic and third
lumbar vertebrae near the dorsal inner
wall of the abdomen.
Size: 10-12 cm length, 5-7 cm width, 2-3
cm thickness, average weight of 120-170 g.
Hilum: central notch on the inner surface,
serves as an entry point for ureter, blood
vessels, and nerves.
Renal pelvis: broad, funnel-shaped space
inner to the hilum, with projections called
calyces.
Outer layer: covered by a tough capsule. Human Urinary system
Each kidney has nearly one million
complex tubular structures called
nephrons ( functional units).
 Inside the kidney

Outer cortex Inner medulla

Extends in It divides into
between the a few conical
medullary masses
pyramids as (medullary
renal pyramids)
columns projecting into
called the calyces
Columns of
Longitudinal section (Diagrammatic) of Kidney
Bertini
Blueberry
Nephron

Glomerulus Renal tubule

Glomerulus, a capillary tuft, Renal tubule begins with a
is created by the afferent double walled cup-like
arteriole, a fine branch of structure called Bowman’s
the renal artery. Efferent capsule, which encloses the
arteriole carries blood away glomerulus
from the glomerulus.

Glomerulus alongwith Bowman’s

capsule, is called the malpighian
body or renal corpuscle
Types of Nephron

Cortical nephrons Juxta medullary nephrons

Number - More Less

Vasa recta - Absent/highly Present

reduced

Extension into - Very little Deep

medulla

Loop of Henle - Too short Very long


A diagrammatic representation of a nephron
showing blood vessels, duct and tubule
The Malpighian corpuscle, PCT and DCT of the
nephron are situated in the cortical region of the
kidney whereas the loop of Henle dips into the
medulla
Efferent arteriole from glomerulus creates peritubular capillaries around renal tubule.
Vasa recta, a 'U'-shaped network, runs parallel to Henle's loop.
The tubule extends into the
proximal convoluted tubule
(PCT), forming a highly coiled
network.
A hairpin-shaped Henle's loop
follows, comprising a descending
and an ascending limb.
The ascending limb leads to
another coiled region known as
the distal convoluted tubule
(DCT).
DCTs of multiple nephrons
connect to form a straight tube
called the collecting duct.
Many collecting ducts converge
and open into the renal pelvis
through medullary pyramids in
the calyces.

URINE FORMATION

Involves three main processes

Glomerular Reabsorption Secretion
filtration

Glomerular filtration
First step in urine formation: Glomerular filtration by the glomerulus.
Approximately 1/5th of heart ventricle output (1100-1200 ml/min) filtered by kidneys.
Glomerular capillary blood pressure drives filtration through three layers: endothelium,
Bowman’s capsule epithelium, and a basement membrane.
Bowman’s capsule epithelial cells (podocytes) have filtration slits, allowing
ultrafiltration.
Virtually all plasma constituents, excluding proteins, pass through, making it
ultrafiltration.
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) represents the amount of kidney filtrate per minute.
In a healthy individual, GFR is around 125 ml/minute, equivalent to 180 liters daily
Kidneys possess self-regulating mechanisms for GFR, notably managed by the
juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA).
JGA is a sensitive region at the junction of the distal convoluted tubule and afferent
arteriole.
A decrease in GFR can prompt JG cells to release renin, stimulating glomerular blood
flow and restoring GFR to normal.

Reabsorption
Daily filtrate volume: 180 liters; urine released: 1.5 liters, indicating 99% reabsorption
by renal tubules.
Reabsorption, performed by tubular epithelial cells, involves active (e.g., glucose, amino
acids, Na+) and passive (e.g., nitrogenous wastes, water) mechanisms.
Active reabsorption targets specific substances, while passive reabsorption, especially of
water, occurs in initial nephron segments.

Secretion
During urine formation, the tubular cells secrete substances like H+ , K+ and ammonia
into the filtrate.
Tubular secretion is also an important step in urine formation as it helps in the
maintenance of ionic and acid base balance of body fluids.

FUNCTION OF THE TUBULES

Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)

Lined by simple cuboidal brush border epithelium to enhance reabsorption surface
area.
Reabsorbs nearly all essential nutrients and 70-80% of electrolytes and water.
Maintains pH and ionic balance through selective secretion of hydrogen ions and
ammonia, and absorption of HCO3–.

Henle’s Loop
Minimal reabsorption occurs in the ascending limb.
The ascending limb maintains high osmolarity in the medullary interstitial fluid.
The descending limb is water-permeable but almost impermeable to electrolytes,
concentrating the filtrate downward.
The ascending limb, impermeable to water, actively or passively transports electrolytes.
As the concentrated filtrate moves upward, it gets diluted due to the passage of
electrolytes to the medullary fluid
Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
DCT facilitates conditional reabsorption of Na+ and water.
Capable of reabsorbing HCO3 – and selectively secreting hydrogen, potassium ions, and
NH3.
Maintains blood pH and sodium-potassium balance

Collecting Duct
Long duct from kidney cortex to medulla.
Enables significant water reabsorption for concentrated urine.
Allows urea passage into medullary interstitium for osmolarity.
Plays a role in pH and ionic balance by selectively secreting H+ and K+ ions.
 MECHANISM OF CONCENTRATION OF THE FILTRATE

Mammals can produce concentrated urine, with Henle’s loop and vasa recta playing
a crucial role.
Filtrate flows in opposite directions in the two limbs of Henle’s loop, creating a
counter-current.
Vasa recta also has a counter-current flow pattern.
Proximity between Henle’s loop and vasa recta, along with the counter-current,
maintains increasing osmolarity from cortex (300 mOsmolL-1 ) to inner medulla (1200
mOsmolL-1).
The osmolarity gradient is mainly due to NaCl and urea transport.
NaCl is exchanged between the ascending limb of Henle’s loop and descending limb
of vasa recta.

NaCl returns to interstitium through ascending vasa recta.

Small amounts of urea enter the ascending limb, transported back by the collecting
tubule.
This counter-current mechanism helps maintain a concentration gradient in the
medullary interstitium.
The interstitial gradient facilitates easy water passage from the collecting tubule,
concentrating the urine.
Human kidneys can produce urine nearly four times more concentrated than the
initial filtrate.
Diagrammatic representation of a nephron and vasa recta showing
counter current mechanisms

REGULATION OF KIDNEY FUNCTION

Efficiently monitored and regulated by hormonal feedback involving the hypothalamus,

JGA, and the heart to some extent.
Hypothalamus
Osmoreceptors respond to changes in blood volume, body fluid volume, and ionic
concentration.
Excessive fluid loss activates osmoreceptors, prompting the release of antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) from the hypothalamus.
ADH promotes water reabsorption in the tubule, preventing diuresis.
Increased body fluid volume inhibits osmoreceptors, suppressing ADH release through
feedback.
ADH's constrictory effects on blood vessels elevate blood pressure, leading to increased
glomerular blood flow and glomerular filtration rate (GFR)

JGA
Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) has a regulatory role.
Decrease in glomerular blood flow/pressure/GFR activates JG cells to release renin.
Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I and then angiotensin II.
Angiotensin II acts as a potent vasoconstrictor, raising glomerular blood pressure and
GFR.
Angiotensin II stimulates the adrenal cortex to release Aldosterone.
Aldosterone promotes Na+ and water reabsorption from distal tubules, increasing blood
pressure and GFR.
Overall mechanism known as the Renin-Angiotensin system

Heart
Increased blood flow to the atria triggers Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF) release.
ANF induces vasodilation, reducing blood pressure.
ANF mechanism serves as a counterbalance to the renin-angiotensin mechanism.

MICTURITION

Nephrons form urine, which is then stored in the urinary bladder until a signal from
the central nervous system (CNS) triggers micturition.
Stretch receptors in the bladder walls send signals to the CNS, initiating the
contraction of bladder muscles and relaxation of the urethral sphincter, leading to
urine release.
The process of release of urine is known as micturition, and the associated neural
mechanisms constitute the micturition reflex.
Adults excrete an average of 1 to 1.5 liters of slightly acidic (pH-6.0) yellowish urine per
day, with an average of 25-30 grams of urea.
Urine characteristics can be affected by various conditions, and its analysis aids in
diagnosing metabolic disorders and kidney malfunctions. Example-
Presence of glucose (Glycosuria) and ketone bodies (Ketonuria) in urine may indicate
diabetes mellitus

ROLE OF OTHER ORGANS IN EXCRETION

Organ Waste remove Feature

Lungs CO2 and water Remove substantial amounts of CO2
(around 200 mL/minute) and
significant water daily.

Liver Bilirubin, biliverdin, Most of these substances ultimately

cholesterol, degraded pass out alongwith digestive wastes
steroid hormones, vitamins
and drugs.
Sweat produced by the sweat Primary function of sweat is
Sweat
glands is a watery fluid to facilitate a cooling effect
containing NaCl, small on the body surface
amounts of urea, lactic acid,
etc.

Sebaceous Eliminate certain substances Secretion provides a protective

glands like sterols, hydrocarbons oily covering for the skin
and waxes through sebum

Saliva Nitrogenous wastes Small amount of

nitrogenous waste
 DISORDERS OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Kidney malfunction can cause urea accumulation, leading to harmful uremia and
potential kidney failure.
Hemodialysis is a process to remove urea, where blood is pumped into an artificial
kidney containing a cellophane tube with a dialysing fluid.
The tube's porous cellophane membrane allows the passage of molecules based on
concentration gradient, effectively clearing the blood.
The cleared blood, after adding anti-heparin, is returned to the body through a
vein, benefitting uremic patients worldwide.
Kidney transplantation, involving a functioning kidney from a donor (preferably a
close relative), is a definitive solution for acute renal failures, with modern clinical
procedures enhancing success rates.
Renal calculi refer to crystallized salts forming kidney stones, while
glomerulonephritis denotes inflammation of kidney glomeruli.
 LOCOMOTION AND
MOVEMENT

Movement is a vital characteristic of living organisms, expressed in diverse ways.

Voluntary movements like walking, running, climbing, flying, and swimming which results
in changing of location is called locomotion
Movements and locomotion are interconnected; while all locomotions are movements, not
all movements qualify as locomotions.
Animal locomotion methods vary based on habitats and situational demands.
Locomotion serves purposes such as searching for food, shelter, mates, breeding grounds,
favorable climate, or escaping from enemies/predators.

TYPES OF MOVEMENT
Human body exhibit three main types of movements

Amoeboid Ciliary Muscular

Amoeboid
Specialized cells like macrophages and leukocytes display amoeboid movement.
Amoeboid movement is facilitated by pseudopodia formed through protoplasm
streaming, similar to Amoeba.
Cytoskeletal elements, including microfilaments, play a role in amoeboid movement.

Ciliary
Ciliary movement is common in tubular organs with ciliated epithelium.
Coordinated cilia movements in the trachea aid in dust and foreign particle removal
from inhaled air.
Ciliary movement facilitates the passage of ova through the female reproductive tract.

Muscular
Limb, jaw, and tongue movements rely on muscular activity.
Muscles' contractile property is crucial for locomotion and various movements.
Human beings and most multicellular organisms utilize muscle contraction for
coordinated locomotion.
Effective locomotion demands coordination among muscular, skeletal, and neural
systems.
 MUSCLE

Specialized tissue from mesodermal origin

Represents 40-50% of human adult body weight
Possesses unique properties: excitability, contractility, extensibility, and elasticity

Classification of muscles

Skeletal muscles Visceral muscles Cardiac muscles

Visceral muscles
Visceral muscles: Inner walls of hollow visceral organs (e.g., alimentary canal,
reproductive tract).
Nonstriated appearance: Smooth muscles without striations.
Involuntary control: Activities not under voluntary nervous system control.
Function: Assist in activities like food transportation in the digestive tract and
gamete movement in the genital tract

Cardiac muscles
Cardiac muscles constitute the heart muscle.
These muscles form a complex, branching pattern.
Appearance-wise, cardiac muscles exhibit striations.
They operate involuntarily, without direct control from the nervous system

Skeletal muscles
Skeletal muscles are intricately linked with the body's skeletal structure, exhibiting a
distinctive striped appearance under the microscope, earning them the name "striated
muscles."
Governed by the voluntary control of the nervous system, these muscles are
appropriately termed voluntary muscles.
Primarily dedicated to locomotory actions and alterations in body postures, skeletal
muscles play a key role in facilitating movement and maintaining body positions
Skeletal muscles in the body are composed of organized muscle bundles or fascicles
held together by fascia, a collagenous connective tissue layer.
Each muscle bundle comprises multiple muscle fibers.
Sarcolemma is the plasma membrane surrounding each muscle fiber.
Muscle fiber is a syncytium with multiple nuclei within the sarcoplasm.
Sarcoplasmic reticulum, part of the endoplasmic reticulum, acts as a calcium ion
store.
Myofibrils, or myofilaments, are numerous parallel filaments in the sarcoplasm.
Each myofibril exhibits alternating dark and light bands.
Striated appearance results from the distribution pattern of two key proteins:
Actin and Myosin.
Light bands (I-band) consist of actin, while dark bands (A-band) contain myosin,
forming rod-like structures parallel to myofibrils.
Actin filaments are thinner (thin filaments), and myosin filaments are thicker
(thick filaments).
The 'I' band has a central elastic fiber called the 'Z' line to which thin filaments
are firmly attached.

Anatomy of a muscle fibre showing a sarcomere

In the 'A' band, thick filaments are held together in the middle by the 'M' line.
'A' and 'I' bands alternate along the myofibrils, with each functional contraction
unit between two 'Z' lines termed a sarcomere.
In a resting state, thin filaments partially overlap the free ends of thick
filaments, leaving a central 'H' zone on the thick filament not overlapped by thin
filaments.

A sarcomere
 Structure of Contractile Proteins

Actin
Each thin filament comprises two helically wound filamentous (F) actins, with each F
actin being a polymer of globular (G) actins.
Tropomyosin, forming two filaments, runs alongside F actins, and troponin, a complex
protein, is distributed at regular intervals on tropomyosin.
In the resting state, a troponin subunit masks active binding sites for myosin on
actin filaments

An actin (thin) filament

Myosin
Each thick filament (myosin) is a polymerized protein consisting of many monomeric
proteins called Meromyosins.
Meromyosins include a globular head with a short arm (heavy meromyosin - HMM)
and a tail (light meromyosin - LMM).
The HMM component projects outward at regular intervals, forming a cross arm with
active ATPase enzyme, ATP binding sites, and active sites for actin.

Myosin monomer (Meromyosin)

 Mechanism of Muscle Contraction

Muscle contraction is explained by the sliding filament theory, where muscle fibers
contract through the sliding of thin filaments over thick filaments.

Initiation
Signal from CNS via motor neuron.
Motor neuron and connected muscle fibers form a motor unit.

Neuromuscular Junction
Junction between motor neuron and sarcolemma.
Release of neurotransmitter (Acetyl choline).
Generation of action potential in sarcolemma.

Action Potential and Calcium Release

Increase in Ca++ level.
Binding of calcium with troponin subunit on actin filaments.
Unmasking of active sites for myosin

Cross Bridge Formation

Myosin head binds to exposed active sites on actin.
Formation of cross bridge.
ATP hydrolysis provides energy

Contraction
Myosin pulls attached actin filaments towards the center of 'A' band.
'Z' line attached to actins is pulled inwards.
Shortening of sarcomere.

Relaxation
Myosin releases ADP and P1, returning to relaxed state.
ATP binds, breaking the cross bridge.
Myosin hydrolyzes ATP, repeating the cross bridge cycle.

Ca++ Ion Pumping:

Continued sliding until Ca++ ions are pumped back to sarcoplasmic
cisternae.
Masking of actin filaments.
'Z' lines return to original position
 Reaction Time and Fatigue
Variation in reaction time among muscles.
Repeated muscle activation leads to lactic acid accumulation (anaerobic breakdown
of glycogen), causing fatigue.

Stages in cross bridge formation, rotation of head and breaking of cross bridge

Muscle Fiber Types

Red Fibers White Fibers:

High myoglobin content, reddish Low myoglobin, pale appearance.
appearance. Fewer mitochondria, high sarcoplasmic
Abundant mitochondria for aerobic reticulum.
metabolism Dependence on anaerobic process for
energy

Sliding-filament
theory of muscle
contraction
(movement of the
thin filaments and
the relative size of
the I band and H
zones
 SKELETAL SYSTEM

In humans, the skeletal system comprises 206 bones and a few cartilages.
It is categorized into two main divisions: the axial and the appendicular skeleton.
Axial Skeleton
Structure Bone included No. Name of bones Feature
Frontal -1 Form the hard protective
Occipital-1 outer covering, cranium for
Ethmoid-1 the brain
Cranium 8 Sphenoid-1 Skull region articulates with
Parietal-2 the superior region of the
Temporal-2 vertebral column with the
help of two occipital
condyles (dicondylic skull).
Nasal-2 From front part of skull
Skull Mandible-2
Facial 14 Lacrimal-2
Maxilla-2
Zygomatic-2

Hyoid 1 U-shaped-1 Present at the base of the

buccal cavity
Ear Ossicles 6 Malleus-2 Present at middle ear (tiny
Incus-2 bones)
Stapes-2
Vertebrae and Cervical-7 Central trunk framework.
dorsally(serially 26 Thoracic-12 Each vertebra has a neural
arranged units) Lumbar-5 canal for the spinal cord.
Sacral (1-fused) The first vertebra, the atlas,
Vertebral Coccygeal (1- articulates with the occipital
column fused) condyles.
Each vertebra features a
neural canal for the spinal
cord.
The first vertebra, the atlas,
articulates with the occipital
condyles.

Sternum Chest bone 1 Flat bone-1 On ventral,midline of

thorax
 True ribs True ribs comprise The thorax has 12 pairs of
False ribs the first seven ribs, thin flat bones
Floating ribs pairs, while the connected dorsally to the
11th and 12th vertebral column and
pairs, known as ventrally to the sternum.
floating ribs, lack They are bicephalic,
ventral featuring two articulation
connections. surfaces on their dorsal end.
The 8th, 9th, and true ribs. Dorsally, they are
10th pairs, termed attached to the thoracic
Ribs 24 vertebrochondral vertebrae and ventrally
connected to the sternum
with the help of hyaline
cartilage
False ribs, don't directly
connect to the sternum but
attach to the seventh rib
through hyaline cartilage.
Thoracic vertebrae, ribs and
sternum together form the
rib cage

Human Skull
 Ribs and rib cage Vertebral column

Appendicular skeleton
The appendicular skeleton comprises limb bones and their girdles.
Each limb consists of 30 bones,
For hand - humerus, radius, ulna, carpals (8), metacarpals (5), and phalanges (14).
For leg -femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals (7), metatarsals (5), and phalanges (14) form the
leg bones.
The patella covers the knee ventrally.
Pectoral and pelvic girdle bones connect upper and lower limbs to the axial skeleton.
Each half of the pectoral girdle has a clavicle and a scapula.
Scapula, a large triangular flat bone, has a ridge (spine) and an acromion.
The clavicle articulates with the acromion, forming the shoulder joint.
The clavicle is known as the collar bone, characterized by two curvatures

Pelvic girdle composed of two coxal

bones, each formed by the fusion
of ilium, ischium, and pubis.
Acetabulum, a cavity at the fusion
point, articulates with the thigh
bone.
Pubic symphysis, formed by the
ventral meeting of the pelvic
girdle halves, contains fibrous
cartilage

Right pectoral girdle and upper arm Right pelvic girdle and lower limb bones
 JOINTS
Joints are crucial for body movements, serving as connections between bones or bones
and cartilages.
Muscles generate force to enable movement through joints, acting as fulcrums.
Joint mobility varies based on multiple factors.
There are three main structural forms of joints: fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial

Forms of joints Joined together Movement Feature

Help of dense fibrous Do not allow Flat skull bones which fuse
Fibrous joints
connective tissues any end-to-end in the form of
movement sutures, to form the
cranium.
Cartilaginous Limited This pattern characterizes
Cartilaginous
joints movements. the joint between adjacent
vertebrae in the vertebral
column.
Synovial joints Filled synovial cavity Considerable These joints aid in
between the movement movement, including the ball
articulating surfaces and socket joint (humerus
of the two bones and pectoral girdle), hinge
joint (knee), pivot joint
(atlas and axis), gliding joint
(carpals), and saddle joint
(carpal and metacarpal of
the thumb).

DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTEM

Myasthenia gravis :Auto immune disorder affecting neuromuscular junction leading to

fatigue, weakening and paralysis of skeletal muscle
Muscular dystrophy: Progressive degeneration of skeletal muscle mostly due to genetic
disorder.
Tetany: Rapid spasms (wild contractions) in muscle due to low Ca++ in body fluid.
Arthritis: Inflammation of joints
Osteoporosis: Age-related disorder characterised by decreased bone mass and increased
chances of fractures. Decreased levels of estrogen is a common cause.
Gout: Inflammation of joints due to accumulation of uric acid crystals.
 CHEMICAL
COORDINATION
AND INTEGRATION

Nerve fibers don't reach all body cells, necessitating continuous regulation of
cellular functions.
Hormones play a crucial role in this coordination, providing a unique form of
integration.
The neural and endocrine systems work together to effectively regulate
physiological functions in the body.

ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND HORMONES

Endocrine glands are ductless and produce hormones.

Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals acting as intercellular messengers.
The classical definition involves glands releasing hormones into the blood for
distant target organs.
Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals which act as intercellular messengers and
are produced in trace amounts
Current scientific definition expands to include various molecules beyond
organized endocrine glands.
Invertebrates have simple endocrine systems with few hormones, while vertebrates
have a more complex coordination with numerous chemicals acting as hormones.

HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Pituitary Pineal Thyroid Gonads Parathyroid Thymus Pancreas

Testis in males Ovary in females

In addition to these, some other organs, e.g., gastrointestinal tract, liver, kidney,
heart also produce hormones.
 The Hypothalamus

Hypothalamus: Basal part of diencephalon, forebrain, regulates various body

functions.
Neurosecretory cells: Nuclei in the hypothalamus produce hormones

Types of hormones

Releasing hormones Inhibiting hormones

(stimulate pituitary secretion) (inhibit pituitary secretion)

Example: Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates pituitary synthesis,

somatostatin inhibits growth hormone release.

Hormone release: Hypothalamic hormones pass through axons, released from

nerve endings.
Circulation: Hormones reach pituitary gland through portal circulatory system.
Regulation: Anterior pituitary functions regulated by hypothalamic hormones;
posterior pituitary under direct neural regulation.

The Pituitary Gland

Pituitary gland location: sella turcica, attached to hypothalamus by a stalk

Divided into adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis
Adenohypophysis parts: pars distalis (anterior pituitary) and pars intermedia
Hormones produced by pars distalis: GH, PRL, TSH, ACTH, LH, FSH
Pars intermedia secretes MSH
Neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary) stores and releases oxytocin and vasopressin
Oxytocin and vasopressin synthesized by hypothalamus and transported to
neurohypophysis axonally
GH Imbalance:
Over-secretion leads to gigantism.
Low secretion results in pituitary dwarfism.
Acromegaly:
Excess GH in adults, especially middle age.
Causes severe disfigurement, especially in the face.
May lead to complications and premature death if unchecked
Diagnosis Challenges:
Disease hard to diagnose early.
Often goes undetected for years until external
changes noticeable.
Prolactin Function:
Regulates mammary gland growth.
Controls milk formation in mammary glands
TSH Function:
Stimulates synthesis and secretion of thyroid
hormones.
ACTH Function:
Stimulates synthesis and secretion of glucocorticoids
from adrenal cortex.
Gonadotrophins:
LH and FSH stimulate gonadal activity
Male Reproductive System:
LH stimulates androgen synthesis from testis.
FSH and androgens regulate spermatogenesis
Female Reproductive System:
LH induces ovulation.
LH maintains the corpus luteum post-ovulation.
FSH also plays a role in female reproductive system
regulation
FSH stimulates growth and development of the
ovarian follicles in females Diagrammatic
Various other hormones: representation of
MSH regulates skin pigmentation by acting on pituitary and its
melanocytes. relationship with
Oxytocin stimulates smooth muscle contraction, hypothalamus
particularly in the uterus during childbirth and in
mammary glands for milk ejection in females.
Vasopressin acts on the kidneys, promoting water
and electrolyte resorption in distal tubules, reducing
water loss through urine; also known as anti-diuretic
hormone (ADH)
Diabetes Insipidus:
An impairment affecting synthesis or release of ADH
results in a diminished ability of the kidney to
conserve water leading to water loss and
dehydration
 The Pineal Gland

Pineal gland location: dorsal side of forebrain.

Pineal gland secretes melatonin hormone.
Melatonin regulates 24-hour (diurnal) body rhythm.
Roles: Maintains sleep-wake cycle, body temperature.
Influences metabolism, pigmentation, menstrual cycle.
Affects defense capability.

Thyroid Gland

Thyroid gland: Two lobes on either side of the trachea, connected by isthmus.
Composition: Follicles and stromal tissues.
Follicular cells synthesise two hormones: Synthesize hormones T4 (thyroxine)
and T3 (triiodothyronine).
Iodine importance: Essential for normal hormone synthesis.
Thyroid gland: Two lobes on either side of the trachea, connected by isthmus.
Composition: Follicles and stromal tissues.
Follicular cells synthesise two hormones: Synthesize hormones T4 (thyroxine)
and T3 (triiodothyronine).
Iodine importance: Essential for normal hormone synthesis.
Iodine deficiency: Leads to hypothyroidism and goitre.
Hypothyroidism during pregnancy: Causes cretinism, mental retardation
(cretinism), stunted growth,low intelligence quotient, abnormal skin, deaf-
mutism, etc.
Hypothyroidism in adult women: Irregular menstrual cycles.
Hyperthyroidism: Increased synthesis due to cancer or nodules, affects body
physiology.
Exopthalmic goitre (Graves' disease): Form of hyperthyroidism with enlarged
gland, protruding eyeballs, increased metabolic rate, weight loss.
Thyroid hormones' roles: Regulate basal metabolic rate, support red blood cell
formation, control carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism.
Water and electrolyte balance: Influenced by thyroid hormones.
Thyrocalcitonin (TCT): Protein hormone regulating blood calcium levels.

Diagrammatic view
of the position of
Thyroid (Ventral
side)
 Parathyroid Gland

Four parathyroid glands located on the back of

the thyroid gland.
Secrete peptide hormone called parathyroid
hormone (PTH).
PTH secretion regulated by circulating calcium
ion levels.
PTH increases blood Ca2+ levels.
Stimulates bone resorption(dissolution/
demineralisation)
Enhances Ca2+ reabsorption by renal tubules. Diagrammatic view of the
Increases Ca2+ absorption from digested food. position of Parathyroid
PTH is a hypercalcemic hormone, raising blood
(Dorsal side)
Ca2+ levels.
Plays a crucial role in calcium balance along
with TCT

Thymus

Thymus gland: Lobular structure located

between lungs, behind sternum, on ventral side
of aorta.
Role: Major role in immune system development.
Secretion: Peptide hormones called thymosins.
Function of thymosins: Differentiation of T-
lymphocytes for cell-mediated immunity.
Additional role of thymosins: Promote antibody
production for humoral immunity.
Age-related changes: Thymus degenerates in old
individuals.
Consequence: Decreased production of
thymosins.
Impact on immune responses: Weakened
immune responses in old individuals.
 Adrenal Gland

Our body has one pair of adrenal glands, one at the anterior part of each kidney

Adrenal Gland

Adrenal medulla Adrenal cortex

(centrally located tissue) (outside located tissue)

Secretes two hormones Zona reticularis (inner layer)

Zona fasciculata (middle layer)
Adrenaline / Noradrenaline / Zona glomerulosa (outer layer)
epinephrine norepinephrine

Underproduction of hormones by adrenal cortex leads to Addison's disease,

causing weakness and fatigue.
Adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline, known as
catecholamines.
Catecholamines are emergency hormones, released during stress, fight, or flight
situations.
Adrenaline and noradrenaline increase alertness, pupil dilation, piloerection,
sweating, heart rate, heart contraction strength, and respiration rate.
Catecholamines stimulate glycogen breakdown, increasing blood glucose. They
also stimulate lipid and protein breakdown.

Diagrammatic representation of : (a) Adrenal gland above

kidney (b) Section showing two parts of adrenal gland
Aldosterone acts on renal tubules, promoting Na+ and water reabsorption and
excretion of K+ and phosphate ions, maintaining electrolytes, body fluid volume,
osmotic pressure, and blood pressure.
Adrenal cortex secretes small amounts of androgenic steroids, influencing axial,
pubic, and facial hair growth during puberty.

Pancreas

Pancreas: Composite gland, exocrine and endocrine functions.

Endocrine pancreas: 'Islets of Langerhans,' 1-2% of pancreatic tissue.
Islet cells: α-cells (secrete glucagon) and β-cells (secrete insulin).
Glucagon: Peptide hormone, maintains normal blood glucose levels.
Glucagon's actions: Stimulates glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and reduces cellular
glucose uptake.
Insulin: Peptide hormone, regulates glucose homeostasis.
Insulin's actions: Enhances glucose uptake/utilization, promotes glycogenesis,
decreases blood glucose levels.
Glucagon and insulin jointly maintain blood glucose homeostasis.
Prolonged hyperglycemia leads to diabetes mellitus.
Diabetes complications: Glucose loss in urine, ketone body formation.
Treatment: Insulin therapy for diabetic patients

Testis

Testis located in scrotal sac outside the abdomen in males.

Testis serves as both a primary sex organ and an endocrine gland.
Composed of seminiferous tubules and stromal/interstitial tissue.
Leydig cells in intertubular spaces produce androgens, mainly testosterone.
Androgens regulate development, maturation, and functions of male accessory sex
organs.
Functions include epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland,
urethra.
Androgens stimulate muscular growth, facial and axillary hair, aggressiveness, and
low voice pitch.
Major role in spermatogenesis (formation of spermatozoa).
Androgens influence male sexual behavior (libido) by acting on the central neural
system.
Androgens produce anabolic effects on protein and carbohydrate metabolism
 Ovary

Females have ovaries in the abdomen.

Ovary is the primary female sex organ, producing one ovum per menstrual cycle.
Ovary produces estrogen and progesterone, two groups of steroid hormones.
Ovary composed of ovarian follicles and stromal tissues.
Growing ovarian follicles mainly synthesize and secrete estrogen.
After ovulation, the ruptured follicle becomes corpus luteum, secreting mainly
progesterone.
Estrogen stimulates growth and activities of female secondary sex organs.
Estrogen contributes to the development of growing ovarian follicles and
appearance of female secondary sex characters.
Estrogen regulates female sexual behavior.
Progesterone supports pregnancy and acts on mammary glands.
Progesterone stimulates the formation of alveoli (milk-storing structures) and
milk
 HORMONES OF HEART, KIDNEY AND GASTROINTESTINAL
TRACT

Some tissues, not glands, also secrete hormones

Atrial wall of the heart secretes atrial natriuretic factor (ANF), decreases blood
pressure

Juxtaglomerular cells in the kidney produce erythropoietin, stimulates RBC

formation

Peptide hormones from gastrointestinal tract endocrine cells: Gastrin, Secretin,

CCK, GIP.
Actions of these hormones on gastric glands, exocrine pancreas, pancreas and
gall bladder, and inhibition of gastric secretion and motility.
Non-endocrine tissues secrete growth factors essential for normal tissue growth
and repair.
 Peptide hormones from gastrointestinal tract endocrine cells: Gastrin, Secretin,
CCK, GIP.
Actions of these hormones on gastric glands, exocrine pancreas, pancreas and
gall bladder, and inhibition of gastric secretion and motility.
Non-endocrine tissues secrete growth factors essential for normal tissue growth
and repair.

Function of the Gastrointestinal hormones

1. Gastrin-Acts on the gastric glands and stimulates secretion of HCL and

pepsinogen
2. Secretin- Acts on exocrine pancrease and stimulates secretion of water and
bicarbonate ion
3. Cholecystokinin-Acts on both pancrease and gall bladder and stimulates
secretion of bile juice and pancreatic enzyme
4. Gastric inhibitory peptide - Inhibits gastric secretion and mobility

Disease caused by hyposecretion and hypersecretion

Organ Hormone Hypoersecretion Hypersecretion

Pituitary Drawfism Acromegaly
hGH
anterior lobe

Thyroid Thyroxin exophthalmic goitre Goiter

Adrenal cortex Glucocorticoids Cushing’s Addison’s

syndrome Syndrome

Pancreas Insulin Hyperglycaemia diabetes

 MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION

Hormones exert their effects by binding to specific proteins called hormone

receptors.
Receptors are either membrane-bound (on the cell membrane) or intracellular
(mostly in the nucleus).
Formation of a hormone-receptor complex occurs upon binding.
Each receptor is specific to one hormone.
Biochemical changes in the target tissue result from the hormone-receptor
complex.
Hormones regulate target tissue metabolism and physiological functions

Classification of hormones

peptide, polypeptide, steroids iodothyronines amino-acid

protein hormones (e.g., cortisol, (thyroid derivatives
(e.g., insulin, testosterone, hormones) (e.g.,
glucagon, pituitary estradiol and epinephrine)
hormones, progesterone)
hypothalamic
hormones, etc.)

Membrane-bound receptor interaction: Hormones typically interacting with

membrane-bound receptors do not enter target cells.
Second messengers: These hormones generate second messengers such as cyclic
AMP, IP3, Ca++.
Regulation of cellular metabolism: Second messengers regulate cellular
metabolism, leading to physiological effects .
Intracellular receptor interaction: Hormones like steroid hormones,
iodothyronines interact with intracellular receptors.
Gene expression regulation: Intracellular receptors regulate gene expression or
chromosome function.
Hormone-receptor complex: Interaction of hormone-receptor complex with the
genome occurs.
Cumulative biochemical actions: Physiological and developmental effects result
from cumulative biochemical actions
 Diagramatic representation of the mechanism of hormone
action :- Steroid hormone

Diagramatic representation of the mechanism of hormone

action :- Protein hormone
 NEURAL CONTROL
AND COORDINATION

Coordination is the process through which two or more organs interact and
complement the functions of one another.
The neural system provides an organised network of point-to-point connections
for a quick coordination. The endocrine system provides chemical integration
through hormones
NEURAL SYSTEM

Animal neural systems consist of specialized cells known as neurons, capable of

detecting, receiving, and transmitting diverse stimuli.
Neural organization is relatively simple in lower invertebrates, as seen in Hydra's
network of neurons.
Insects display a more organized neural system with a brain, ganglia, and neural
tissues.
Vertebrates exhibit a highly developed neural system

HUMAN NEURAL SYSTEM

Central neural system (CNS) Peripheral neural system (PNS)

Includes the brain and the Comprises of all the nerves of the
spinal cord body associated with the CNS

Somatic neural system Autonomic neural system

Parasympathetic neural system Sympathetic neural system

CNS nerve fibres of the PNS are of two types :
(a) afferent fibres
(b) efferent fibres
Afferent nerve fibers convey impulses to the CNS from tissues/organs.
Efferent fibers transmit regulatory impulses from the CNS to peripheral
tissues/organs.
 The somatic neural system relays impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles while
the autonomic neural system transmits impulses from the CNS to the involuntary
organs and smooth muscles of the body.
Visceral nervous system is the part of the peripheral nervous system that comprises
the whole complex of nerves, fibres, ganglia, and plexuses by which impulses travel
from the central nervous system to the viscera and from the viscera to the central
nervous system

NEURON AS STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL

UNIT OF NEURAL SYSTEM

Neuron

Cell body Dendrites Axon

Contains cytoplasm, Short branching fibers,
organelles, and Nissl's contain Nissl's granules and
granules. transmit impulses towards
the cell body.
Long, branched fiber
with distal ends
forming synaptic
knobs containing
neurotransmitter-
filled vesicles.

Based on the number of axon and dendrites, the neurons are divided into three
types

Multipolar Bipolar Unipolar

Found in the Found in the eye's Found usually in the
cerebral cortex retina embryonic stage

Axon

Myelinated Non-myelinated

The gaps between two adjacent myelin sheaths are called nodes of Ranvier.
The myelinated nerve fibres are enveloped
with Schwann cells, which form a myelin
sheath around the axon
Myelinated nerve fibres are found in spinal
and cranial nerves. Unmyelinated nerve fibre
is enclosed by a Schwann cell that does not
form a myelin sheath around the axon, and
is commonly found in autonomous and the
somatic neural systems

Generation and Conduction of Nerve Impulse

Neurons exhibit excitability due to their polarized membranes.

Ion channels on the neural membrane are selectively permeable to specific ions.
At rest, the axonal membrane is more permeable to K+ and nearly impermeable to
Na+.
The axoplasm inside the axon has a high concentration of K+ and negatively
charged proteins.
Ionic gradients are maintained by the sodium-potassium pump, resulting in a
polarized membrane.
 The resting potential is the electrical potential difference across the resting
membrane.
When stimulated, the membrane becomes permeable to Na+, leading to
depolarization and the generation of an action potential
The action potential (nerve impulse) travels along the axon through the reversal
of polarity at each site.
The impulse is conducted as the sequence repeats along the axon.
Stimulus-induced Na+ permeability is short-lived, followed by a rise in K+
permeability, restoring the resting potential.
The process makes the fiber responsive to further stimulation in a fraction of a
second.

Transmission of Impulses

Nerve impulse transmission occurs through synapses, junctions between neurons.

Synapses are formed by the membranes of a pre-synaptic neuron and a post-
synaptic neuron.
The neurons may or may not be separated by a synaptic cleft, a gap in between

Synapses

Electrical synapses Chemical synapses

Electrical synapses
Membranes of pre- and post-synaptic
neurons are closely adjacent.
Direct flow of electrical current
occurs between neurons.
Resembles impulse conduction along a
single axon.
Impulse transmission is notably swift
compared to chemical synapses.
Uncommon in our system Diagram showing axon terminal and
synapse
Chemical synapses
Membranes of pre- and post-synaptic neurons are closely adjacent.
Direct flow of electrical current occurs between neurons.
Resembles impulse conduction along a single axon.
Impulse transmission is notably swift compared to chemical synapses.
Uncommon in our system

CENTRAL NEURAL SYSTEM

The brain is the central information processing organ of our body, and acts as
the ‘command and control system’
The human brain, responsible for functions like hearing, speech, memory,
intelligence, emotions, and thoughts, is securely encased within the protective
skull.
Within the skull, the brain is shielded by cranial meninges, comprising the
outer layer known as dura mater, a delicate middle layer termed arachnoid,
and an inner layer (in direct contact with the brain tissue) named pia mater

Brain

Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain

Forebrain
Forebrain

Cerebrum Thalamus Hypothalamus

Cerebrum, the major part of the human brain, is divided into left and right
cerebral hemispheres by a deep cleft.
The hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum, a tract of nerve fibers.
The cerebral cortex, covering the hemispheres, is characterized by prominent
folds and is referred to as the grey matter due to its neuron cell bodies
Motor areas, sensory areas, and association areas (responsible for complex
functions like memory and communication) are present in the cerebral cortex.
The inner part of the cerebral hemisphere, composed of myelin-sheathed tracts, is
called the white matter.
The cerebrum wraps around the thalamus, a key coordinating center for sensory
and motor signaling.
The hypothalamus, situated at the thalamus base, regulates body temperature,
hunger, and thirst, and secretes hypothalamic hormones.
The limbic lobe, comprising inner parts of cerebral hemispheres and structures like
amygdala and hippocampus, along with the hypothalamus, forms the limbic
system.
The limbic system is involved in regulating sexual behavior, expressing emotional
reactions, and motivation.

Diagram showing sagital section of the human brain

Midbrain
Midbrain, positioned between the forebrain's thalamus/hypothalamus and the
hindbrain's pons.
Contains the cerebral aqueduct.
Dorsal part features four prominent round swellings known as corpora
quadrigemina
Hindbrain
Hindbrain

Pons Cerebellum Medulla

Dreaming Outloud Sans
Pons
Pons consists of fibre tracts that interconnect different regions of the brain.

Cerebellum
Cerebellum has very convoluted surface in order to provide the additional space
for many more neurons

Medulla
Also called the medulla oblongata
The medulla of the brain is connected to the spinal cord. The medulla contains
centres which control respiration, cardiovascular reflexes and gastric secretions.

Three major regions make up the brain stem; mid brain, pons and medulla
oblongata. Brain stem forms the connections between the brain and spinal cord