Element 5 (1)

96 NEBOSH International General Certificate in Occupational Health & Safety
UNIT IG2
RISK ASSESSMENT
(Practical Assessment)
© NIST INSTITUTE PRIVATE LIMITED NIST/TSD/LD/IG/Version 1/2020

ELEMENT
Physical and Psychological Health 5 97
ELEMENT 5
PHYSICAL AND 05
PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH
Learning Outcomes:
Elements 5-11 produce a risk assessment of a workplace which considers a wide range
of identified hazards (drawn from elements 5 – 11) and meets best practice standards
(‘suitable and sufficient’)
5.1 Noise
5.2 Vibration
5.3 Radiation
5.4 Mental ill-health
5.5 Violence at work
5.6 Substance abuse at work
© NIST INSTITUTE PRIVATE LIMITED NIST/TSD/PD/IG/Version 2/2021

5.1 Noise
Sound is a physical sensation. Noise can be defined as
unwanted sound, or sound that is especially disturbing.
(Collins, 1993).
Noise is a form of energy in the form of a wave, caused

by pressure variations, i.e. oscillations (compressions and
rarefactions), which can travel in almost any medium, The Meaning of Commonly used
e.g. air, water, metal or wood. Invariably these pressure
Terms:
variations are produced by a vibrating source, which may
be solid (e.g. loudspeaker) or result from turbulence in the Sound Pressure
air, e.g. from exhaust emissions.
Pure noise energy is a SI unit of pressure measured in
At moderate levels noise is harmless, but if it is too loud it Pascal (Pa).
can cause permanent damage to hearing. Damaging noise
Atmospheric pressure has a typical value of 100,000 Pa,
levels are not always uncomfortable; people even pay to
whereas typical sound Pressures detectable by humans
be subjected to them in nightclubs etc.!
are a small fraction of a Pascal (as low as 0.00002 Pa at
some frequencies).
Intensity (loudness)
The amount of pressure changes in the noise determines
its amplitude and intensity (Perceived by listeners as
loudness).
When measuring sound therefore we are not so much

interested in the actual Magnitude of the pressure, we are
interested in the magnitude of the variations in Pressure.
We therefore use a ratio based on the lowest detectable
pressure change or the threshold of hearing.
The Physical and Psychological
Effects of Exposure to Noise Frequency
Frequency (perceived by the listener as pitch or tone) is
Regular exposure to high levels of noise leads to hearing
measured in cycles per second (Hz). The human hearing
impairments and other adverse health effects. In most of
mechanism has a finite range of perception of pitch and
the cases, hearing impairments cannot be rectified either
varies from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz or 20 kHz, but is most sensitive
by surgery or using a hearing aid. Exposure to high sound
at around 4,000 Hz, the frequency of human speech.
levels may lead to harmful physical and psychological
health effects. Some of the examples of these effects are Decibel
listed below.
Noise level is measured in decibels (dB).
Physical effects of exposure to noise
The intensity of sound is a measure of its strength and is
− Tinnitus condition - constant ringing, buzzing or measured in watt per meter square (W/m2). The loudest
whistling in the ear sound that can be tolerated (the threshold of pain) is
− Threshold shift (hearing loss) may be temporary 100,000,000,000,000 times more intense than the quietest
or permanent (the threshold of hearing). These numbers are too large to
be easily used so a logarithmic scale (dB) is used, which is
− Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL) not linear (evenly distributed).
Psychological effects of exposure to noise Every 1 Bel (i.e. 10 dB) increase means that the sound is
− Stress 10 times more intense. Unfortunately, it typically only
seems about twice as loud to most people. Consequently,
− Sleep disturbance
doubling the intensity of noise increases its level by 3 dB.
− Aggressive behavior

ELEMENT
Weighting scales – dB(A) and dB(C) Temporary Threshold Shift (TTS)

The hearing mechanism is most sensitive and most easily The human ear hears noise from 0 decibels, the threshold
damaged at 4,000Hz, therefore, when measuring noise, of hearing. When the ear is exposed to high levels of noise
we need to modify the noise meter (sound level meter - the threshold may temporarily shift by up to 20 decibels.
SLM) so that it responds in a similar way to the human ear, The ears recover gradually, taking perhaps two days to
i.e. is more sensitive at 4,000 Hz. recover completely.
The device used in the SLM is an electronic ‘filter’ known Temporary Tinnitus
as the ‘A’ weighting filter, which mimics the sensitivity of
human hearing across the frequency range (20 Hz to 20 Tinnitus is ringing, buzzing, whining or similar noise in the
kHz). The resulting unit of measurement is expressed as ears caused by over stimulation of the hair cells (cilia).
dB(A).
Blast Deafness
Most of the measurements are made on the “A-weighted
Impairment of transmission through the outer and middle
scale”. In some cases, C-weighted scale is specifically used
ear is often caused by non-work-related medical problems
to measure peak sound levels like live rock music, jet-take
such as mumps and other infections. Very high noise levels
off, fire crackers, rocket launching etc. Measurements of
and blasts can also cause damage. Noise is perceived as
this scale are normally expressed as dB(C).
painful at 120 dB. Blast deafness is instant permanent
hearing loss due to extreme noise levels above 140 dB.
When Exposure should be assessed;
Comparison of Measurements to Chronic Effects
Exposure Limits established by 05
Noise induced hearing loss (NIHL)
Recognised Standards
Noise induced hearing loss (permanent threshold shift)
Exposure to high levels of noise on a daily basis can cause: is normally caused by prolonged exposure to high noise
Acute Health Effects Chronic Health Effects levels causing damage to the cilia (hair cells) of the cochlea
in the inner ear. This leads to permanent threshold shift
Stress, raised heart Noise induced hearing
at certain frequencies, which worsens with continued
rate, irritability, loss loss
exposure. The cells damaged first are those at 4000 Hz,
of sleep
(permanent threshold which is the frequency of speech.
shift)
Interference with Permanent tinnitus Permanent Tinnitus
communication The causes and symptoms of permanent tinnitus are the
Temporary same as temporary tinnitus. However, permanent tinnitus
threshold shift causes on going distress through sleep deprivation and
Temporary tinnitus continued noise.
and Blast deafness
Exposure to Noise
Acute Effects Daily Personal Exposure (LEP,d) and Weekly
Stress Personal Exposure (LEP,w)
Very high levels of noise have been found to cause Exposure to high noise levels can cause incurable hearing
muscular tension, tightening of blood vessels, raised damage. The important factors are:
heart rate and effects on the digestive system. This is an the intensity, given in decibel units as dB(A)
involuntary reaction and causes stress. Irritability, loss
the frequency and
of sleep and stress symptoms may result from even low
levels of noise in some circumstances. how long people are exposed to the noise, daily.
With the exception of certain peak limits that cause instant

Interference with Communication
damage, e.g. gunshot or Cartridge tools, it is the total dose
Inability to hear instructions or warning signals and the of noise that is of concern.
misunderstanding of verbal communication can all have
In most work situations the noise levels will fluctuate
serious consequences.
considerably throughout the day. The total dose is

determined by averaging the level of noise over an 8 Noise Measurement

hour period for daily exposure and 40 hours for weekly
The purpose of noise measurement is to identify those
exposure, to give a single level for that period of time,
people at risk from hearing damage so that the employer
known as the LEP,d and the LEP,w.
can formulate an action plan for controlling noise
Noise levels equivalent to 85 dB(A) for 8 hours: exposure. The following steps may be taken:
88 decibels for 4 hrs (e.g. heavy traffic) 1. Decide whether there might be a problem. As
a guide, if people have to shout to be heard by
91 decibels for 2 hrs (e.g. circular saw) someone about two meters away, it is possible that
94 decibels for 1 hr; (e.g. an air compressor) noise is above 85 dB(A). If people have to shout to
be heard by someone about one meter away, it is
97 decibels for 30 min (metal grinder) and possible that noise is above 90 dB(A). In either case a
100 decibels for 2 minutes (e.g. chain saw). noise assessment should be undertaken.
2. Noise assessment by a competent person. An

Exposure Limit and Action Values integrating sound level meter is used to record the
The aim is to prevent damage to hearing. At all levels noise, the lower the type number of the equipment,
the more accurate it is. It should be calibrated. The
employers have a duty to reduce noise so far as is
following will need to be recorded:
reasonably practicable.
A noise measurements at every operator location
In UK, the Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005
specifies lower and upper exposure action values: The time taken for the operator to carry out the
task at each location.
Lower Exposure Action Value - 80 dB Peak The LEP,d is then calculated, for the work at different
Sound Pressure - 135 dB locations to determine the total daily noise exposure.
At these levels the employers should provide information, An alternative technique for determining nose exposure
instruction and training on: is to use a dosimeter. A dosimeter is a measuring device,
which attaches to the individual and logs his / her noise
the nature of risks from exposure to noise
exposure as they move around the workplace. A calculation
the organizational and technical measures taken in can then be made of the LEP,d .
reduce noise levels 3. Decide upon control measures. The highest
the findings of the risk assessment, including any fractional exposure values are given by the machines
or processes, which make the greatest contribution
measurements taken, with an explanation
to daily noise exposure. These should be prioritized
using personal hearing protection and equipment first. The noise should be controlled at source, where
possible. Measures to control the path and person
why and how to detect and report signs of hearing
should also be considered.
damage
The assessment should determine the adequacy of
the entitlement to health surveillance and
existing control measures, including the attenuation level
safe working practices to minimize exposure to noise. of hearing protection.
Upper Exposure Action value 85 dB Peak Basic Noise Control Measures:

Sound Pressure 137 dB Like other forms of pollution, noise can be controlled by
attention to the following factors:
At these levels the employers should so far as is reasonably
practicable, reduce exposure other than providing hearing The Source: elimination or reduction at source;
protection, e.g. engineering control; The Path: providing barriers to the transmission of
noise through air or through structures; and
Exposure Limit Value 87 dB Peak sound
The Person:
Pressure 140 dB
− distance - locating the noise source at a distance
At this level instant hearing damage is likely. The employer
from people;
should reduce the level and identify why the level was
reached and ensure it is not reached again. − time - limiting the duration of exposure to noise;

ELEMENT
− provision of information and training; and
− provision of PPE (personal hearing protection).
The Source
Design: changing the total or partial design of the whole
or a component of the machine, e.g. nylon gears instead
of metal.
Damping: adding material to reduce vibration (e.g. heavy

metal-based paints used on machinery housings or general
ventilation systems).
Isolate: prevent noise from being transmitted through the

structure of the building (floor and walls) by isolating the are exposed, e.g. ceiling panels in swimming pools, or the
machinery from the floor, e.g. mounting power presses on cab of a lorry.
anti-vibration feet. This is particularly important where the
Silencers: attachments fitted to the inlet or exhaust (or
noise is in the low frequency ranges, which are most easily
both) of a moving air or gas stream emitted from the
transmitted through structures, e.g. power presses.
machine. The increased volume of the silencer decreases
The Path the speed of the air flow at the exhaust.
Screens and barriers: placing an obstacle between the Where possible the noise source should be eliminated, e.g.
noise source, (a machine), and the employees. They may by changing the working method from riveting to bolting
a structure; by the purchase of quieter equipment, etc.,
05
be ineffective at low noise frequencies. They also only
reduce direct noise and will not stop reflective noise. however, where safe place strategies are not possible,
safe person strategies should be used.
Enclosure: Placing a sound-proof baffles and enclosures
over the noise source E.g. To arrest sound from the The Person:
compressor, a complete enclosure of damped material Distance: positioning the worker away from the noise
lined with sound absorbent may be used. source will decrease the noise dose received, since the
noise level reduces over distance.
Time exposed: halving the time exposed will reduce the

noise levels by 3 dB.
Insulation: Soundproof insulations reduce the
transmission of sound across rooms. To prevent the Training and information: about the hazard and
noise coming from adjacent rooms or installations, sound precautions including:
insulators made of mineral wool, foam, fiberglass are the likely noise exposure and the risk to hearing the
typically installed in walls, ceilings, floors, and doors. noise creates;
Absorption: sound in the workroom can be absorbed by where and how to obtain hearing protection;
means of acoustic absorbent panels on walls or suspended
how to report defects in ear protectors and noise
from the ceiling. In large workrooms, particularly where
control equipment; and
many noise sources are present, much of the noise will be
reflected from the walls and ceiling. Absorbing this energy what the employee should do to minimize the risk,
can significantly reduce the levels of noise to which people such as the proper way to use hearing protection and

other noise control equipment, how to look after not only reduce noise
them. levels but allow you to
hear verbal messages
Ear Protection
and machine warning
signals. However,
they are often not
compatible with other
forms of PPE, e.g. hard
hats, safety glasses
or visors, they are
uncomfortable to wear, and they need a high degree of
maintenance in order to achieve adequate protection.
They also require adequate clean storage.
Ear plugs are made from glass down, foam or rubber,

which are fitted into the ear canal and can be disposable
or reusable.
PPE is the last choice. In practice, ear defenders reduce
noise exposure less than are often claimed because they: Ear plugs are easy to use and cheap. However, it is more
difficult to obtain a correct fit unless plugs are individually
Are not worn correctly, e.g. muffs worn over hair,
made or selected. They must be fitted correctly to be
jewellery or glasses
effective. Hygiene is important. When fitted with dirty
Are not fitted correctly, e.g. ear plugs not correctly fingers they can introduce infection or cause dermatitis,
inserted e.g. when oil is introduced. It is also more difficult to
Are not properly maintained monitor compliance than with ear defenders.
Are uncomfortable or inconvenient to wear
Need constant management commitment to ensure

its use
May introduce secondary risks (failure to hear alarms,

instructions, vehicles).
Where there is no practicable alternative, PPE must be:
Properly selected - technically suitable, comfortable,

compatible with other PPE such as hard hats,
spectacles, etc.
Properly maintained - kept in clean and efficient order
Properly used - training and instruction and

supervision will be necessary.
Hearing protectors need to be worn all the time by people

who are working in the noisy places. If they are left off,
even for short periods, effectiveness of hearing protection
is reduced greatly.
Types of Ear Protectors Attenuation

Two main types of ear protectors are available: The reduction that ear defenders provide is known as the
attenuation. It is a measure of the reduction of both the
Ear defenders (muffs) consist of cups filled with sound
frequency and intensity. The manufactures of hearing
absorbent material tightly fitting over the ears and held in
protection will provide this information and this can be
place by a headband.
used by a competent person to assess the suitability of
Ear defenders are generally the most effective because, hearing protection.
when fitted correctly, they do not cause irritation and
When 2 types of hearing protection are used, the overall

ELEMENT
protection is not a product of the two levels of attenuation. person may be made responsible for basic checks like skin
The maximum protection will only be increased by 6 dB. surveillance
Role of Health Surveillance:

Health surveillance is a systematic process which involves
range of methods, techniques and procedures to detect
and assess the early signs of work-related ill-health of
workers exposed to certain health hazards like noise
or vibration, ionising radiation, solvents, fumes, dusts,
biological agents.
Hearing Audiometry Test

It is a type of medical testing used to detect the signs
of hearing loss of the workers who exposed to noise
continually. This test uses a machine called audiometer
Supervisor
which usually consists of an embedded hardware unit with
a pair of headphones. Employee representative
Audiometer is used to play series of tones through First aider

headphones to identify and evaluate the noise hazards.
The following personnel are responsible for complicated
The tones may vary in pitch (frequency) and loudness
(intensity).
assessments and procedures like lung tests, hearing test 05
etc.
Occupational Health Physician
Occupational Health Nurse
Occupational Hygienist
Health Surveillance in Noisy Environment:
Health surveillance supports the promotion of personal

hearing protection by controlling noise levels at source
and providing early intervention to limit the continuing
effects. As employers have the ultimate responsibility
in conducting health surveillance process, he/she must
ensure the following for safe and secure operation in noisy
environment.
Conduct periodic hearing check-ups in controlled

Who can carry out the health surveillance? conditions
With relevant training and competency, the following Educate and alert the employees about the noise

hazards and its risks Apart from the above-mentioned health effects,
continuous use of hand-held vibration leads to a condition
Maintain health records of those who undergone
called Raynaud’s phenomenon. This phenomenon affects
hearing check-ups
finger’s blood vessels.
Ensure the employees prone to hearing damage are
examined by a doctor
Suggest appropriate control measures as per the

level of risk
Enforce the use of personal protective equipment

like ear plug and ear muff
Assign alternative work to employees identified with

hearing damage
Ensure repetitive and continued health surveillance

Whole-body Vibration – Health Effects
Lower back and spine pain
5.2 Vibration Fatigue
Vibration is the term given to shaking movement of the Insomnia

body back and forth around a fixed point.
Stomach problems
Hand-arm vibration syndrome is a deficiency caused
Headaches
by hand-held vibrating machineries and equipment. It
damages fingers, hands and arms after prolonged usage
of hand-held vibrating machineries.
The vibration from the supporting surface like seat or floor

transmits through the whole body and causes deficiency
called Whole-body vibration syndrome. It is normally
experienced by drivers when driving over rough and
uneven surfaces.
The Effects on the Body of Exposure Harmful Effects of Vibration:

to Hand–Arm Vibration and Whole- Vascular Disorder
Body Vibration
− Impaired Blood Circulation
Some of the common health effects due to vibration are
− Blanching of Fingers
Vibration white finger
Neurological
Loss of sensation
− Numbness
Pain
− Tingling
Numbness in the hands, arms, spine and joints
− Reduced Sensitivity
Hand-arm Vibration - Serious and Muscular
Permanent Health Effects
− Reduced Grip Strength
Vascular disorders in finger’s blood vessel
− Reduced Dexterity
Neurological disorders
Others
Muscle and tendon damage
− Pain
Bone and joint dislocation
− Stiffness in Joints
White and numb fingers after prolonged usage

ELEMENT
When Exposure should be assessed; A(8) Formula:

Comparison of Measurements to The action values and limit values are normally
Exposure Limits Established by calculated using the A(8) formula
Recognised Standards A (8) represents - average (A) exposure over an eight-
hour (8) in a day with respect to vibration magnitude
If there is a risk from vibration and employees are likely to
and duration of exposure
be affected, then exposure should be assessed by means
of Risk Assessment process. It It integrates tedious integral equation for calculating
daily vibration exposures
Helps the employers to screen the employees
affected due to prolonged vibration exposure Exposure Point System:
Provides detailed information about the sources of Exposure points system uses ‘ready reckoner’ table
vibration and its levels and helps the employers to take for calculating daily vibration exposures
appropriate control measures based on the risk levels
This system is very much easier compared to A(8) for
Facilitates in finding the risk zones in the workplace calculating action and limit values
and makes the employer to provide information,
instruction and training to the workers to tackle Ready Reckoner Table
different types of risks associated in the zones
Comparison of Vibration Exposure Levels

with Recognized Standards 05
The International Standard Organization (ISO)
recommends standard criteria for exposure action and
limit values to take appropriate action to control and limit
level of daily vibration exposure
Exposure Action Value (EAV):

Exposure action value is a measure of daily amount
of vibration exposure (either hand-arm vibration or
whole-body vibration)
Employer has to take necessary controls actions if the

value is above the pre-defined limits
Exposure Limit Value (ELV):

Exposure limit value is a measure of vibration
It features Exposure Time (T) on the X axis and
exposed by an employee in a single day.
Vibration Magnitude (m/s2) on the Y axis
Greater value signifies higher risk to the employees
Different point values are represented in the middle
Exposure Action and Exposure Limit section in different colors
Pre-Defined Values: Colors represent the risk value. Refer the table above.
Daily exposure Daily exposure

action level limit values
Hand-arm 2.5 m/s2 A(8) (100 5 m/s2 A(8) (400
vibration points) points)
0.5 m/s2 A(8) (100 1.15 m/s2 A(8) (529
Whole-body
points) points)

Calculation of Level Risk The employer needs to implement the following control
measures in order to reduce the risks associated with
We will find the level of risk using the ready reckoner table
vibration.
for the below condition.
“Employee exposed to vibration of 3 hrs Preventive Control Measures
duration and 5 m/s2 vibration magnitude” Identify the sources of high vibration and eliminate it
wherever possible
Given data:
Mechanise or automate the work to eliminate or
Duration of exposure - 3 hrs
reduce the risk of vibration. For example, instead of
Vibration magnitude – 5 m/s2 using a hand-held breaker, breaker attachment could
be equipped on an excavating machine to break the
Step 1: concrete
Find the corresponding exposure points in the ready Use of low-vibration emission tools to avoid excessive
reckoner table for the above-mentioned duration and exposure to vibration
vibration magnitude Install vibration arrestors in the sources of high
The value corresponds to 150 points which is vibration if elimination is not possible
highlighted in the yellow color Encourage the use of PPEs like anti vibration gloves
Step 2: Maintain tools and equipment to avoid excessive
vibration
Evaluate the level of risk by comparing the above-
mentioned value i.e. 150 points with pre-defined Take actions immediately if exposure action value and
points (100 – 400 points) and color coding exposure limit value exceeds the pre-defined value
Provide information, instruction and training to
Step3:
enhance the safe working practices
In this case, the level of risk lies above action value. So
Organize medical check-up camp to predict early
necessary action should be taken by the employer to indicators of adverse health effects
eliminate the risk completely.
Precautionary Control Measures
Similarly, for different vibration magnitude and duration
of exposure, we can analyze level of risks. 1. Selection of Suitable Equipment
Note: Add the points and compare with pre-defined points, The following things should be considered while selecting
if the employee exposed to one or more vibration tools in or purchasing a new equipment for a task.
the working process.
Vibration magnitude
Basic Vibration Control Measures − Indicates how much amount of vibration can
equipment deliver while at working conditions
Prolonged exposure to vibration leads to serious health
effects which results in low productivity and low efficiency. − Greater the value, greater the vibration
Provision of appropriate vibration control measures in the
workplace ensures safe and secure work practices and Composite materials
minimizes the risks. − Generally, this type of materials ensures
Control of Vibration enhanced vibration and acoustic properties
Source Duration Pathway Person − These materials reduce vibration up to 45%

compared to other materials
Personal
Limit time Protective Innovative design
Eliminate Isolate
exposed Equipment
− Innovative design limits the effects of vibration
(PPE)
Job − For e.g.: In some type of portable petrol driven
Substitute equipment, provision is provided to release the
rotation
exhaust gases through operating handles. This
Change work
type of design makes the user’s hand warm and
method
provides comfort while working in cold weather
Maintenance
conditions.

ELEMENT
So, preference to be given to the above-mentioned items Other Measures

while selecting or purchasing a new equipment.
Ensure assessment of the vibration characteristics in
2. Maintenance Programmes hand tools is made as per the ISO
Periodic maintenance of the equipment ensures Periodic review, work rescheduling, work automation
minimal exposure to vibration at work ensures vibration under control
For example Promote safe work practices through training and
− Small imbalance in the mechanical equipment other related activities
produce higher levels of vibration
Role of Health Surveillance
− Worn-out shock absorber in motorbikes results
Health surveillance plays a major role in maintaining the
in bumpy and uncomfortable rides
healthy workforce and workplace. Some of its function is
Periodic maintenance ensures minimal effects of hand-
Detect and predict adverse health effects caused by
arm vibration and whole-body vibration deficiencies.
vibration exposure
3. Limiting the Time Workers are Exposed to
Provide medical assistance based on the symptoms
Vibration
to stop the disease from continuing and becoming
Vibration exposures can be limited by carrying out the worse
risk assessment activity in the workplace. We can derive
Examine the hands of the workers to identify the
suitable control measures as per the information obtained
signs of HAVS deficiency
from the risk assessment activity.
Consult with the workers about their lower-back
05
For e.g.
discomfort and pain to identify the signs of WBV
Risks Assessed Control Measure deficiency
Long duration of Reduce the duration
Appoint competent person to provide information
vibration exposure
Allocate non-vibration and advice on the account of employee health issues
work
Organise work schedules 5.3 Radiation

Machines produce high Provision of PPEs
The Types of, and differences
magnitude of vibration
Frequent breaks between, Non-ionising and Ionising
Always ensure magnitude Radiation (including Radon) and
levels are in the safe their Health Effects
range
Cold and humid Job rotation Radiation is the emission of energy from matter. There are
two types of radiation:
Provision of gloves and
warm clothing Non-ionising radiation: can cause heating effects
in the body, e.g. ultraviolet from arc welding, radio
Warm clothing provides
waves, microwaves; and
comfort and maintain the
body temperature and Ionising radiation: has sufficient energy to
also prevents the attack penetrate, ionise (change in the electrical charge of
of vibration white finger an atom) and damage body tissue and organs, e.g.
(VWF) disease x-rays, gamma rays used in non-destructive testing of
Workers with Health surveillance metal structures.
hand-arm The health effects of exposure to ionising radiation are
vibration syndrome more severe than those from exposure to non-ionising
(HAVS) radiation.

wide range of frequencies from long wave radio waves to

visible laser light.
Infrared Light
Just outside the visible spectrum, infrared light is emitted
from red-hot materials, such as molten metal and glass. It
can cause cataracts of the eyes. Tinted eye protection will
provide protection by filtering out the infrared range. The
skin should also be protected by overalls, etc.
Health Effects:
The health effects from exposure to non-ionising radiation
are:
Burns
Erythema (reddening of the skin)
Cataracts
Arc eye
Temporary sterility.
LASERs
Acute and Chronic Effects of Ionising ‘LASER’ is an abbreviation for ‘Light Amplification by
Radiation: Stimulated Emission of Radiation’. Laser light has a narrow
range of frequencies and is highly directional. These
Acute effects Chronic effects features bring two hazards, firstly the light can travel
Erythema: reddening Mutagenic cancers: great distances, and secondly, extreme optical intensities
of the skin various organs, can be achieved with relatively small energy sources. The
leukaemia narrow beam of light can focus on the retina to cause
Radiation sickness
severe burns.
- nausea, vomiting, Sterility and hereditary
diarrhoea defects
Hair loss Teratogenicity effect
Death Other effects: eye

cataracts, skin damage
and death.
Typical Occupational Sources of

Non-Ionising and Ionising Radiation
Non-ionisation Radiation
Type Examples of commercial use Since some lasers operate at non-visible frequencies,
Infrared Heating and brazing the eye may not have the natural protection of the blink
Lasers Bar code readers, surveying, cutting response.
Microwaves Signal transmission, food
Lasers are used for:
preparation
Radio frequencies Radio transmissions, radar, welding Cutting
of plastics (RF welding) Alignment of structures, e.g. bridges, tunnels;
Ultra-violet Commercial tanning, curing of glues
Entertainment
inks, welding (arc eye)
Navigation
Non-ionising radiation includes energy radiated across a

ELEMENT
Communication (fibre optics) Ultra-Violet Light

Printing. Ultra-violet light is a component of sunlight, which has
There are various classifications for lasers according to become more of a hazard with depletion of the ozone
their potential for harm. The potential depends on both layer and the loss of some of its filtering effect. Sunlight
their frequency and their energy. causes a chemical reaction, which can result in temporary
reddening of the skin. Operators working externally
Class 1 / 1M Inherently safe (low power) or safe by should cover up and apply sun cream.
engineering design (total enclosure).
Class 2 / Low power / visible frequency. Adequate
2M protection by blink response.
Class 3R Medium power with expanded beam
diameters. Some protection by blink
response but direct viewing with optical
aids could be hazardous.
Class 3B Medium power lasers requiring interlocked
enclosures and strict operating procedures
particularly during setting and adjusting,
etc.
Class 4 High power lasers, generally used in
restricted areas. Eye protection must be
worn at all times and reflective surfaces 05
avoided.
Arc welding
Microwaves Arc welding produces ultra-violet light. Looking at the
Microwaves are used for cooking, communications, flash causes a painful but temporary condition known as
etc. They cause materials to heat internally. The health ‘arc eye’. Welders should wear full body covering (overalls,
problem associated with this is that there is no sensation etc. and tinted eye protection). People in the vicinity
of heat, due to the absence of nerve cells in the internal should be prevented from looking at the direct or indirect
organs. Microwave systems used in communications and welding arc by means of screens.
security systems have been thought to be harmless but
this is not proven. The main precaution is enclosure of the
waves by engineering design, e.g. interlocked doors, etc.
Ionising Radiation
Radar / Radio Frequencies

Radio frequencies can cause
burns and are suspected of being
associated with leukaemia. Close
proximity to powerful transmitters
should be avoided by means of
strict isolation procedures, e.g.
permit-to-work systems, etc.

There are four main types of ionising radiation: X-Rays

Alpha ‘particles’ X-rays have the same properties as gamma rays but are
Beta ‘particles’ generated.
Gamma rays X-rays are:
X-rays
Generated by machines, cease when the machine is
The first three arise from radioactive substances, whereas switched off
x-rays are generated in machines.
Waves of energy
Alpha Particles Extremely high frequency, short wave
Alpha particles are: Capable of penetrating the body causing internal and
external harm
Positively charged energy ‘particles’
Stopped by lead or thick concrete.
Heavy and slow moving
Examples of use are: medical, non-destructive testing e.g.
Capable of causing considerable internal damage if used to test integrity of metal airplane propellers.
inhaled or ingested into the body
Radon
Stopped by paper, a few centimeters of air or by the
layers of dead skin on the outside of the body Radon is a type of radioactive element. It is basically
gaseous in nature
Used as sealed sources.
Formed by the breakdown of radioactive elements
Examples of use are: smoke detectors, ‘anti-static’
like uranium and thorium
devices to remove dust and protect sensitive electronic
components during assembly. Colorless, odorless, tasteless, and noble
Naturally found in the underground soil, rock, and
Beta Particles water
Beta particles are: Inhalation and ingestion are the two primary routes
Negatively charged particles for exposing to radon
Very light and fast moving One of the cause for ionizing radiation
Capable of travelling long distances before their Extremely harmful to health and second leading
energy is lost because they are small and less likely to cause for lung cancer disease
collide with other atoms in the air, etc. Used in the therapeutic use, cancer treatment and
Capable of penetrating the surface of the skin earthquake prediction
Cause damage externally or internally
Stopped by metal, e.g. Aluminum.
Examples of use are: thickness testing of materials and

moisture content gauges.
Gamma Rays
Gamma rays are:
Waves of energy emitted during the radioactive

decay of a substance
Extremely high frequency, short wave
Capable of penetrating the body causing internal and

external harm
Stopped by lead or thick concrete.
Examples of use are: non-destructive testing (NDT) and

radiotherapy medical treatment.

ELEMENT
Sources of Radon decay period or half-life, which is the time taken to lose half
of its energy. This influences the risk. If there is a radioactive
Outdoors radon poses significantly less risk than
spillage and the half-life of the substance is measured in hours
indoors.
the area will be evacuated until the level of radiation reduces.
Indoors radon can accumulate to significant levels. However, if the half-life of the substance is measured in years
the radiation will be high for a significant time, requiring a
The magnitude of radon concentration indoors
high level of precautions to clean the spill.
depends primarily on a building’s construction and
the amount of radon in the underlying soil. The half-life also has implications for use:
Radon gas can enter buildings from the soil through Barium has a short half-life (hours) and is used within
cracks in concrete floors and walls, floor drains, sump the body for medical diagnostic tracing. Its short half-
pumps, construction joints, and tiny cracks or pores in life reduces the risk to the patient; and
hollow-block walls.
Uranium has a long half-life (billions of years!) and is
Radon levels are generally highest in basements and used to produce electrical energy for many years.
ground floor rooms that are in contact with the soil.
Distance
Well water is another source of radon.
Segregation by distance reduces the risk to health. Most
The Basic ways of Controlling forms of radiation used in industry will only travel short
Exposures to Non-ionising and distances, therefore restricted areas and other controls
are required particularly to protect those not involved
Ionising Radiation in the actual operation. In the case of beta radiation for
Non-ionising Radiation: example, the use of tweezers or forceps to handle some 05
sources will greatly reduce the exposure.
Time Reducing the duration of exposure
The energy of ionising radiation is reduced with distance.
Distance Increasing the distance between
It reduces by a quarter for every unit of distance a person
the source and the person
stands away from the source.
Shielding Providing a barrier between the
source and the person Shielding
Personal Foundry workers can be provided Enclosures, ranging from concrete and / or lead to
Protective with jackets to reduce the effects cardboard depend upon the type of radiation used.
Equipment (PPE) of radiant heat A sheet of paper stops alpha particles; a thin sheet of
Skin cream and To prevent optical irradiation aluminum will stop beta particles. Gamma rays will pass
lotion through most materials, but will be stopped by thick lead
or concrete; and barriers or screens.
Ionising Radiation:
Other Factors
Protection measures for ionising radiation depend upon
dose limitation. This can be achieved in three ways: PPE, e.g. Whole-body radiation suits
Time Environmental and personal monitoring, e.g. Film badges
Distance Correct disposal of radiation materials
Shielding. Training and supervision
Time Good hygiene practices.
The length of time that persons are exposed to ionising Control Measures - Radon Gas
radiation should be kept to a minimum. The main control
Prevent the entry of radon
measure is to ensure that the dose to which persons at
risk have been exposed is constantly monitored. Once the Reducing radon entry by:
cumulative dose limit has been reached they should be − Collecting it prior to entry into the building and
removed from exposure. discharging it to a safe location.
Half-life − Modifying building pressure differentials or
Each individual radioactive substance has a characteristic sealing entry points.

Methods that reduce radon concentrations after entry control of the RPS, and working to local rules determined
by: by the RPA.
− Dilution with increased ventilation Supervised Area

− Filtering radon from the air A supervised area is an area where there is a lower risk of
Collection at sumps and pumped out radiation hazard than a Controlled area (1/10th of max
permissible dose) and access is permissible to anyone
Sealing cracks and other openings in the foundation
under the control of the RPS, working to local rules
is a basic part of most approaches to radon reduction
determined by the RPA.
Pressurization uses a fan to blow air into the
basement or work area from either upstairs or
outdoors.
Heat recovery ventilators (HRV), also called an air-

to-air heat exchanger, can be installed to increase
ventilation.
The severity of the health effect depends on:
the type of radiation
the absorbed dose The Role of Monitoring and Health

the rate at which the dose was absorbed
Surveillance
the radio sensitivity of the tissues involved, e.g. Brain. Health surveillance of workers exposed to ionizing
and non-ionizing radiation is carried out either by an
Basic Radiation Protection approved medical practitioner or a physician expertise
Strategies, including the Role of the in occupational and radiation health. It normally includes
pre-employment medical examination and periodic health
Competent Person in the Workplace:
reviews to determine the fitness of the workers.
In addition to the physical control measures, a people
management strategy is required.
Radiation Protection Adviser (RPA)

An RPA is a health physicist (often a consultant) who is
the company’s expert for setting up the local rules, any
emergency procedures and monitoring regimes required,
etc.
Once in a year, periodic health review is conducted among
Radiation Protection Supervisor (RPS)
the workers to reassess their health and confirm their
An RPS is a member of management who in a supervisory medical fitness to continue in which they are employed.
role will ensure that the local rules and if necessary any However, certain factors are considered regarding periodic
emergency procedures (specified by the RPA) are followed health review:
on a daily basis.
Recorded doses of radiation exposure
Any sickness absence record and medical concerns

Classified Worker
Matters requiring follow-up from an earlier review
A classified worker is aged over 18, subject to annual
Any change in duties since the last review
medical examinations and the wearing of a film badge.
Special Medical Surveillance:
Controlled Area
Depend upon the workers’ state of health and work
A controlled area is an area that is controlled because of conditions, special medical surveillance examination may
radiation hazard (3/10th of max permissible dose) and be carried out to analyse the radiation impacts on the
access is only permissible by Classified Workers under the workers’ health. This includes

ELEMENT
Work is good for mental health but a negative working

Time Reducing the duration of exposure
environment can lead to physical and mental health
Skin Checks To identify lesions (i.e. damaged problems.
organ or tissue) which could allow
Depression and anxiety have a significant economic
radioactive materials to enter the
impact.
body
Harassment and bullying at work are commonly
To identify the deposition of
reported problems, and can have a substantial
radioactive dust or liquids on the
adverse impact on mental health.
external skin, as individual comes
in direct contact with a radiation There are many effective actions that organizations
emitting source due to inhalation, can take to promote mental health in the workplace;
ingestion or absorption through the such actions may also benefit productivity.
skin For every US$ 1 put into scaled up treatment for
Respiratory To ensure proper functioning of the common mental disorders, there is a return of US$ 4
Checks lungs among the workers who are likely in improved health and productivity.
to wear heavy-duty protective gear
and respiratory filters in certain Safety
Critical Work (SCW) - e.g. within nuclear
power plant
Radiation If the dose limit exceeds, then the
dosage individuals may be 05
Checks
− subjected to Ophthalmic
examination for checking
Radiation-Induced Cataract
− closely monitored for life-

threatening radiation sickness
− involved for Chromosome

analysis to detect abnormalities
Stress
in the body cells It is defined as: ‘The adverse reaction people have
− examined for Neurotic and to excessive pressures or other types of demand placed
Psychotic disorders on them’.
For pregnant female workers, equivalent dose The definition makes an important
to the foetus should not exceed 1 millisievert distinction between the:
(mSv) Beneficial effects of
(Source: HSE Ionising Radiations reasonable pressure and
Regulations 2017) challenge (which can be
stimulating, motivating,
and can give a ‘buzz’); and
Excessive pressure
resulting in stress,
5.4 Mental Ill-health which is the natural but
distressing reaction to
The Frequency and Extent of Mental demands that a person
Ill-Health at Work perceives they cannot
cope with.
Mental ill-health refers to wide range of mental health
Workplace stress itself is not an illness but if it is intense
conditions which are generally characterized by some
or for a prolonged period of time then deterioration in the
combination of abnormal thoughts, emotions, behaviour and
sufferers’ health may ensue.
relationships with others.

Common Symptoms of Workers with higher risk for developing PTSD are military personnel,
Mental Ill-health paramedics, firefighters, police, dispatch receivers,
corrections officers, doctors, nurses, and other emergency
Physical effects – Headache, dizziness, sweating,
personnel. Employees who work at workplaces that may
aching neck, skin rashes, raised heart rate, increased
experience robberies or where the risk of a serious incident
blood pressure and ulcers
is high are also at risk.
Psychological disorders – Depression, anxiety,
Symptoms
insomnia, irritability and sudden mood change and
inability to cope. Symptoms often begin within 1 to 3 months of the event,
but it is also possible for the signs to appear many years
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) - flashbacks,
later.
nightmares and severe anxiety, as well as
uncontrollable thoughts about the event Symptoms of PTSD include nightmares, uncontrollable
memories, persistent fear, and severe anxiety. Many
Emotional Strain – Dissatisfaction, fatigue and
people report that they re-experience the traumatic
tension.
event, and have vivid nightmares or flashbacks. They often
Maladaptive behaviours – Aggression, abuse, poor avoid things that remind them of the event – for example,
service, inter relationship problems and discipline. someone who was hurt in a car crash might avoid driving.
Cognitive impairment – Poor concentration, time Examples of some common difficulties
keeping, decision making and planning, lack of
include:
motivation and commitment, increase in mistakes and
absence. Feeling on edge, irritated, or angry.
Biological reactions – Cardiovascular diseases & Death Feeling numb, detached, disconnected, or less
connection with family or friends.
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Feeling that something terrible might happen again,
(PTSD) or that they must constantly be “on guard” for
danger.
What is PTSD?
Trying to avoid places, objects, activities, or people
According to the Canadian Mental Health Association,
that remind them of the event.
“post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental illness. It
often involves exposure to trauma from single events that Dissatisfaction with work and life.
involve death or the threat of death or serious injury. PTSD Having trouble concentrating and staying focused.
may also be linked to ongoing emotional trauma, such as
abuse in a relationship.” Problems sleeping well.
Feeling down or unmotivated for weeks to months.

What type of Situations may be
considered Traumatic? Avoiding public places or crowds of people.
Something is traumatic when it is very frightening, Seeking out other ways to cope such turning to
overwhelming, and causes a lot of distress. Often the event alcohol or drugs.
is unexpected, and the person feels powerless to stop or What can we do?
change the event. Examples may include crimes, natural
If you or someone you know may be experiencing PTSD, it
disasters, accidents, war or conflict, sexual violence, or
is important to take these feelings seriously and to talk to a
other threats to life or safety. In some cases, a person may
health care professional. There are many types of treatments
have the same reaction if the trauma happened to others,
available including counselling, medication, and support
including loved ones.
groups.
In What Occupations may a person be One way to achieve a psychologically safe workplace is
more Exposed to Trauma? to create and implement a Comprehensive Workplace
It is possible that any person may experience or witness Health and Safety (CWHS) Program. This program is a
a traumatic event. According to the Canadian Mental series of strategies and related activities, initiatives and
Health Association, 8% of Canadians will experience policies developed by the employer, in consultation with
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Some groups at a employees, to continually improve or maintain the quality

ELEMENT
of working life, health, and the well-being of the workforce. Organizations then have the expense of recruiting,
These activities are developed as part of a continual inducting, and training new members of staff as well as
improvement process to improve the work environment dealing with issues such as conflict, poor relationships and
(physical, psychosocial, organizational, economic), and to disciplinary problems.
increase personal empowerment and personal growth. Causes of Stress
What can I do as a Manager / Co Worker? Culture: of the organization and how it approaches
work-related stress, e.g. communication,
To support people experiencing PTSD or any other mental consultation, staff support systems, working hours
health issue, managers or co-workers may
Demands: workload too high or too low, shift work
Address their observations, try to have an open and unsocial hours, excessive overtime, and exposure
discussion, and offer support if you recognize signs to violence and bullying
or symptoms.
Control: how much control the person has in the
Recognize that withdrawal and anger is part of the way they do their work, e.g. work planning, use of
PTSD disorder. acquired skills, repetitive or monotonous work;
Ask how to support them, even if they are not ready Relationships: between employees, e.g. physical
to talk about it. violence, threatened or actual, verbal abuse such
as repeated shouting and swearing, malicious
Help them find support. gossip; victimization such as excessive supervision,
Encourage them to talk to someone they trust. unjustified picking of faults, prevention of career
development; sexual harassment; and discrimination 05
Let them know it is healthy to reach out and accept
due to gender, race or disability
support.
Change: how organizational change is managed
Take care of yourself as well and make your own and communicated in the organization, e.g. new
health and safety a priority. technology, restructuring, redundancies, and unclear
objectives
The Causes of, and Controls for,
Role: job insecurity, fear of redundancy, being
Work-Related Mental Ill-Health: unclear about role, responsibilities and expectations,
conflicting roles, e.g. the conflict of different job
Identification of Stress:
demands such as working for more than one manager
Stress within the organization may be identified by:
Risk Assessment
Informal observation and conversation with
A stress risk assessment should be carried out in different
personnel and supervisors; performance appraisal
departments, etc. and for individuals where signs of stress
with an opportunity for open discussion of problems
occur.
Monitoring of attendance records and conducting
‘return to work’ interviews
Sickness absence / ill-health trends
Data showing reduced productivity
High staff turnover.
Work-related stress can have consequences for

organizations as well as the individuals working within
them, e.g.:
An increase in sickness absence
Reduced staff morale
Reduced staff performance
Staff seeking alternative employment.

Control Measures Following are some of the home-work interface (HWI)

factors that need to be considered:
Individual Job Organization
Selecting Clear job Clear work Commuting: long hours of commuting to and from
employees descriptions objectives the place of work leaves less time for employees for
with responsibilities socializing and spending time with their family and
appropriate and authority friends. Traffic and road rage are further contributing
skills and factors.
aptitude. Childcare: with both parents working and with
Training, e.g. Comfortable Communication. increasing nuclear families, with no or less support
interpersonal working from family members, workers find it difficult to raise
Employee
skills and time environment. children and are not able to give them sufficient time
involvement.
management. especially when they are sick or in need of their support.
Realistic work
Management
schedules. Relocation: Organizations may require employees to
support,
Availability of training and relocate, this may require workers to stay alone away
a Grievance Development. from their family and friends, thus getting little or
procedure. no emotional support when they need it in times of
Management of
extreme stress. Also relocation to foreign lands may
Prompt and change.
lead to additional issues related to adjusting to the
impartial
Risk new culture and food habits.
investigation of
management,
stress (signs / Care of frail (vulnerable) relatives: long hours of work,
Openness.
complaints). commute, relocation will get further complicated if
Management there are relatives who rely on workers to take care
Work flexibility,
style. of them in case of illness or disabilities.
e.g. home
working, In general, there are two parties involved in the prevention
flexible working of HWI: the organization and the employee.
hours.
At the organizational level, it is important to offer so-
called family-friendly arrangements (such as flexibility
Stress Prevention:
of weekly working hours and daily starting and finishing
Demand - reasonable demands, sufficient resources times; provision of flexible, out-of-hours child care; flexible
Control - given as much control as possible caregiver’s leave; and paid parental leave). However, having
such arrangements does not automatically imply that
Support - information, instruction, training, additional
organizations really are family friendly. The missing link
support
here seems to be the (perceptions of the) organizational
Relationships - clear anti-harassment and bullying culture, which implies that the attitude and behaviour of
policies supervisors and their subordinates toward the use of these
Role - clear job descriptions, responsibilities and arrangements should change. Formal policy should be
authority accepted and respected by all organizational members—
not only by employees, but also and in particular by
Change - planning and preparation for change,
employers.
communication, timescales
At the individual level, a successful strategy to deal with
Home–work interface (HWI): HWI is to actively alter one’s own attitudes, expectations,
commuting, childcare issues, relocation, and behaviors in such a way that demands in both the
care of frail (vulnerable) relatives work and home domain can be met .Very recently,
a study by Baltes and Heydens-Gahir (2003) showed
Home Work Interface can be defined as “a form of inter that the use of three categories of adaptive behaviors
role conflict in which the role pressures from the work (selection,optimization, compensation) in both the work
and family domains are mutually incompatible, such that and family domain were related to lower amounts of job
participation in one role makes it difficult to participate in and family stressors and subsequently to lower amounts
the other”
of work–family conflict and family–work conflict.

ELEMENT
Recognition that most people with Consider gradual return to work. Allowing part-time
work for several weeks may help reduce stress,
mental ill-health can continue to leave time for additional medical counselling and
work effectively. allow the worker to quickly get back into a normal
Many large companies now realize that their employees’ routine. Flexitime, temporarily changed duties
productivity is connected to their health and well-being. that involve less job-related stress or other flexible
However, more emphasis has traditionally been placed arrangements may be useful. However, there should
on physical health than on mental health and well-being. be a clear understanding between the employee and
Several factors at a workplace can promote employees’ the employer as to the details of the return-to-work
psychosocial well-being and mental health. Especially programme: the expected length of time for which
important in this respect is the opportunity to be included special accommodations will be granted, what day-
in planning and carrying out activities and events in the to-day flexibility is allowed, the exact duties of the
workplace (e.g. the opportunity to decide and act in one’s employee and who will supervise the work.
chosen way and the potential to predict the consequences Other possible stress-reducing accommodations include:
of one’s action). A related feature is the degree to which
altering the pace of work;
the environment encourages or inhibits the utilization
or development of skills. Physical security, opportunity lowering the noise level of work;
for interpersonal contact, and equitable pay are also providing water, tea or soda and crushed ice to
important. combat a dry mouth caused by some medications;
extra encouragement and praise of job performance,
Targeted intervention to facilitate
but only if warranted and not obviously excessive;
return to work: 05
while taking steps to reduce stress, avoidance of
over-protection of the employee;
making sure the employee is treated as a member
of the team and not excluded from social events,
business meetings or other activities relevant to the
job
5.5 Violence at Work

Types of Violence at Work:
Specific steps an employer can take to help an employee

return to work after treatment for a mental health
problem such as depression
Inform the attending physician or appropriate mental

health professional of the exact duties of the job During the course of employment, workers may be a victim
before the physician makes a final decision on return of threats, assaults, verbal abuse and physical assaults.
to work. Such incidences are termed as work place violence and can
In consultation with the individual’s physician or occur at or outside the workplace. This module showcases
other mental health professional, encourage an the risk factors that relate to violence at work and the
early to return to work. The longer an employee is ways it can be managed.
out of work due to treatment, the more he/she will
worry about losing the job. Furthermore, the longer
a person is away from the job, the more mentally
detached he or she will become.

Risk Factors Relating to Violence at Work Offices, Shops, and Railway Stations
According to ILO Code of practice violence at work has Work where money or valuables are stored or handle
been defined as:
Work where highly stressful and emotive
“Any action, incident or behaviour that depart from circumstances, such as bereavement
reasonable conduct in which a person is assaulted,
threatened, harmed, injured in the course of, or as a Work with people suffering from various mental
direct result of, his or her work”. impairments including those caused by illness, injury
HSE defines work-related violence as, and substance abuse
“Any incident, in which a person is abused threatened Working alone, i.e. Taxi Drivers, Traffic Wardens
or assaulted in circumstances relating to their work”.
Control Measures to Reduce Risks
Difference between Violence and from Violence at Work:
Aggression
The way jobs and workplaces are designed can reduce
Aggression often taken to be threat, verbal, aimed at an the risk of violence but there are no easy remedies and
individual. Violence often taken to be anger etc. resulting employers need to identify the measures best suited to
in physical contact of any kind their particular workplace and activities. The following are
Violence at work can be grouped under two areas: examples of various measures that are used:
Internal Violence by fellow employees; this can also Provide an alarm system and a plan to deal with
include bullying violent situations
External Violence such as physical, verbal aggression Promote Queue Management and information based
and assault by people outside the organisation. on previous incidents
There are many factors that may contribute to violent Use cheque, credit cards and tokens instead of cash
behaviour but there are certain jobs where exposure to Check credentials of clients and meeting locations
violent behaviour is more likely to occur. Obviously, those
Avoid lone working in high risk areas
who are in face to face contact with the general public are
normally the most vulnerable. Provide call-in system for lone workers
Types of Violence: M
ake arrangements to get staff home if they are
working late
Physical E.g. Hitting, slapping, shoving,
grabbing, pinching, biting, hair pulling Train employees to deal with aggression
Psychological E.g. criticism, excessive work demand, Change public waiting areas
not enough work, fear of failure, Provide staff working at risk with escape routes,
under-engaging, over-engaging alarms, visible security staff etc.
Verbal E.g. Using words to criticizing, Provide protective screens, coded security locks and
insulting, or denouncing video cameras on the location
Bullying E.g. Shouting at staff, blocking Set wider counters and higher floor on staff side
promotion, regularly making jokes
about same person, persistently 5.6 Substance Abuse at Work:
picking on people in front of others
or in private, deliberately ignoring Risks to Health and Safety from
individual from work activities. Substance Abuse at Work (Alcohol,
Legal/Illegal Drugs and Solvents)
Jobs and Activities which Increase
the Risk of Violence: For many people, drinking alcohol or taking drugs is a
pleasurable activity and a part of life and does not cause
Some types of work where workers are more at risk are: any problems. But only later they realise drug and alcohol
Work activities involving direct contact with members abuse can have serious consequences. All the people
of the public. For example, Hospitals, Benefits involved in such activities, including the worker or the

ELEMENT
employer can suffer serious health problem. Before or during driving
Types of Substances Abused at Work Before using machinery, electrical equipment or

ladders
Below are some of the notable examples of substance
abuse. Before working or in the workplace when appropriate
functioning would be adversely affected by alcohol.
Alcohol
Lack of supervision combined with opportunities to drink
Alcohol consumption can affect thinking, judgment during working hours may mean that a drinking problem is
and mood and have a significant effect on behaviour allowed to develop and goes unnoticed.
when conducting work. Alcohol is absorbed into the
bloodstream within a few minutes of being consumed and Legal/Illegal Drugs
carried to all parts of the body including the brain. The Drug consumption can be an expensive problem for
concentration of alcohol in the body depends on several workplace with lot of issues if the worker is a regular user
factors and is difficult to know exactly how much alcohol is of drugs. Substances, whether it is prescribed, controlled
in the bloodstream or what effect it may have. Ultimately or others, when misused become everyone’s concern. In
alcohol consumption affects both the consumer and the the context of work, not only does it damage the misuser’s
organisation in the following ways. health, but it can have adverse effects on the organisation
through absenteeism and reduced productivity, as well as
increasing the risk of accidents.
05
Effects on the organisation:

Reduced productivity
Hindrance in workflow
Solvents
Accident costs Inhalation of solvents can affect a person’s performance
Low employee morale and can damage their health. Solvents can be either a single
chemical or a mixture of chemical used as cleaning agents
Effects on the individual: in chemical manufacturing, or as ingredients in other
products. Many of these solvents become hazardous waste
Raised blood pressure when they are spent, or can no longer be used. When the
Increased risk of coronary heart disease and stroke workers are exposed to such solvents either accidentally
or deliberate it causes serious health problems such as
Cirrhosis of the liver, and cancers of the mouth and toxicity to the nervous system, reproductive damage, liver
throat and kidney damage, respiratory impairment, cancer, and
dermatitis.
Psychological and emotional problems, including
To name a few solvents that are commonly used in
depression
workplaces: paints, adhesives, glues, coatings, degreasing/
Social exclusion. cleaning agents, dyes, polymers, plastics, textiles, printing
inks, agricultural products, and pharmaceuticals.
It takes a healthy liver about 1 hour to break down and
remove 1 unit of alcohol, where a unit is equivalent to 8 Risks to Health and Safety from Substance
gm. or 10 ml (1 cl) of pure alcohol. Even black coffee, cold Abuse at Work
showers and fresh air cannot remove alcohol from the
Drugs and substance abuse substantially hinder the senses
system; only time and a healthy liver can do that.
and reaction times, even at low dosages. Social history in
The best advice for a healthy living is not using alcohol numerous nations has meant that it is commonly available,
at all. But when circumstances impose it at least avoid pre-owned and mistreated. As talked about earlier,
drinking during the following specific situations. “drugs” is a very broad term that can be used both to

legal, prescription drugs and controlled substances. Some affected employees rather than punish them, though the
prescription drugs and lots of controlled substances are policy should say that possession or dealing in drugs at
also addicting. work will be reported immediately to the police.
Effects of Drugs and Alcohol If an employee admits to being a drug user, the policy
should seek to help the individual rather than lead simply
The exact symptoms of alcohol and drug abuse will vary,
to dismissing him / her.
but some general symptoms might be observed:
The Company policy on drugs and alcohol at work should
Late attendance.
deal with the following issues:
Increased absenteeism.
Aim: the policy should apply equally to all grades of
Reduction in quality of work.
staff and types of work.
Reduction in work rate.
Responsibility: a senior employee should be named
Dishonesty.
as having overall responsibility.
Theft.
The Rules: how does the company expect employees
Irritability and mood swings. to behave to ensure that their alcohol consumption
Deterioration in working relationships. does not have a detrimental effect on their work?
These will all be connected with cost to the employer, Special Circumstances: do the rules apply in all
along with increased risk. Drugs and alcohol trigger sensory situations or are there exceptions?
disability, manipulated perception, impaired motor control Confidentiality: a statement assuring employees
and, in numerous instances, fatigue and sleepiness. There that any alcohol problem will be treated in strict
are obvious safety risks connected with alcohol and drugs,
confidence.
e.g. driving a vehicle or operating machinery under the
influence increases the risk to the employee and to others. Help: a description of the support available to
There are likewise health risks for the worker, generally employees who have problems because of their drinking.
connected with long-lasting abuse (e.g. cirrhosis of the Information: a commitment to providing employees
liver due to alcoholic abuse). with general information about the effects of
drinking alcohol on health and safety.
Case in Point:
Disciplinary Action: the circumstances in which
At a construction site, a steel erector burned his hand
disciplinary action will be taken.
badly while bolting and welding the steelwork together. It
was detected that the failure to wear necessary protective Screening
equipment while welding resulted in the incident. Later a It may be appropriate to use screening and testing as a
drug screen test revealed why the worker had forgotten to way of controlling alcohol and drug related problems. The
take safety measures. He had tested positive for drug intake. application of screening can be used, e.g.
Control Measures to Reduce Risks As part of a selection process for job applicants
from Substance Abuse at Work To test all or part of the workforce routinely,
occasionally or on a random basis
Policy In specific circumstances, such as after an accident
Employers should adopt an alcohol policy, in consultation or incident, where there is evidence of drinking that
with their staff which should cover matters such as: contravenes the company’s regulations, or as part of
an aftercare rehabilitation programme
How the organisation expects employees to limit
their substance intake at work To monitor a particular problem, e.g. employees
How to recognise substance misuse problems and reporting for work with alcohol in their bloodstream
offer help to employees from drinking the previous evening.
At what point and in what circumstances you will
treat an employee’s substance intake as a matter for
discipline rather than as a health problem.
Employers should adopt a substance abuse policy, in
consultation with their staff, which may be linked or tied in
with the alcohol policy. This policy should aim to support

ELEMENT
Summary
Noise is unwanted sound and prolonged exposure to noise can leave a person with hearing impairment
Physical effects of exposure to noise
− Tinnitus condition - constant ringing, buzzing or whistling in the ear
− Threshold shift (hearing loss) may be temporary or permanent
− Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL)
Psychological effects of exposure to noise
− Stress
− Sleep disturbance
− Aggressive behaviour
Sound pressure is defined as the force of sound over a surface area. Its standard unit is pascal (Pa)
Frequency is the defined as the measurement of actions over particular period of time. It is measured in Hertz (Hz)
Sound intensity is defined as the rate of flow of energy i.e. sound power per unit area.
Noise level is measured in decibels (dB).
Two types of weighting scales are used to measure noise levels

05
− ‘A’ weighting scale dB(A)
− ‘C’ weighting scale dB(C).
Employers should have the responsibility of assessing risks related to noise factors and implement appropriate control
measures to avoid workers from exposure to noise
Noise can be controlled by attention to the following factors:
− The Source: elimination or reduction at source;
− The Path: providing barriers to the transmission of noise through air or through structures; and
− The Person:
» distance - locating the noise source at a distance from people;
» time - limiting the duration of exposure to noise;
» provision of information and training; and
» provision of PPE (personal hearing protection)
Personal protective equipment like ear plugs, ear muffs safeguards the workers from hearing high levels of noise
Things to be ensured when selecting the PPE
− Noise reduction capability
− Suitability for the purpose
− Compatible with other PPE
− Comfort and convenience
Workers should adhere to employer’s and manufactures’ instructions while using the PPE
To maintain effective usage of PPE, clean and keep the PPE at the designated place after the completion of work
Attenuation (reduction) is the loss of transmission signal strength. It should be considered while selecting the PPE.
Noise measurement is carried out to identify those people at risk from hearing damage so that the employer can
formulate an action plan for controlling noise exposure.

Health surveillance is a systematic process which involves range of methods, techniques and procedures to detect and
assess the early signs of work-related ill-health of workers exposed to certain health hazards like noise or vibration
Methods of health surveillance
− Technical health surveillance – Involves tests like hearing audiometry test
− Non-health surveillance – In involves respiratory surveillance by means of questionnaire
Purpose of audiometry:
− Identification of workers with

» pre-existing hearing damage
» new hearing damage
− Removal/exclusion of such workers from high noise areas
− Investigation of noise controls to rectify problems
As employers have the ultimate responsibility in conducting health surveillance process, he/she must ensure the
following for safe and secure operation in noisy environment.
Conduct periodic hearing check-ups in controlled conditions
− Educate and alert the employees about the noise hazards and its risks
− Maintain health records of those who undergone hearing check-ups
− Ensure the employees prone to hearing damage are examined by a doctor
− Suggest appropriate control measures as per the level of risk
− Enforce the use of personal protective equipment like ear plug and ear muff
Vibration is the term given to shaking movement of the body back and forth around a fixed point
Harmful effects of vibration:
− Vascular disorder
» Impaired Blood Circulation
» Blanching of Fingers
− Neurological
» Numbness
» Tingling
» Reduced Sensitivity
− Muscular
» Reduced Grip Strength
» Reduced Dexterity
− Others
» Pain
» Stiffness in Joints
Hand-arm vibration syndrome is a deficiency caused by hand-held vibrating machineries and equipment. It damages
fingers, hands and arms after prolonged usage of hand-held vibrating machineries.
Hand-arm vibration - Serious and Permanent health effects
− Vascular disorders in finger’s blood vessel
− Neurological disorders

Physical and Psychological Health
ELEMENT
5 123
− Muscle and tendon damage
− Bone and joint dislocation
− White and numb fingers after prolonged usage
The vibration from the supporting surface like seat or floor transmits through the whole body and causes deficiency
called Whole-body vibration syndrome. It is normally experienced by drivers when driving over rough and uneven
surfaces.
Whole-body vibration – Health effects
− Lower back and spine pain
− Fatigue
− Insomnia
− Stomach problems
− Headaches
Vibration risk assessment process helps the employers to screen the employees affected due to prolonged vibration
exposure
Vibration risk assessment provides detailed information about the sources of vibration and its levels and helps the
employers to take appropriate control measures based on the risk levels
Exposure action value (EAV) is a measure of daily amount of vibration exposure (either hand-arm vibration or whole 05
body vibration)
Exposure limit value (ELV) is a measure of vibration exposed by an employee in a single day
Employers should take necessary control measures if the workers exposed to noise higher than the pre-defined
exposure action value and exposure limit value
Employer needs to implement the following control measures in order to reduce the risks associated with vibration
− Preventive Control Measures

» Identify the sources of high vibration and eliminate it wherever possible
» echanise or automate the work to eliminate or reduce the risk of vibration. For example, instead of using a
M
hand-held breaker, breaker attachment could be equipped on an excavating machine to break the concrete
» Use of low-vibration emission tools to avoid excessive exposure to vibration
» Install vibration arrestors in the sources of high vibration if elimination is not possible
» Encourage the use of PPEs like anti vibration gloves
− Precautionary Control Measures

» Choice of equipment – Includes vibration magnitude, composite materials, innovative design
» Maintenance programmes
» Limiting exposure (job rotation, frequent breaks, reducing the duration)
Radiation is the emission of energy from matter. There are two types of radiation
− Non-ionising radiation
− Ionising radiation
The health effects from exposure to radiation are:
− Burns
− Erythema (reddening of the skin)
− Cataracts

− Arc eye
− Sterility and hereditary defects.
Types of non-ionising radiation
− Infrared
− Lasers
− Microwaves
− Radio frequencies
− Ultra-violet
Types of ionising radiation
− Alpha ‘particles’
− Beta ‘particles’
− Gamma rays
− X-rays
− Radon
Exposing to radiation can be controlled by the following ways:
− Time of exposing should be minimum
− Segregation by distance reduces the risk to health
− Shielding
− Use of PPE
− Correct disposal of radiation materials
− Training and supervision
− Good hygiene practices
In addition to the physical control measures, employers have to consult with professionals like Radiation Protection
Adviser (RPA) and Radiation Protection Supervisor (RPS) to comply with the Ionising Radiations Regulations
Health surveillance of workers exposed to ionizing and non-ionizing radiation is carried out either by an approved
medical practitioner or a physician expertise in occupational and radiation health.To determine the fitness of the
workers. it normally includes
− pre-employment medical examination
− periodic health reviews
− Special medical surveillance (skin checks, respiratory checks, radiation dosage checks)
Mental ill-health refers to wide range of mental health conditions which are generally characterized by some
combination of abnormal thoughts, emotions, behaviour and relationships with others.
Common Symptoms of Workers with Mental Ill-health:
Physical effects Headache, dizziness, sweating, aching neck

Psychological disorders Depression, anxiety, insomnia, irritability
Post-traumatic stress flashbacks, nightmares and severe anxiety, as
disorder (PTSD) well as uncontrollable thoughts about the event
Emotional Strain Dissatisfaction, fatigue and tension
Maladaptive behaviours Aggression, abuse, poor service

Physical and Psychological Health
ELEMENT
5 125
Cognitive impairment Poor concentration, time keeping, decision

making
Biological reactions Cardiovascular diseases & Death
Causes of stress:
− Culture
− Demands
− Control
− Relationships
− Change
− Role
Following control measures may be considered to reduce the level of stress
Individual Job Organization

Selecting employees with Clearly defined roles Clear work objectives
appropriate skills and
aptitude.
Training, e.g. interpersonal Comfortable working Communication.
skills and time environment.
Employee involvement. 05
management.
Realistic work schedules.
Management support, in terms of training
Work flexibility, e.g. home and development.
working, flexible working hours.
Stress can be prevented by adopting the following ways.
− Demand - reasonable demands, sufficient resources
− Control - given as much control as possible
− Support - information, instruction, training, additional support
− Relationships - clear anti-harassment and bullying policies
− Role - clear job descriptions, responsibilities and authority
− Change - planning and preparation for change, communication, timescales
Mental ill-health refers to wide range of mental health conditions which are generally characterized by some
combination of abnormal thoughts, emotions, behaviour and relationships with others.
Following are some of the home-work interface factors that need to be considered:
1. Commuting: long hours of commuting to and from the place of work leaves less time for employees for
socializing and spending time with their family and friends.
2. Childcare: with both parents working, workers find it difficult to raise children and are not able to give them
sufficient time
3. Relocation: Organizations may require employees to relocate, this may require workers to stay alone away
from their family and friends, thus getting little or no emotional support when they need
4. Care of frail (vulnerable) relatives: long hours of work will get further complicated if there are relatives who
rely on workers to take care of them in case of illness or disabilities.
Employers could adapt the following measures for the people with mental ill-health to continue to work effectively
− Physical security

− Opportunity for interpersonal contact, and
− Equitable pay
The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) defines work-related violence as “any incident in which a person is abused,
threatened or assaulted in circumstances relating to their work.”
Difference between violence and aggression
− Aggression often taken to be threat, verbal, aimed at an individual.
− Violence often taken to be anger etc. resulting in physical contact of any kind
Violence at work can be grouped under two areas:
− Internal Violence by fellow employees; this can also include bullying
− External Violence such as physical, verbal aggression and assault by people outside the organization
Types of Violence:
Physical E.g. Hitting, slapping, shoving, grabbing, pinching, biting, hair pulling
Psychological E.g. criticism, excessive work demand, not enough work, fear of failure, under-engaging,
over-engaging
Verbal E.g. Using words to criticizing, insulting, or denouncing
Bullying E.g. Shouting at staff, blocking promotion, regularly making jokes about same person,
persistently picking on people in front of others or in private, deliberately ignoring
individual from work activities.
Some types of work where workers are more at risk are:
− Work activities involving direct contact with members of the public. For example, hospitals, benefits Offices,
shops, and railway stations
− Work where money or valuables are stored or handle
− Working alone, i.e. taxi drivers, traffic wardens
Following is the list of control measures for violence
− Train employees to deal with aggression
− Use cheque, credit cards, tokens instead of cash
− Avoid lone working in high risk areas
− Call in system for lone workers
− Training employees to deal with aggression
The inappropriate use of certain substances, both casual and intentional, can lead to several personal and social
problems. Several serious accidents at workplace are mostly a result of substance abuse
Types of substances abused at work
− Alcohol consumption can affect thinking, judgment and mood and have a significant effect on behaviour when
conducting work
− Drug consumption can be an expensive problem for workplace with lot of issues if the worker is a regular user of
drugs
− Inhalation of solvents affects a person’s performance and damage their health
Some of the control measures to reduce risks from substance abuse
− Development of substance misuse policy for all individuals in the organization

ELEMENT
− Separate system to be developed to deal with impaired persons in the workplace
− Adherence to the policy is to be made compulsory
− Provide appropriate training to the persons influenced with alcohols and drugs
− Demonstrate top management’s commitment in following the substance misuse policy
− Screening and testing of all individuals while entering the organization’s premises
05

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96 NEBOSH International General Certificate in Occupational Health & Safety

© NIST INSTITUTE PRIVATE LIMITED NIST/TSD/LD/IG/Version 1/2020

5.4 Mental ill-health

5.5 Violence at work

5.6 Substance abuse at work

© NIST INSTITUTE PRIVATE LIMITED NIST/TSD/PD/IG/Version 2/2021

Noise is a form of energy in the form of a wave, caused

When measuring sound therefore we are not so much

© NIST INSTITUTE PRIVATE LIMITED NIST/TSD/PD/IG/Version 2/2021

Weighting scales – dB(A) and dB(C) Temporary Threshold Shift (TTS)

With the exception of certain peak limits that cause instant

© NIST INSTITUTE PRIVATE LIMITED NIST/TSD/PD/IG/Version 2/2021

determined by averaging the level of noise over an 8 Noise Measurement

2. Noise assessment by a competent person. An

Upper Exposure Action value 85 dB Peak Basic Noise Control Measures:

© NIST INSTITUTE PRIVATE LIMITED NIST/TSD/PD/IG/Version 2/2021

− provision of information and training; and

− provision of PPE (personal hearing protection).

Damping: adding material to reduce vibration (e.g. heavy

Isolate: prevent noise from being transmitted through the

Time exposed: halving the time exposed will reduce the

© NIST INSTITUTE PRIVATE LIMITED NIST/TSD/PD/IG/Version 2/2021

Ear plugs are made from glass down, foam or rubber,

 Are uncomfortable or inconvenient to wear

 Need constant management commitment to ensure

 May introduce secondary risks (failure to hear alarms,

Where there is no practicable alternative, PPE must be:

 Properly selected - technically suitable, comfortable,

 Properly maintained - kept in clean and efficient order

 Properly used - training and instruction and

Hearing protectors need to be worn all the time by people

Types of Ear Protectors Attenuation

© NIST INSTITUTE PRIVATE LIMITED NIST/TSD/PD/IG/Version 2/2021

Role of Health Surveillance:

Hearing Audiometry Test

Audiometer is used to play series of tones through  First aider

 Occupational Health Physician

 Occupational Health Nurse

Health Surveillance in Noisy Environment:

Health surveillance supports the promotion of personal

 Conduct periodic hearing check-ups in controlled

© NIST INSTITUTE PRIVATE LIMITED NIST/TSD/PD/IG/Version 2/2021

 Suggest appropriate control measures as per the

 Enforce the use of personal protective equipment

 Assign alternative work to employees identified with

 Ensure repetitive and continued health surveillance

Vibration is the term given to shaking movement of the  Insomnia

The vibration from the supporting surface like seat or floor

The Effects on the Body of Exposure Harmful Effects of Vibration:

© NIST INSTITUTE PRIVATE LIMITED NIST/TSD/PD/IG/Version 2/2021

When Exposure should be assessed; A(8) Formula:

Comparison of Vibration Exposure Levels

Exposure Action Value (EAV):

 Employer has to take necessary controls actions if the

Exposure Limit Value (ELV):

Daily exposure Daily exposure

© NIST INSTITUTE PRIVATE LIMITED NIST/TSD/PD/IG/Version 2/2021

Source Duration Pathway Person − These materials reduce vibration up to 45%

© NIST INSTITUTE PRIVATE LIMITED NIST/TSD/PD/IG/Version 2/2021

So, preference to be given to the above-mentioned items Other Measures

 Organise work schedules 5.3 Radiation

© NIST INSTITUTE PRIVATE LIMITED NIST/TSD/PD/IG/Version 2/2021

wide range of frequencies from long wave radio waves to

 Erythema (reddening of the skin)

Are uncomfortable or inconvenient to wear

Need constant management commitment to ensure

May introduce secondary risks (failure to hear alarms,

Properly selected - technically suitable, comfortable,

Properly maintained - kept in clean and efficient order

Properly used - training and instruction and

Audiometer is used to play series of tones through First aider

Occupational Health Physician

Occupational Health Nurse

Conduct periodic hearing check-ups in controlled

Suggest appropriate control measures as per the

Enforce the use of personal protective equipment

Assign alternative work to employees identified with

Ensure repetitive and continued health surveillance

Vibration is the term given to shaking movement of the Insomnia

Employer has to take necessary controls actions if the

Organise work schedules 5.3 Radiation

Erythema (reddening of the skin)

Hair loss Teratogenicity effect

Death Other effects: eye

Communication (fibre optics) Ultra-Violet Light

Cause damage externally or internally

Stopped by metal, e.g. Aluminum.

Waves of energy emitted during the radioactive

Extremely high frequency, short wave

Capable of penetrating the body causing internal and

Stopped by lead or thick concrete.

Time Environmental and personal monitoring, e.g. Film badges

Distance Correct disposal of radiation materials

Shielding. Training and supervision

Time Good hygiene practices.

Heat recovery ventilators (HRV), also called an air-

the type of radiation

the absorbed dose The Role of Monitoring and Health

Any sickness absence record and medical concerns

Feeling down or unmotivated for weeks to months.

Sickness absence / ill-health trends

Data showing reduced productivity

High staff turnover.

An increase in sickness absence

Reduced staff morale

Reduced staff performance

Staff seeking alternative employment.

Inform the attending physician or appropriate mental

employer can suffer serious health problem. Before or during driving

Types of Substances Abused at Work Before using machinery, electrical equipment or

Physical effects of exposure to noise

Psychological effects of exposure to noise

Noise level is measured in decibels (dB).

Two types of weighting scales are used to measure noise levels

Noise can be controlled by attention to the following factors:

Things to be ensured when selecting the PPE