Geophysical Fluid Dynamics for for Oceanographers ee Prontice-Hall,In., Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632‘Lray of Congress Catalogog in Poison Data ves er Sr se pitioeapby: Tela de IPbeean dries, 2, Ocean waves \gccursimorpbeeineraction Fite ir ae Fret BEN otsaszs91° (ovial/pcoduction supervision by Steven Booker Cover design: Edsal Enterprises ‘Manufacturing buyers: Gosnox Ossounne and Jover LevaTino © 1980 by Prentice Hall, Inc, Englewood Clif, NJ. 07632 Al rights reserved, No pat of this book ‘nay be reproduced in any form or by any means without permision In writing ‘fom the publisher. Printed jo the United States of Arnica wos76s4a2t | Prentice Hall International, Lne., London |, Prentice Hall of Australia Py. Limited, Saey © Prentice Hal of Canada, Ltd, Toronio Prentice-Hall of India Pivate Limited, New Delht 4 Prentice Hall of Japan, ne, Tokyo {Prentice-Hall of Southeast Asia Pe. Lid, Sagapore P Mthichall Books Limited, Wellngton, New Zealand fe jc | ¢ r i ‘ ( ( ( ( ( a ( i ( | t : To ( Charles L. Taylor, ‘ a friend ( : ( ( ( E ( ; ( { ! ( , ( ( i : ‘ ¢ne a Contents - one Preface xi Review of Vectors and Cartesian Tarsors 1 Inwossction 1 Hl Init Notation, 2 Ht ‘The Kronecker Dota andthe Akerating Unit Tantor, 4 ‘Aadition and Subtraction of Vactors and Tensor, 5 “The Dot Product of Two Vectors, 6 “The Cross Product of Two Vectors, 6 a “The Gradent of Sealer Field, 7, The Divergence of & Vector Fild,! 9 i The Cur of Vector Function of Psion, 8 5 10-The Dyadic Product, 10 1119 The Double Bot Product of Two Vectors, 10 “a 1112 The Snglé Dot Product of Two Tensor, 10 e 4.43 The Dot Peduct ofa Tensor and 8 Vector, 11 F 41.14 Tho Lopacen sf Sealer Field, 11 41-16 Mavices and The arspose, 11 4-18 Masia Mukipiestion, 12 1 1 1 , 1 + 19 Tranaternton of Vectors ad Tenors Between Cartesian Coordinate Systems, 14 1-18 Principal Coorainates, 18 1:19 Two Intogel Theorems fr Vectors and Tensors, 20 “vill Contents ( THREE Wind-Driven Ocean Circulation 179 ( TWO Basic Concepts and Principles in Geophysical ' Fluid Dynamies 21 3-1 Introduction, 178 eee dy of Wind-Drven Cartons in» Barosinic Ocean, 180 ( 2.4 Nowtion 21 3.5 woawerdIntaneicaton of Wind- Driven Ocean Gurens, 188 ‘Crevation, 201 ( 3d Mons Theory ofthe Wind Driven Ocean ce ah Nonlieat Terms in Large Seale | 2.2 The Materiel Derivative, 22 2. Lagrangien Versus Eulerian Representation, 22 2.4 Reprazenaton ofa Flug in Motion, 28 28. Rinamate Modes of 2 Flu 30 2.8 Detormation end Vortty Tensor, 22 3:6 Oualaiva Ete 2.7 Namal Detonation, 35 \._ 25 shee oefomation 96 FOUR The Hydrothermodynemic Equations of a Binary Fluid 226 2.8 Rotation and Voriciy, 38 . 2.10 Summary of Relations Concaring Two-Dimensional 41 Intasvetion. 225 i Rotation and Sear, 40 1 Ganesh and Dissipation of Mochanica! Enetgy, 226 2-11 ative Motion Anais, 4 113 Consent of Total Energy, 231 2.42 Kinematic Classification of Fluid Motion, 97 i ‘2a The Feat Low of Thermodynamics, 234 2.43 The Steam Function, 7 L USS Eowopy and the Second Lew of Theemadyaatnice, 238 2.14 The Veloty Potent), 62 378 Foner Conseavences of Kevin's Hypothesis, 281 260 2.46 Lapiscian Flow. 65 < Setemintion of he Thermodynamic Propries of Seo Water 2:16 the Kinematic Boundary Condition, 68 2.17 Dieuitution of Variables, 63 2.48 The Continuty Equation. 75 2.49 The. Dimensional Letnite Rte and the Reyna Tonspot Theorem. 77 2-20 Moving Cartesan Coorsinee Systems, 78 S221 Newt's Law of Motion ona Rotting Earth, 84 nea of Tidal Forces 265 FIVE _ Large Seale Qcean Waves in the Abs 5-1 Inaduetion, 298 5:2 The Long Wave Eavasons, 258 2.22 Volume Foveas, 86 5.3 Waves of tha Fest Css, 281 2.23 Surace Forces. 87 ' fod Pane Sverdrup Waves, 264 2.24 Symmetry of the Viscous Stes Tensor, 91 ] ot B Pane Poincaré Waves, 274 “S225 The Momentum Equation, 93 | Se Pane fea rowan Waves, 280 5:7 Plane Rossby Waves, 2.26 Representation ofthe Viscous Sress Tensor nd the Nevier-Stokes Equation, 97 2-27 The Hydronic Approximation, 101 i 2.28 the Vowity Equatin, 102 { peerini a 2.2h Conservation of Po'en al Vortiy, 107 2.30 The Bemoult Equa’ en 118 2.31 Bomentary Apsley jon of the Horizontal Eauotions of Moti, 20 2.32 Time Averages For othe Momentum ‘ ted Continuity Equine for incompressible Flow, 134 2.99 Eady Coeffiions, 144 Index 299 é 2.34 Dilfeences Betwoen the Eddy Cosficient, 162 i + 2.36 Estimating tho Eady Coefficients, 163 i 2.38 Elementary Examples of the Application of | ‘ 27 Books for Supplementary Reading dy Coefficients, 171In teaching introductory geophysical fluid dynamics at the Naval Postgrad tuate School, I could not find a textbook to suit the needs of graduate stu dents in my oceanography programs. ‘As is the case in many environmental science departments, the aca- demic background of the students varied greatly. In most instances the ‘students had absolutely no formal education in fluid dynamics beyond under- araduate general physics, Also, for most students, quite a few years had passed since they had completed their undergraduate work. These difficulties probably exist in other similar programs. ‘My problem was to find a textbook directed to the fluid dynamics of the ocean, suitable for beginning graduate students who were academically capable but “rusty,” of sufficient mathematical complexity to be challenging. but not overwhelming, and of such detail in exposition as to be convincing... «= No available single text seemed to meet these requirements and consequently, ‘as many teachers before have done, | began writing and distributing detailed Tecture notes. ‘These notes were well enough received so as to encourage me to formalize the effort. This book is the outcome. xxl Preface ‘The reader will find nothing or the material covered. have attempted to assemble and discuss the subject matter in what ¥ Believe to be 2 clear and cohesive manner, capable of being ninderstood to persons with technical backgrounds even though they may have no formal education in theoretical physical oceanography. Further it has not be my intent ro exhaust any single topic, but to make available sufficient material, of a fundamental Dalure, to seeve as an intelligent starting point for independent and more advanced study. ‘My debt to others is limitless: to my colleagues Robert O. Reid, from ‘whom a part of the material on the hydrothermodynamics of @ binary fluid was obtained, Worth D. Nowlin, J, Jerry Galt, and Dale F. Leipper; to the many students who have endured my lectures; to the dozen students who have allowed me to work out on the handball court the frustrations resulting from the sedentary job of authorship; to Carol J. Sams for typing the draft of the teat; and to my wife Catherine Ann. Tewas possible to write sis book due to the funding provided by the Naval Sea Systems Comman’. represented by John F. Ropek. This most sential contribution allowed cif from teaching duties and provided the time needed to put it all toge' se Joseph J. von Schwind Monterey, California j y ONE Review of Vectors and Cartesian Tensors 1-1 Introduction Physical quomtitics thee are encountered in geophysical fluid dynamics ean be cateyorized as scalars, vectors, or second-order tensors. For example, we have as scalars such quantities as time, temperature, volume, and energy 36 Veotors the quantities of force, velocity, acceleration, and momentum; and as Second-order tensors the quantities of shear stress and momenta flux. Gn Of the methods by which we can distinguish among these quantities 1s as follows: Scalar =a, 5,7 Vector = ¥, a, F (bofdtace) Tensor = ®, (boldface script) For Cartesian tensors in general (where a scalar can be considered #5 3 tensor of order zero and a vector as a tensor of order one) it is possible t© define four different kinds of multiplication: that of the usual arithmetic type ‘and that *¥ three special types: the “dot” product », the “cross” product *, 42 Review of Vectors and Cartesion Tensors and the “double dot” product :. Typically, we have )@) “The rules for detesraiting the order of the result of any of these Four opera~ tions can be summarized as follows: Order of Result 5 Matiptcstion Type \shere 3 is the summation of the order of the terms entering into the opera- tion. Thus, aB is of order 0+ 0=0; m+ F is of order 1+ 12 XV is of order 1-1 — I= Ly and 5 :'is of order 242-4 When itis stated that a certain set of quantities is a tensor of order, it is meant that ways are available to specify its components with respect t0 any set of axes, and that the components with regard to any two sets of axes fare related according to 2 transformation rule appropriate to tensors of that ‘order, In general, a tensor of any order remains invariant and transforms itself under a rotation of the coordinate system. The particular rules that apply will not be discussed at this point (see Seetion 1-17). 1-2 Indicial Notation Let us introduce the unit vectors 1,22, and Ay, referred to the rectangular Gartesian axes shown in Figure 1-1. Using classical vector notation, any vector suchas V situated at an arbitrary point in space P, can be written as V=ViAy + Vals +1 wn Va and Vy are the rectangular projections of V in the x, and x; directions, respectively. The Cartesian components V,, V2,and V, may be represented in indicia (subscript) notation by the symbol ¥, (== 1.2.3), ‘where the subscript éis understood to take on the values 1, 2, and 3 in that toner Therefore, the VT, can be written as UP = VT, where U" and ¥" een etrices, This esult can be formalized by asserting that, if the rules ae ron multiplication are to be used, the repeated subscripts of the indicia} Sfuteafent must be located adjacent t0 exch other. Ths if we Want 19 write e |14 Review of Veetors and Cartesian Tensors U, = VTi, a8 a matrix equation involving column matrices, we know that V must Follow T {rows into columns), that in indicial notation the order of arrangement is immaterial (U, = ¥,T,, = Ty¥_). and that U% TV since the repeated subscripts é are not adjacent. To make them adjacent we can take the transpose of T (i.e. by changing 7, to T,). If, asin (1-32), UT = FT, where UP and V" are row matrices, then we obtain the same components of UP by writing U = TTV. where U and V are now column matrices. ' 1-17 Transformation of Vectors and Tensors Between Cartesian Coordinate Systems Consider the two different Cartesian coordinate systems (xy. Xa) %3) and (44. 45.35), 8 shown in Figure 1-7, Let a, be the cosine of the angle between the axes x7 and x), that is, ty ths Ba a= owtny= [es 3 «| (1-33) Fig. 1-7, Two diferent (primed and unprimed) Cartesian eoordi- For example, a2, is the cosine of the angle between the 2%; axis and the x, axis. Now the vector V has the Cartesian components ¥, in an unprimed system and ¥/ in the primed system. It is easy to relate these two sets of Cartesian components, V, and V%, since the projection of V onto the x4 axis (giving V) is equal to the sum of the projections of the 7 components fn the same axis. Thus, Vin a hyd take t Gy i Transformation of Vectors and Tensors Between Cartesian Coordinete Systems 16 simitarly, Via ani + oaks + ahs (3h) Vim aaVy + eaaPs + OV equation all'of which can be written as the ma ELESSk) 0 vaay (1-36) trix, In indicial notation where A is the matrix a, and is called the rotation mat (1-35) can be writen as Vs (137) ind unprimed axes but otherwise .d components V, can be written in vi Interchanging the roles of the primed repeating the same procedure, the uny terms of the primed components ¥j as Vy Mit aS + ai Vy ia + ans + OV (138) Vy maui teas + V5 v=ave 39) vi = au, 4) In terms of the row matrices VF and (V"J the transformation equation of (1-39) can be written as v= (V¥A u4y We also observe that Aar =I (1-42) and ATA=1 where is the Kronecker delta 6,,. A matrix having this property is sid to be orthogonal. From (I-40) we see that two vectors V, and U, transform according, . ris Gals U, = atts16 Review of Vectors and Cartesian Tensors Suppose that we lt T,, and 7, eqval the dyadic products VU, and VU, respectively. Then Ty = VU) = Oy (9) which i frequently taken as the definition ofa second-order tensor; that is, 2 second-order tensor is define as a quantity whose nine components trans- form according to (1-43). The inverse of this expression is found by multi- plying through by a. Thus i Bj from using (1-42) becomes EteiT ey = SBT a njTing Tn or, after renaming the indexes, Ty (4) In matrix notation the transformations of (1-43) and (1-44) can be written as ee 45) and T= ATAT (1-46) respectively 1-18 Principal Coordinates Consider the vector equation TW, =a, «4 where T,, is a symmetrical tensor, ¥; is some vector, and 2 is some scala. Ifa vector V, other than V, = 0 satisfies this equation for any value of 4, is called an eigenvector of T,, and the associated value of 2 is called an eigenvalue. The mattix form of (I-47), Ta Ts Tals] [hi [Fr Tis re e (1-8) Ty Tr TNMs Vs. represents the three homogeneous algebraic equations (Ty — DV, + Tas + TVs = 0 ' TaVi + Tax — Wa + Tas (49) TV + Tae + (Ts — DW = 0 j i t 1 i i : | t Principal Coowdingtes 12 ‘The condition that there are solutions other than the trivial one Fy - 0 is that the determinant of the coefficients be eyuat tu 2210: det (T,, ~ 25,) = 0 bo) Gp | T, Ta Ts JH 0 (1-50) Pee ae eet Evaluating (I-50), we have that BE he-LAth=0 as) where NheTat Tat Ta y= TyTast TaTy + TT ~ TeTe, TT Ton Tats +P TaT + TsTaToa dx, Taking 4V,J@x, as positive, sides AB, BC, CD, and AD all rotate clockwise through an angle (9¥/0x,) dr, or (BV /@x,) dt, in atime interval dt as seen in Figure 2-12. Here we then have no shear deformation (nor normal deforma- tion), but only rotation about an axis through the center of the element and As viewed by obser trating swith eoeity 73). ig. 212, Rotation ofan infinitesimal Noid element 8 axis with an angular speed of 4Y/@x, or AV,/0x,. Both ‘ation in the same sense in that by convention tive and clockwise rotation as parallel to the Of these represent a rate of rot wwe take counterdackwise rotation as posi negative (Figure 2-13) ay, wepresents the rate fof rotation in a negative tease (clocks) ofa ine niall ong thexp-axis in dagrany BY, /04 > 0 nd tation is clockwise Velocity profile pviewed relative coordinate ye transiting ih point (4.2) avy/any reprewents the rate ‘of ftation in the postive Sense (ounterlocs wis) of 2 in nally along he Sysanyn diagram 319/08 Zo and rotation iclockise Fig. 248, Sense of eotation de to velocity gradients sino tating a rigid body as was ese in our er eat i Tn most cases, and itis example tats, dV, [dny doesnot equal 185 i E rare Pet pit to define an angular speed ot eect inthe wsal sey cae Fo a fy then, we ose an average of the to ane “ii oysides- av fbx, the negative sgn being required sn Fae ag pie lation while g/d, > O proces negate eration. We ean now define the vorticity of the fluid about the x, axis as 65 such that40° Basie Concepts and Principles in Geophysical Fluid Dynamics For the case of three-dimensional flow, we would expect to have rotation (or vorticity) about all three of the Cartesian axes and the preceding ‘elation can be expanded to the three equations: av, oie gag (230) Ga This apparent that these car i represented as te single vector equation SH Gh +Gh +Gb (23h where § is the vorticity vector -nd Ty, fp, and 1, are it vectors in the x a, and 2, directions, respectively, Clearly, (231) is identical 0 (113); the vorticity i merely the curl of the fluid velocity vector f=¥x¥ (232) fin indicia! notation, as fen Set ea Finally itis seen that {2+ and {5 are, from (2-2), just wie the value of the thre terms required to speciy the vorticity tensor &, 2:10 Summary of Relations Concerning Two-Dimensional Rotation and Shear For the two-dimensional flow situation the differential requirements on the velocity components are, in summary, as follows: 1. Shear deformation without rotation: ay, ay iy a? and ay, dey * ae, *° Hs Nico Hives In this section we will examine aed make an analysis of the character of the motion ofa fluid in the neighborhood of a point in the Nui. To proceed, assume that the velocity of the fluid at a point P with position vector x, ‘and that simultaneously the velocity at an adjacent at time Fis VCs, BV); Figure 2-14. Then, to point Q with position vector (x, + 7) is i the frst order in rat time ¢ Wo Bi pH 81, Be Bt arr ess 2, Kelative motion of sdjacent fui packs. W have already seen that the tensor d¥,/dx;, the velocity yralient tensor, cats be divided into two tensors, one of which is symmetrical an one of which is antisymmetrical, Therefore, we ean write that bv, = 6 + ove 3) where BV! =r Dy (256)42 Basie Concents and Princiotes in Geophysical Fluid Dynamics and ove Ry 37) 1, and &,, being detined by (2-22) and (2-23), respectively, as the deformation tensor and the vorticity tensor. The first term on the right of (2-35), 5, ean be written as the nega tive gradient ofa scalar function @. (Since we are dealing only with the sym-| ietrie portion of the motion, that portion being irrotational, @ is actually ‘what we will later call the velocity potential function, the negative gradient of which gives the velocity.) Thus, OV! = Dy (2-38) $= War Pon 239) 1o verify (2-39) we ean expand first on & fo obtain 8 Geer Din + PateDan ateDan) and then on™, 8 GAD yt didi tdi : 1 Sear: Day tb AEDay + dears Das AstiDay cb SarsDas f ARDas) the negative gradient of which satisies (2-38). $(r) = constant defines a family of surfaces which ate similar quadries (ie. Family of elipsoids, Ayper- hhaoids, or some special form of these): and from (2-38), 6V}" is normal to the quadrie passing through the point determined by 7, Additional insight can be gained as to the character of 3Y{"' by con- sidering the following, In (ernis of matrix notation (2-39) can be written as $- — or (2-40) 3» I matrix, Disa 3 x 3 matrix, and eis the transpose of #5 [On Da Dulin @ Mlrvrersl] Das Daz Das} | rs (24, Dyy Daz Das SLry ‘The transforination af the vector r, from one Cartesian coordinate system {0 another ean be written, as seen from (1-36), as the matrix equation to Ar 24) where ris thus, Aelotve Motion Analysis 93 [He # £1 rotation matrix, which we have seen has as its mem- ‘oordinate axes of the two systems Je between the Fy axis se of where the matrix Ais the bers the dieton cosines between the coordina Recall, for example, that a), is the cosine of the ane axis, Now multiplying both sides of (2-42) by the transp and the rs AAS we gel AG ATA which since A is orthogonal can be written, from (1-42), as an (@4) and again taking the transpose to obtain = (AT = PA ew Returning to (2-40), substitution of (2-43) and (2-44) results in $= -HADATT (245) Since D is a symmetric matrix, we have from (1-46) and (1-58) that 40 0 07 Apar=|0 2” 0 2-46) 0 0 where Dis a disgonal matrix with the three eigenvalues 2°, 4%, and 2° ‘on the diagonal. Using this, the velocity potential function ¢ has the particu: Marly simple form 2-07) ao 0 DIA. oa —HAdjO ae 0 |r (248) foo wll, which upon expansion yields b= fart | aE + a7) (249) the tilde and, are the components of the vector 7, referred to (2-49) as that of a family of quadrics whose Further- where Fy. coordinate system. We recognize faves of reference coincide with the principal axes of the tensor D,,.44 Basie Concepts and Principles In Geophysice Fluid Dynamics more, its readily verified tha By ~ ciitaiDin ~ BieDin Dus 250) or cn 4a g gor Ys Bg B84 M9) = sn, mmetric tensor is invariant under any which states that the trace of a syr being the divergence of the coordinate transformation, the trace of Dy, velocity From (2-38) we see th tuibution SV!" to the relative velocity has the three components 80) = Ayr Aas Ait ‘car the position x, that is parallel Jemnent have the same r; and ry atin the principal coordinate system the con “This mcans that any material ine element to the ry axis (thus all points on the Hine coordinates) continues to maintain its orientation but is stretched at a rate™ Bei) Simitarys all materia ine elements parallel to the 7 and Fy sack are being stretched at rates 2° and 2°, respectively, without rotation figure 2.13) Any material ie element not parallel t0 one of the fF OF Fs seer in genctal, experience both stretching and rotation, This stretching aie into however will be only to the extent required so as to maintain a eae with the pure stetching motion undergone by the line elements purallel to any one ofthe principal as. iy, 2:45. Symmetrical portion Gf relative motion of material Tne elements Paral to tbe 7, principal axes. i The contribution of JY} to the relative motion represents pure mation tensor D,, is completely determined by straining motion, The defor incipal rates of strain the direction of its principal axes and by the three pri Bi, 42, and 4°, Another wy of looking at the symmetric portion of the felative velocity field is tha’ z material surface element near point P (Figure id) which initially is sphe i is converted into an ellipsoid with principal land having rates of extension proportional diameters which do not 1 3 | | etaive Moun Anahsis 8 to-A°, 2, and 0 1 the id is incompressible the vol of the fist fic, 0) and Dy 9. On the other hand, if the ud is Crimes to consider the pure straining motion n, for which the rate of eatension 4D,, and a straining is constant (@¥,) compressible, itis convenient 2 fs the superposition of an isotropic expansion of all line elements parallel to the principal axes is frotion without a change in volume as follows: Diy =$ Dax + Duy ~~ 45D) Da] 258) [Pu © 0] [Pu ~4Pu =¥o Du 0 | i | Das Dy lo Qe oD, Ds Dy Dy ul ie right represents the isotropic expansion and the where the frst term on th Wn, The velocity potential 4, from second the nondivergent straining motio (2-39), is then written b= deur (Dy ~ uD Y Returning to (2-37), we next examine that portion of the Felive locity fed represented by the antisymmetric tensor, Sinee is antiy1 vrei, it has only three independent components and can be seritfen 3 0 GG Gaye 0 - “i % bP ow by Heike (255) xy vector with componcits {and 6nd the astor 1g as aiven by (2-33) com url of the velocity it part of the relative and (58), where g, isthe vortci Of 4 1s included so as to make the definition o patible with the definition ofthe vorticity as being the (2.32), The contribution then of the antisymmetrical Nelocity AV to the relative velocity 87, is, from (2 BVP = iby = Rew ibe (230) on, in conventional vector notation, BV = He x) AG x “y+ can be viewed as the velocity produced at the exists a rigid-body rotation vs) from which we see that 3 reign reaive toa pont about which ther Srangular velocity 4 "To summarize, dimensions of a small region an be considered 0 consis der in the linear it has been shown that to the first oF the velocity field ‘surrounding the position Xi, f the superposition of48 Basie Concapts and Princpies i Geophysical Fluid Dynamics 1. A uniform translation with the velocity ¥4%). 2. A pure straining motion characterized by the deformation tensor ,,, which in turn may be resolved into an isotropic expansion and a straining motion without a change of volume. 3. A rigid-body rotation with an angular velocity of 4, With this in mind, the Buid velocity at the point (x, +r) may be! written tothe fit-order as Vick = Vad + Ariat Meakin, 250) where D, and ¢, are evaluated at point x; To firm up the concepts just covered concerning relative motion, we ‘will analyze two simple examples in some detail First, consider the case of simple shearing motion in which plane layers of fluid slide over each other. The relative velocity 4Y; then is taken every- ‘where in the same direction and is assumed to vary linearly in magnitude with respect to the distance perpendicular to SV, Let coordinate axes, as in Figure 2-16, be chosen such that the velocity gradient dV/8x, ig nonzero oly for i Ij 2: that i, from (2-34), av, = (72 9%1,0,0) 259) Aso, from (2-29, $ fran Se (2-60) and from @2-23) &~ (0.0, -$4) 25n To examine the various symmetric and antisymmetric features of the flow and to see how they fall out of the analysis, we can start with the Yon) ¥,=0 Fig.246, Simple shearing motion Ielative Motion Analysis 87 detormation tensor written as where From this and (2-41), @ is given by 0 4 oP ; sieves [| oo Olle, 45 = —Hlevrars) [>| ° nS fe can obtain the symmetric component of the flow directly of ¢, and in this particular case it is ot so 8. Thus, From (2:38) w« from the negative of the gradient complicated that we cannot see what it mean arp = $B mrs. 4n5.0 (26 shown in Figure 2-17. a plot of whic Fig. 217. Symmetric part_ of Felative flow for simple shear. Since we are trying to understand how the mathematics relates to the flow charactersties, let us proceed to transform the given coordinates into a principalaxes system, The eigenvalues of D, from (2-50), are found by48° Basie Concepts and Principles in Geophysical Fluid Dynamics solving the determinant Dyna “which results in the characteristic equation PA 4SA=0 whose roots are A= 45, 0, 48 Utilizing (1-56), the eigenvectors are given by DyeP = Aref? m= 123 Applying this to the eigenvalue of 2 = —BS, we have that Pee sel = —45et Se" = —4set? 0 = ~4se In addition, we require the ig :nvector ef” to be of unit magnitude, imposing tie condition ated Solving this st of equations, we obtain 4 1 die- at aso yr TE which is the first eigenvector, and as such, (of the rotation matrix of (1-33) and (1-54), giving the di ‘axis designated by the bracked superscript (1) with respect faxes designated by the subscripts 1,2, and 3. Continuing, BEE the fest TOW (yy Aras 9) ection ofthe principal to the original for the second Felatve Motion Analysis 49 eco 0 and efel which gives, upon solving a0, the second row of the rotation matrix; the direction of the principal axis designated by the superscript (2) with respect to the original axes designated by the subscripts 1, 2, and 3. For the last eigenvector, eel ea yielding Sn for unit magnitude, gives the solution which, along with the condi ee ot im Pag Beye 3 Putting all of this together, we have the complete rotation matrix ° ra de pr | A=a-| 0 0 1 ie L yr vr ° ‘As a check on our work up to this point we can apply (1-46) 10 the form ADAT m9 0 d=[0 a 0 0 0 a where 6 is given by1 50 Besie Concerts and Principles in Geophysical Fvid Dynamics Substituting then for this particular flow, pa o| | =5 QED. o 0 a To determine the orientation of the principal coordinat aoe he principal coordinates, we write which after substituting for a, gives 1 “gent and in the tilde coordinate system the velocity potential ¢ is, from (2-47), 6-6 is 00 1%, Hevird| 0 0 0 [irs Pee srt Sr which, as shown in Figure 2-18, plots as a family of hyperbolas in the Pry 7, plane, Differentiating the $ expression, one obtains the negative of the Sommetrical velocity components in the F, and 7, directions, f= -a7, respectively, These seus show that we have a contraction along the fy aeration aang the ans and that these axes are rotated 45° clockwise ae ne rane fom the andr ats, especie as shown in Figure Sror'th then completes the anayis of he symmetric potion of the relative flow ‘Going onto the antisymmetial part of the relative from (255, motion, we have Gs [-s00 igopata 6, = (0,0, —S) Fig. 218. Isoine of the velocity potential ¢ with reference to the Drcipal coordinates for simple shear flow and positive velocity rain52 Basic Concepts and Principles in Geophysical Fluid Dynamics | Rolative Mytion Ansys 88 i | a | & ‘ i | i/ ve vt ie, 2419, Ovienaton of ttn Bee sd dec of ry Sem sr perion of maton for | oh ‘ Ste shar i ! | | BVP = Seah ta = GSr —48t 4, OD » \ andi ilostated in Figure 20 aa eae or resus, we can resonstruct the ow fl fom ste ayant and aneoymmetial parts 2 0 Figure 221, robin the Syme ltive wy cmpoen pce estan Te nmi eave voy component eee stain original field of simple shearing flow. ‘AS a second example, consid deformation tensor ler the fluid flow represented by the ee _ Resultant elative velocity ord Foents representing pre srining notion an rotation fo ssi 110 ple seat flow. ia which is nondivergent since D, ~ 0. The eigenvalues of the miatsix are given by aod 1a te 11-8 with the resulting characteristic equation wy 3a- =1,—1, and 2. her special case in thar 2 atuftiple root (—1) there is only one unique principal train in the plane normal igenvectors; whose roots are 2 This example is a rat exists. As we will see, this implies that xis of «ain, which is afso an axis of symmetry for sl Fig. 2:20, Antsymmerrical pot= fo that ancs. This sult i illustrated from a determination ofthe e fiom of motion for the case of simple shea How.S54 Basie Concepts and Princnles in Geaphysice Fuld Dynamics for 21-1 (or equivalently for 2 = —1), fot per a” to a ffes | = Jes" Lr olleso! Lo yielding the three equations a bef = mel a) bene sshict reduce to the single relation ope beh 0 and when combined with the condition for a unit vector, beat iat points out the indeterminacy of the direction of the ei joy from the oot(s) 9 = 22" =I However, for 2°” | “ 10 yferl= ar I 1 ol $ , ade PP eB Be nhick along with the unit vector condition reduces to a een etm He hiely states thal the cnsine oF the angle (54.8°) between the fy axis and the 2, anis, between the Fy axis and the r, axis, and between the, axisand the panies is Ha 3 (Figure 2-22), Additionally, since 2% is positive «hile 4° dnl 2 se negative and equal, the fluid is undergoing expansina alone the 7, axis and isotropie contraction in the plane normal to this axis. To scrify this conclusion, we can make use of the property of the stream Ielative Motion Avaiysis 98 Fig, 222, Principal axes for the flow condition of example (b). 13 function 6. As inthe previous example, from (247), = yr br <1 0 OW, Weta] 0 1 Ol oo ally, ann (2.63) siving 36 4, rae or, * Which ae the velocity components in the 7,,F:, and 7, directions, respectively: And as assert, represents isotropic contraction in the FF, plane and expan- sion along the f, axis. The family of quadrics represented by ¢ differ as ¢ is positive or negative. For 6 > 0, (2-63) is the equation of a family of hyperboloids of two sheets opening inthe positive and negative f, directions. Sections parallel to the P,P, and FF, planes are hyperbolas; the traces in the ffs plane are circles, For ¢ «= 0 (2-63)is the equation of a hypetbotoid of one sheet: sections parallel to the #7, and 7,F, planes are hyperbolas, the tracesin the ff plane Jasin being circles, With Fy taken in the direction ofthe axis of symmetry of the strain, let 7 be the radial coordinate in the plane normal to this axis (0, but otherwise indeterminate). The quadricsurfaces mal to the quadric surfaces the FF (and F, are normal t land the streamlines (which are everywhere or Since oF! is in the direction of the negative of the gradient of @) ijn Geophysca! Fluid Dynamics 56 tusie Concepts and Princip plane would look as shown in Figure 2-23, where # isthe material point of the medium relative ( svhicl the streamline pattern applies In other words. the material near point P apzeurs to be flowing relative to P, as shown. Also itlustrated ate Lnes of zero stair rate (or of zero fractional rate of separation) ‘which join poiats having pa alll velocity vectors, Lines of 20 } Steamies| Isolins of §> 0, seston of hyperboiids of to sheets Isotine of ¢ <0, section of hyperboloits of one sheet ig, 223, Iolines ofthe velocity potential and streamlines forthe flow fd of example (b) a8 viewed normal tothe 7 7 plane On the other hand, viewed in the plane normal to the fy axis, the ‘es appear, as in Figure 2-24, as a convergent flow. Isolines ‘or the more general case where 2° ses with principal relative streamlin of ¢ in this special case are circles. Fi find 42) are both positive bu’ sot equal, they would be elip faxes in the direction of 7, ard *y he Steuns Fomion — 87 Fig, 224, lolnes ofthe velity potential and srearaines forthe ow fil of example (0) 3s viewed Swealines jn plane normal t Fax. eolines of & 2-12 Kinematic Classification of Fluid Motion ‘A method of clasifying different types of fluid wotion is according to Kine= ‘patie (kinematics: treatment of motion without reference to particular forets or bodies) properties; for example, there are large classes of nation dealing swith divergenceless (incompressible) fuids, with irrotational (zero vortioly) Tow, and with deformationless (like that of solid bodies) motion. & schematic ting various special types of motion is presented in Figure diageam illustra fenotes the overall relative importance 2.25. The size of the various blocks d the amount of material available in the literature dealing wit the other hand, isin rough measure inversely propo dea of the appropriate block. The condition imposed upon each type of motion is stated under each title, Where overlapping occurs, more than «ne Condition is imposed; for example, Laplacian flow represents that for which foth ¥ x Vand ¥ + Vare zero and is more extensively studied than any other in the classical literature of hydrodynamics. 1 is apparent, however, that is merely special casein the general scheme of possible Kinematit behavior hw given classi: jamal to the fication, « iti 2-43 The Stream Function cular fluid motion is two-dimensional and nondivergent, its velocity Ifa part yy a single scalar function, the siream function field can be represented by Letting y(x, » £) represent this funetion, thenLaplacian (V0, oxV=0) | Acoustiat ibrations Divergentess (7 Fig. 2-25. Schematic diagram for the kinematic classification of Ai tions, ce ow Hon ¥ (264) ae som this se see that, assuming that y has continuous first and second thr te ton Fe womterget sine for vo dense fon Vv SER RH + 5G) “0 where Vowin ess) Utilizing (2-64), i is seen that V ean be written ay, 4 3¥ rae = —Yy xk (2-66) Thea Wy Vs —¥y s(-7¥ xk) - (yx Ww) ek = 0 ‘and from the definition of the dot product, at # xy one time V must be normal to the gradient of y. But, since the gradient o° y is normal to isolines of yr wwe conclude that V is parallel to the isolines of y and that isotines of y are therefore streamlines. Additionally, (2-66) states that the magnitude of the ‘elocity is inversely proportional to the spacing of isolines of y provided that these isolines are constructed for equal increments of y (Figure 2-26). It is ot generally true, hovever, that streamlines are isolines of w since stream Tines can be constructed for divergent flow, for which ease the stream function does not exist Wve ays ty bee 20 AY whore n= distance measured Sr * dm normal to streamlines wi ig. 2-26. The elation betseen fsoines of the stream function, steeamlines, and Mid veloc [A physical interpretation of the stream function results from the following considerations. The volume transport of fluid per unit z distance having units of (length) /timeD/flength)) across any cylindrical surface60 Basie Concepts and Principles in Geophysical Fld Dynamics connecting points P and Q of Figure 2-27 is given by the ine integral Om rds tat (2.67) where Vis the velocity component normal tothe surface. The determination Bo is hot dependent on the existence of the stream function; however, in General the quantity @ depends upon the path of integration. Now It Qs wey; be the volume transports per unit 7 distance aeross the surfaces those projection on the x,y plane are curve | and curve 2, respectively (igure 227) Then = JP Words Os [Waeds me and on tom [Pde [des . (28) oe rrr , caret Fig. 227, Proction of a sieht nal soe ia the 3 10.0 pine Using the divergence tear [vevaew fae vas ) where » and A designate integration over the volume and the area, respec the integral on the right of (2-68) can be transformed such that we -[ Gree en em In this case the integral, since we are dealing with a unit = distance, is the ‘counterpart of the volume integral of (2-€3); that is, for a unit z distance the ds and V, of (2-68) are equivalent to the d and (a + V) of (2-69) and do ‘Of (2-69) is equivalent to the dof (2-70). In (2-70) the area over which the ration is to be carried out is that enclosed by the curves | and 2. tively, obtain Q- 2 integr Now itis efewe that the condition of no to the condition of Q, being equal to Qs. F integration for Q, and Q, are arbitrary, itm: 0, @ is independent of the path of integra given time dQ is an exact differential The Stream Function — 84 divergence of How everesponds ‘urthermore, since the paths of ay be concluded that for ¥ + V tion, This implies that for any Since y is a function of only xand y at any geven te ay = $a js an exact differential, For V+ V0, then f dy = vde~udr Bac Pa wn from (2-04), ry word foe vd way tne pat, om ot (0) it i re Se a and, consequently 000,01 Fig. 2.28. Volume transport sero arbitrary surface element ‘This asserts that the value of the stream fu associated with point; that the difference between ny given time represents the volume transps unit distance (For our case, between any two isolines of y must t ‘vith the observation that isolines of y are str zo flow across them (Figure 2-29) the volume transport between that point ralues of y of neighboring isolines at per unit z distance). Tie volume herefore be constant, which is consistent 1) being completely arbitrary. Brom dy = Vuds Pee) snction at the point (X80) 6 and a reference ort between those isolines Per anspor ceamfines and as such ean have62 ose Concepts snd. p18 and Principles in Geophysicel Fluid Dynamics SF me oe ba Fig. 229, Relation between vol ume transport and iselines of the stream unetion, To stmmarize 1A stream fasion exists for each exists for exch and every two-dimension incompressible ow, shether vised oritvised sens 2: Lines for which the stream Function is a constant are .treambi 2 Atany given time in Cartesian coordinates, _ ae a ne and, in genera, s : v8 1 a where + is measured 90° countere! nee ensured 90 counterclockwise from nas istated in Fig 230, Rlaon tener io- Ins of he stem foci the Pad weoy a te mtr x Grodin Som 2-14 The Velocity Potential Wa particular laid mot particular luid motion is ierotational, itis possible to represent the field ff flovs in terms of a single sealar Function $( 5,35) as va —¥6 em The Velocity Potente! — 69 yy ob wn Be we er, is called the velocity potential. Unlike the stream fe only to two-dimensional, nondivergent flow, ‘dimensional case. However, atany given time ¢,, where & function, which is applicable the velocity potential is defined for the three the necessary condition for the existence of @ that the flow be irrotational requires that aw do du_ dw iy "de dz ax mal to the [As is evident from (2-74), the fluid velocity is directed norr equiscalar surfaces of, its sense being toward ow values of and its ma. tude given by vi= | er) nce measured normal to the equiscalar surface atthe point Surfaces are constructed for equal intervals of ‘tional to the spacing of the surfaces. Figure for the special case of two-dimensional flow. where mis the dista in question. Af the equiscalar $, then [Vis inversely propor ilystrates these concepts » wie [24 46°6:- = - O owe |v High 6 ots os ig. 231. Relation between iotnes of the velocity potential and the Hid velocity: ‘of the velocity potential, ality, we proceed as fol- expressed as ‘To eain further insight into the character as well as to substantiate the assertion of irrota ows, At any one time the differential d@ can 5 — $B dc + Mayo hae 77 which, from (2-75). can be writen dg ~ (ude 4 ody b wae) or)G4 Basle Concepts and Prinioles in Geophysical Fluid Dynanics Thus, ifthe velocity field is known, $ at 2 point P(x, ¥, 2,) ean be evaluated fromthe line integral ee in taken as the reference point. In the light of th Fectly arbitrary. To prove this where the oi that V x V = 0, the path of integration is ped! wwe write (2-79) as tne em Berney — [OP ve ds being the tangential component of V along the path of integration and ds the differential line vector ds = idx + jdy + kdz If, as in Figure 2-32, we consider two different paths, curve | and eurve 2+ then the difference in the v=!3es of @ obtained from integration is made (So ua] sy Amine Sok here, fear fae v x via ean { cane '010,0,0) Fig. 232, Integration of tangential component of uid velocity round closed path : tothe lst ine, of 2-8, be ben fever ven ete A hes fan bay st sae thee that 1! ” = require that @ 2» which nat is, that the uid How be srrot Tand 2, It view of the de: arbitrary path be unique an vial from (2-83) necessitates that V ¥ tional as asserted previously. “To summarize: 1. The velocity potential exists if and only iP the flow ts wrota no other restrictions are required. 2. The fluid velocity is given at any particular time by v= —Ws ion; 2-15 Laplacian Flow is both nondivergent and ixcotational of the scalar functions y or 6. This ed and ‘A wwo-dimensional fiekd of flow which ‘can be characterized by cither (or both) ‘ope of flow, bearing the ame Laplace, has been extensively invest rie much of the bulk of the classical literature of hydrodynames Tror two-dimensional flow, the conditions implied by the stipulation that Ve V= and Vx V = Oare au a au_ ae day ay ” We have seen that the relations ay oy (2-93) wen gy 9 ax satisfy the fst of these, while ee ea) placian flow both of (2-88) must be sats sion menting (85) ao te second pact of (2-64 hl Par ad), we find thatthe fanetions gal & mest place's equation, fy the second. L tancousl. Consequent {2-86 into the fist par ein the two-dimensional form of La vy =0 i (287) vig =0 tial equation, Also, since boines Of ¥ Sele that isoline® OY elliptic, partial differ ines of @ are normal co Y, iti I, as shown in Figure 2-33. a second-order, fare parallel to V and iso land ¢ must be orthogonal