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An EasyGuide to APA Style
3e
Dedicated to writers everywhere, fledgling or otherwise, gently bemused by the morass of
stylistic red tape threatening to hinder their creative instinct and their quests for the holy
grail of literary excellence
An EasyGuide to APA Style

3e

Beth M. Schwartz
Heidelberg University

R. Eric Landrum
Boise State University

Regan A. R. Gurung
University of Wisconsin-Green Bay
For information:

SAGE Publications, Inc.

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Printed in the United States of America

Names: Schwartz, Beth M., author. | Landrum, R. Eric, author. | Gurung, Regan A. R., author.

Title: An easy guide to APA style / Beth M. Schwartz, R. Eric Landrum, Regan A.R. Gurung.

Description: 3e [edition]. | Los Angeles : SAGE, [2016] | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2015040055 | ISBN 978-1-4833-8323-1 (spiral : alk. paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Psychology—Authorship—Style manuals. | Social sciences—Authorship—Style
manuals.

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http://lccn.loc.gov/2015040055

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Brief Contents
Preface
About the Authors
Section I. Overview
1. APA Style Versus Format: Why It Matters to Your Audience and Why It Should
Matter to You
2. Your Visual Table of Contents QuickFinder
Section II. Writing With (APA) Style: Big-Picture Items
3. General Writing Tips Specific to APA Style: General Bare-Bones Fundamentals
4. A Quick Grammar Summary for APA–Style Writing
5. Plagiarism and How to Avoid It: Thou Shalt Not Steal (or Be Lazy)
6. Avoiding Biased Language
Section III. Writing With (APA) Style: Getting Down to Business
7. Writing Your Introduction: Tying the Story All Together
8. Citing Sources in Text: Whodunit (or Said It)?
9. A Step-by-Step Playbook of Your Method: How, What, When, Who, and Where?
10. Writing About Statistics and Associated Fun: How Did It All Turn Out?
11. Writing Your Discussion: It’s a Wrap
12. Everybody Needs References
Section IV. Presenting Your Work in APA Format
13. The Numbers Game: How to Write Numbers (and When the Rules Change)
14. Formatting: Organizing, Headings, and Making Your Work Look Good to Print
15. Table That Motion: The Special Challenges of Tables and Figures
16. Make Microsoft Word 2013 Work for You: APA Formatting
Section V. Some Nitty-Gritty Details
17. Making a List, No Apps Required: Enumeration and Seriation
18. Abbreviations, Signs, Symbols, and Punctuation: The Devil Is in the Details
Section VI. In Closing: Important Considerations
19. Using Rubrics: Knowing What It Means to Write a Good Paper
20. Proofreading the Entire Paper: Get It Right!
21. Complete Sample of an Experimental (Research) Paper: Samples, Anyone?
22. How to Avoid the Most Common Mistakes: All Together Now
Appendix A. Error List for Chapter
Appendix B. APA Style and Format Checklist
References
Index
Detailed Contents
Preface
Our Reader-Friendly Approach
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
SECTION I: Overview
1. APA Style Versus Format: Why It Matters to Your Audience and Why It Should
Matter to You
What Is the Difference Between APA Style and APA Format?
Why APA Style Anyway? Wasn’t MLA Good Enough?
In the Long Run, Attention to Detail Matters (Including APA Style and Format)
Write for Your Specific Audience: Term Papers Versus Formal Research Papers
2. Your Visual Table of Contents QuickFinder
The Sample Paper With Content and Page Numbers
SECTION II: Writing With (APA) Style: Big-Picture Items
3. General Writing Tips Specific to APA Style: General Bare-Bones Fundamentals
Clear and Succinct Writing: Using Your Scholarly Voice
Commonly Confused Words in Psychology and Beyond
Subject–Verb Agreement
Active Voice Versus Passive Voice in APA Style
Some (But Not Too Much) First-Person Usage
Avoiding Anthropomorphism
4. A Quick Grammar Summary for APA–Style Writing
Parts of a Sentence
Parts of Speech
Common Grammar Mistakes to Avoid
5. Plagiarism and How to Avoid It: Thou Shalt Not Steal (or Be Lazy)
But I Didn’t Know . . .
It Sounds Like a Bad Word
Quoting: More Than Just a Copy and Paste
Paraphrasing: In Your Own Words
An Author’s License (Yours): Modifying Source Material
But I Can Freely Use My Own Work, Right?
How About This for a Plagiarism Awareness Exercise?
6. Avoiding Biased Language
The Fundamental Lesson: View People as Individuals First
Specific Recommendations for Reducing Bias: Nonsexist Language and Other
Areas
Sexual Orientation
Racial and Ethnic Identity
Disabilities
Occupations
Gender and Pronouns: With an Indefinite Recommendation
SECTION III: Writing With (APA) Style: Getting Down to Business
7. Writing Your Introduction: Tying the Story All Together
What to Include in Your Introduction
 Formatting Your Introduction Section
Getting Your Introduction Started
Using an Outline: Organizing Your Literature Review
Common Mistakes to Avoid in Your Introduction
Outline for the Sample Introduction Section Included
Sample Paper
8. Citing Sources in Text: Whodunit (or Said It)?
A Good Rule of Thumb
Ready, Cite, GO
In-Text Citation Basics
Some Curveballs
9. A Step-by-Step Playbook of Your Method: How, What, When, Who, and Where?
Where in the Flow of Pages Do You Place the Method Section?
Where in the Method Section Does This Information Go?
Subjects/Participants
Materials and Apparatus
Procedure
Formatting Your Method Section
10. Writing About Statistics and Associated Fun: Did It All Turn Out?
Let Us Talk Statistics
Basics and Beyond
Formatting Your Results Paragraph
Including Effect Size and Power
11. Writing Your Discussion: It’s a Wrap
Formatting Your Discussion Section
What to Include in Your Discussion Section
Getting Your Discussion Section Started
Organizing Your Discussion Section
Common Mistakes to Avoid in your Discussion Section
Outline for the sample Discussion Section Included
Sample Paper
12. Everybody Needs References
A Helpful Note
Creating Your References Section
Using Abbreviations
The Basics
Basic References Section Formatting Rules
Some Not-So-Basic Rules You Might Need
SECTION IV: Presenting Your Work in APA Format
13. The Numbers Game: How to Write Numbers (and When the Rules Change)
When You Use Numerals
When You Use Words
Using Both Numerals and Words
How to Use Decimal Points
Additional Rules for Including Numbers in Your Paper
Metrication
When Do You Use Abbreviations?
14. Formatting: Organizing, Headings, and Making Your Work Look Good to Print
 What Goes Where?
What Your Paper Should Look Like
Headings
Spelling Matters: Spelling and Capitalization Rules
Final Touches
15. Table That Motion: The Special Challenges of Tables and Figures
What Is What
Getting the Look Down
A Note on “Notes”
Figuring It Out
Get Legendary (and Use Captions)
Where to Place Tables and Figures
But I Am Doing a Literature Review: Could I Use a Table or Figure?
Do Not Forget
16. Make Microsoft Word 2013 Work for You: APA Formatting
Word 2013 Tabs and Drop-Down Menus
Setting the Margins
Line Spacing and Spacing Between Paragraphs
Page Headers (First Page and Subsequent Pages) and Page Numbering
Tabs, Centering, and the Ruler
References and the Hanging Indent
Preparing a Table (Rows, Columns, Lines, Centering)
Fonts and Font Variations (Italics, Bold, Superscript)
Page Breaks, Orphans, and Widows
Spell-Checker and Grammar Checker
Developing Good Habits: Autosaving, File Naming, File Storage, Frequent
Backups
SECTION V: Some Nitty-Gritty Details
17. Making a List, No Apps Required: Enumeration and Seriation
Why Bother?
Keeping Order at the Section Level
Order Within Paragraphs or Sentences
On a Related Note
18. Abbreviations, Signs, Symbols, and Punctuation: The Devil Is in the Details
OMG: To Abbreviate or Not?
Blinding You With Science and Latin
Punctuation
SECTION VI: In Closing: Important Considerations
19. Using Rubrics: Knowing What It Means to Write a Good Paper
Follow Rubrics When Provided
Example Rubrics
Rubric Details for the Final Draft (200 points)
20. Proofreading the Entire Paper: Get It Right!
Sample Student Paper for Practicing Proofreading
21. Complete Sample of an Experimental (Research) Paper: Samples, Anyone?
Sample Paper
22. How to Avoid the Most Common Mistakes: All Together Now
APA Style and Format Quiz
 APA Style and Format Quiz: ANSWERS
Be Aware of Professors’ Pet Peeves
Appendix A. Error List for Chapter
Appendix B. APA Style and Format Checklist
References
Index
Preface

Traveling to a new place can be exciting, but going anywhere for the first time always has its
challenges. Whether a new city, a new school, or a new job, it takes time to learn the ins and
outs of the place, its rules and customs. It is a similar process learning to write in American
Psychological Association (APA) style—that is, learning when to use italics, capitalization,
and abbreviations; how to treat numbers; what citations and references should look like; how to
set margins; and what headings, tables, and figures should look like as required by APA format.
At first blush, APA style is almost like a foreign language with its own syntax and grammar, and
the manual with all its rules can be as tricky as a labyrinth for any newcomer to navigate. With
this EasyGuide in hand, you take a great step toward simplifying the process of learning how to
write papers in APA style. We will help you through the maze of rules, and you may even have
(some) fun along the way.

Over the years, we have witnessed the many problems our students have when confronting the
numerous details involved in creating APA research papers, term papers, or lab reports. We
see the frustration our students feel when trying to find the information they need in the APA
Publication Manual (APA, 2010a) amid the voluminous details that primarily apply to faculty
members or graduate students submitting manuscripts for publication. If your needs are similar
to our students’ needs (i.e., writing papers for class) or even if you are preparing a traditional
manuscript for publication, this EasyGuide will serve you well. If you are in need of a way to
cite and report an uncommon type of reference or statistic, then you may also need to consult
the APA Publication Manual.

Our Reader-Friendly Approach

We decided to present the essentials of APA style using a more conversational tone in hopes of
making this book and the task of learning how to write more enjoyable. We need to state up
front that although we address the details of writing papers in APA style and format, there are
times in this book when we do not use APA style and format. For example, because this book
conforms to the publisher’s design, you will not see double-spaced lines with 1-inch margins,
and you will notice, for example, that the opening paragraph of each chapter and the first
paragraph following a Level 1 heading are not indented. We also flex our funny bones (or
muscles) when appropriate. We intend for this to make for easier reading, but note that it is not
APA style.

We included some sample papers to illustrate where all the basic rules pertain to writing. We
believe by using the sample papers, you will be less likely to overlook the different aspects of
APA style commonly omitted when first learning this type of writing. We also believe that
reviewing the most common errors (Chapter 20) that we have seen over the years, will help
you focus on the content of your writing rather than the minutiae of APA style and format. The
visual table of contents (Chapter 2) and the visual illustrations in the sample paper (Chapter
21) are unique, illustrating the details not to forget and where in the paper these details apply.

How to Use This Book

In this EasyGuide, we have eliminated the search for the basics that can be somewhat time
consuming and confusing. We believe that using this book will save you a significant amount of
time, allowing you to focus on writing your paper rather than searching for what you need to
know about presenting it in APA style. Here, you will be able to easily find the information you
need, with examples presented visually as well as in the text. We illustrate not only how to
write using APA style but also what APA style really looks like when your paper is complete.
The sample paper used in the visual table of contents (Chapter 2) lets you see within an actual
paper the details you will need to consider when writing in APA style, and the sample indicates
where in this book you can find the information needed to learn those details. In addition, that
same sample paper is included in Chapter 21, where you’ll see the research paper with the
details accentuated, this time with the style and format details explained.

Although we organized the EasyGuide in a way that will help you learn the basics in an order
we believe makes sense, it is important to remember that each chapter stands alone and you can
choose to read the book in whatever order suits your needs best. This may not be the type of
book you read cover to cover but, rather, one you keep next to you as a reference source while
writing APA–style papers throughout your undergraduate career.

We end the book with a chapter that reviews the most common mistakes we see students
encounter when first learning APA style. You can test your knowledge by trying to answer the
multiple-choice questions on those common mistakes. We also include a sample paper (with
APA errors purposely embedded) so you can test your knowledge. After you have read the
book and when you want to make sure you are comfortable writing without constantly reaching
for the guide, test yourself using the error-filled paper and see if you can find the errors. After
all, it is hard to know what you need to know if you do not know what you know or if what you
know is right—a little metacognitive self-test as it were. Up for the challenge? Go ahead.
Also, to encourage you to use this book while writing and in hopes of making the writing
process easier for you, a lay-flat spine was purposely used. It is what the EasyGuide is all
about.

Acknowledgments
A number of individuals made valuable contributions during the development, writing, and
editing of this book. We appreciate the learned expertise of our colleagues who helped us
shape this book at all steps along the way. For their generous assistance, we are indebted to
Stacie Christian (University of Wisconsin–Green Bay), Stephen F. Davis (Morningside
College), Chriss Warren Foster (Merritt College), Chris Hakala (Quinnipiac University), Jane
S. Halonen (University of West Florida), Andrew Johnson (Park University), Maureen A.
McCarthy (Kennesaw State University), Cynthia Noyes (Olivet College), Pamela C. O’Brien
(Bowie State University), Jean Raniseski (Alvin Community College), Angela M. Sikorski
(Texas A&M University), James Truelove (Southwest Baptist University), and James Welch IV
(University of Texas, Arlington). In addition, we are grateful to Randolph A. Smith for lending
his special APA–editing expertise to improving our work. At SAGE, Christine Cardone was
our guide throughout the journey, and without her support, this book would never have been
completed. We also appreciate the additional guidance provided by Reid Hester throughout the
work on this third edition and the attention to detail by Sarita Sarak, David Felts, Linda Gray,
Astrid Virding, Laureen Gleason, and Meg Granger in helping our efforts come to fruition.
A number of our students were also instrumental in the development and review process,
including Jerry Wells, Penny Trieu, and Christopher Hollingsworth from Randolph College,
Tiffany Wilhelm from the University of Wisconsin–Green Bay, and Jessica Kesler from Boise
State University. When working on any manuscript, family support is crucial, and we all thank
our families for helping us maintain our sanity in the midst of deadlines, rewrites, e-mails, and
other responsibilities in our lives. Finally, we thank all the students (past, present, and future)
who learn to write in APA style and format. The idea for this book came about as we struggled
to teach what some consider a foreign language without an appropriate student-friendly
resource. Our colleagues in each of our home departments and in the Society for the Teaching
of Psychology (www.teachpsych.org) supported us as we worked to create this resource; we
are grateful for their support. We hope this EasyGuide minimizes or eliminates struggles for
faculty and students.

Now, a message from the SAGE Legal Department. In a few chapters of this book, we include
screenshots of Microsoft Word 2013 so we can show you what to do, in addition to telling you
how to do it. Protecting intellectual property rights is important, and failure to do so is akin to
plagiarism. So be sure to remember the following:

This book includes screenshots of Microsoft Word 2013 to illustrate the methods and
procedures described in this book. Microsoft Word 2013 is a product of the Microsoft
Corporation.

We invite you to share the wisdom of your experience with us. We welcome your suggestions
for how to make learning APA style even easier, and we welcome your comments as well as
suggestions for the third edition of this book. Feel free to e-mail any of us: Beth
(bschwart@heidelberg.edu), Eric (elandru@boisestate.edu), or Regan (gurungr@uwgb.edu).
About the Authors

Beth M. Schwartz
is the Vice President for Academic Affairs and Provost and Professor of Psychology at
Heidelberg University, in Tiffin, Ohio. She was on the faculty at Randolph College in
Lynchburg, VA, for 24 years, where she was the William E. and Catherine Ehrman
Thoresen ’23 Professor of Psychology and Assistant Dean of the College. She received a
BA at Colby College (Maine) and a PhD in cognitive psychology at the State University of
New York at Buffalo. Her scholarship focuses on two areas of interest: (a) children’s
memory development and how this applies to children’s eyewitness reports and (b) the
scholarship of teaching and learning/pedagogical research. In addition to numerous
professional presentations at conferences, she has published many book chapters and
articles in a variety of scholarly journals, including theJournal of Higher Education,
Ethics and Behavior, Law and Human Behavior, and Applied Developmental Science.
She has also edited and coauthored books, including Child Abuse: A Global View
(Schwartz, McCauley, & Epstein, 2001), Optimizing Teaching and Learning (Gurung &
Schwartz, 2012), and Evidence-Based Teaching for Higher Education (Schwartz &
Gurung, 2012). She is a member of the American Psychological Association (APA) and
the American Psychological Society and is a Fellow of Division 2 of APA (Society for the
Teaching of Psychology). She was an award-winning teacher at Randolph College, where
she taught Introduction to Psychology, Research Methods, Cognitive Psychology, and the
capstone course. She received the Award for Outstanding Teaching and Mentoring from
the American Psych-Law Society, the Gillie A. Larew Award for Distinguished Teaching
at Randolph College, the Katherine Graves Davidson Excellence in Scholarship Award
from Randolph College, and the Distinguished Faculty Achievement Certificate from the
State Council of Higher Education for Virginia.
R. Eric Landrum
is a professor of psychology at Boise State University, receiving his PhD in cognitive
psychology from Southern Illinois University-Carbondale. His research interests center on
the educational conditions that best facilitate student success as well as the use of
scholarship of teaching and learning strategies to advance the efforts of scientist-
educators. He has more than 375 professional presentations at conferences, published
over 45 books/book chapters, and has published more than 90 professional articles in
scholarly, peer-reviewed journals. He has worked with more than 300 undergraduate
research assistants and taught more than 14,000 students in 23 years at Boise State. During
Summer 2008, he led an American Psychological Association working group at the
National Conference for Undergraduate Education in Psychology studying the desired
results of an undergraduate psychology education. During the October 2014 Educational
Leadership Conference in Washington, DC, Eric was presented with a Presidential
Citation from then APA President Nadine Kaslow for his outstanding contributions to the
teaching of psychology. Eric is the lead author of The Psychology Major: Career Options
and Strategies for Success (5th ed., 2013) and has authored Undergraduate Writing in
Psychology: Learning to Tell the Scientific Story (2nd ed., 2012) and Finding a Job
With a Psychology Bachelor’s Degree: Expert Advice for Launching Your Career
(2009). He coauthored You’ve Received Your Doctorate in Psychology—Now What?
(2012), is the lead editor for Teaching Ethically—Challenges and Opportunities (2012),
and coeditor of Assessing Teaching and Learning in Psychology: Current and Future
 Perspectives (2013). He and Regan Gurung are the inaugural coeditors of the APA journal
Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology. He served as vice president for
the Rocky Mountain region of Psi Chi (2009–2011). He is a member of the American
Psychological Association, a fellow in APA’s Division Two (Society for the Teaching of
Psychology or STP), served as STP secretary (2009–2011), and served as the 2014 STP
president. He will serve as the 2015–2016 president of the Rocky Mountain
Psychological Association.
Regan A. R. Gurung
is the Ben J. and Joyce Rosenberg Professor of Human Development and Psychology at
the University of Wisconsin, Green Bay (UWGB). He received a BA at Carleton College
(Minnesota) and a PhD at the University of Washington. He then spent 3 years at the
University of California, Los Angeles. He has published articles in a variety of scholarly
journals, including Psychological Review and Teaching of Psychology. He has a
textbook, Health Psychology: A Cultural Approach (now in its third edition), and has
coauthored/edited 12 other books, including Doing the Scholarship of Teaching and
Learning (Gurung & Wilson, 2012); Exploring Signature Pedagogies: Approaches to
Teaching Disciplinary Habits of Mind (Gurung, Chick, & Haynie, 2009); Getting
Culture (Gurung & Prieto, 2009); and Optimizing Teaching and Learning (Gurung &
Schwartz, 2012). He is a Fellow of the American Psychological Association, the
American Psychological Society, and the Midwestern Psychological Association and a
winner of the Founder’s Award for Excellence in Teaching as well as of the Founder’s
Award for Scholarship at UWGB. He was also the Carnegie Foundation for the
Advancement of Teaching’s Wisconsin Professor of the Year (2009) and the UW System
Regents’ Teaching Excellence Award Winner. He is past president of the Society for the
Teaching of Psychology. He is founding coeditor of the APA journal, Scholarship of
Teaching and Learning in Psychology
Section I Overview
1 APA Style Versus FormatWhy It Matters to Your Audience and
Why It Should Matter to You

If you are in college, congratulations—we think you made a good choice! That means you have
many papers to write in your future. This book is about helping you become a better writer and
helping build your confidence in your writing ability. In particular, this book is about helping
you learn how to write a scientific paper with precision and objectivity, one in which you are
able to communicate accurately your ideas, findings, and interpretations using the type of
writing style and format published by the American Psychological Association (APA). This is
a writing style very different from what you likely learned in a high school English class,
where you might have learned about narrative, expository, or descriptive styles of writing.
Here, we are all about writing in APA style. To help you become APA–style compliant, we use
plenty of examples, clever subtitles, and any trick we can think of to get your attention so you
can learn from this book. In fact, the book is purposely spiral bound so it can lie flat on your
desk next to your computer or in your lap as you work on your APA papers.Regardless of
whether you are writing a paper as a psychology, sociology, or nursing student, if a professor
asks you to write in APA style, you are asked to do so to help communicate your ideas in
writing in a way that will be more easily understood by others in your field. APA style reflects
the scientific method in that its goals are precision and objectivity in writing, as well as
standardization of style and format. Using APA style helps keep our personal style and
eccentricities from affecting our writing and reporting of research. It helps maintain the goal of
objectivity in science. Specific content is placed within specific sections and in a particular
order, allowing the reader to know exactly where to find particular pieces of information about
your research. Following APA style and format, you will be able to provide the reader with a
convincing argument that features clear and concise statements and logical development of your
ideas. You will find a greater appreciation for the APA Publication Manual once you start
reading articles for your assignments. Then you will start to notice how helpful it is to have a
particular type of writing style and format from one paper to the next, expediting your reading
and understanding of the material.Let us introduce two of the more common terms applied when
using the APA Publication Manual to write your papers: APA style and APA format. For some
assignments, you might be told to “write in APA style”; others might say to “use APA format,”
or you might just hear, “Follow the Publication Manual.” You may be confused by these
different instructions. What does it all mean?

What Is the Difference Between APA Style and APA Format?

These terms can be confusing because they have no clear, set definitions. For instance, APA
style has been characterized by these writing elements: clarity, literal writing, and brevity
(Vipond, 1993). But other types of writing could share these characteristics; for example,
would you not want an owner’s manual to be clear, literal, and brief? Sure, but owners’
manuals are not written in APA style (at least not the manuals we have read). For clarity here
(and for our purposes), we define APA style as a writing approach that embodies objectivity,
credibility of sources, and an evidence-based approach. For instance, objectivity implies a
certain level of detachment and formality; APA style does not typically involve passionate
stories written to resemble the dialogue between characters in a play or sitcom. Objectivity
also implies distance and balance in approach. Scientists writing in APA style address
variables, hypotheses, and theories (which could involve studying emotion and passion) and
how they affect behavior generally. Scientists do not typically write about specific individuals
(with the exception of descriptions of case studies). Objectivity in APA style also obligates the
writer to avoid biased language and to respect the power of language and labels.APA style
necessitates an approach that respects and preserves the chain of evidence and how science
builds on previous findings and refines theoretical explanations over time. An example is the
citations an author uses to support claims made in scientific writing. When you see the flow of
a sentence or paragraph interrupted by names and years in parentheses, this is the author giving
credit for ideas—exemplified by someone writing about how to optimize teaching and learning
(Gurung & Schwartz, 2009). Listing the last name of the author (or authors) and the year when
the work was published provides evidence for the writer’s claim and makes readers aware of
the continued refinement of theories from one scientist’s work to the next. Giving credit where
credit is due also helps avoid plagiarism (see Chapter 5 for details on avoiding plagiarism).
Taken as a whole, APA style is one important component of what helps the author of a journal
article—and, correspondingly, the research presented in it—reflect scientific objectivity.For
our purposes, APA format is what makes a journal article “look” scientific. APA format refers
to the precise method of generating your article, manuscript, or term paper by using the rules
set forth in the Publication Manual. When we refer to “APA format,” we mean the nitty-gritty
details of how your written work will appear on paper: the margins, the font, when to use an
ampersand (&) and when to use the word and, inserting the correct information in the top 1-
inch margin of your paper, when to use numerals (12) and when to spell out numbers (twelve),
how to format tables with only horizontal lines, and how citation styles in the text vary with the
number of authors. These details address the appearance of an APA–formatted paper.An
EasyGuide to APA Style (3rd edition) is written for students who are learning to write in APA
style using APA format. Why not just rely on the “official” book, the sixth edition of the
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (hereafter known as the PM;
APA, 2010a)? The PM is not evil. And if your instructor thinks you should purchase it, then you
probably should. But you should know that the PM was not written primarily as a guide to help
students learn to write better (that is the purpose of this book). The PM was originally written
to provide guidance to researchers on how to submit journal article manuscripts for
consideration to be published in the scientific literature. However, it is clear that the PM has
evolved into much more than an instruction set and is now a prescriptive collection of rules
(format) and writing advice (style) aimed at facilitating and fostering scientific research. Could
you actually use our EasyGuide as a replacement for the PM? We think so, but be sure to
follow the advice of your instructors. After all, they are the ones who are reading, grading, and
providing feedback. That said, beware the itty-bitty style guides that are often required for
English composition or first-year writing classes. It may be nice to have one book with all the
major styles in it, but books such as these often do not provide all the key information needed
and, therefore, are rarely ever a good substitute for the real thing—or better yet, for a resource
such as the one you now hold in your hands.Here is an analogy to consider when thinking about
the PM: The 2015 rulebook for Major League Baseball is 282 pages long; knowing the rules to
baseball may be important, but just knowing the rules will not make you a better baseball
player. However, if you add tons of baseball practice with feedback from knowledgeable
sources (such as coaches, older players, books, and videos), you can become a better
ballplayer over time. We want this book to be one of those knowledgeable sources you consult
on a regular basis to improve your scientific writing throughout your undergraduate career.
Combined, the three of us have taught for a long time and have read and graded more than
10,001 pages of student papers. We take you behind the scenes of writing and point out major
common errors so you can avoid them. We have organized this book to make it easy to find the
information students typically need to know when learning APA style to write papers, which is
sometimes not the case with the PM.

Why APA Style Anyway? Wasn’t MLA Good Enough?

Odds are you have already learned some of the rules of at least one other style guide, which
may have been MLA (Modern Language Association). It might have been in high school or
even in a college-level English composition class, but you may have used MLA style if you
wrote your papers with footnotes, if you had a bibliography or works-cited page at the end of
your paper, or if you used op. cit. or ibid. in your referencing. The typical MLA method of
citing involves listing the author followed by the page number where the information came
from (compared with APA style, which uses author followed by year published). So why APA
format? Wasn’t MLA good enough?It is hard to know with certainty why MLA style was not
adopted for psychological writing. The Modern Language Association was founded in 1883
(MLA, 2009); the American Psychological Association was founded in 1892. However, the
first “Instructions” to APA authors were not published until 1929, and the MLA Handbook is
now in its seventh edition—formally known as the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research
Papers (MLA, 2009). So, for whatever reason, separate style guides emerged—and there are
many more (e.g., Chicago style; American Sociological Association [ASA] style; Turabian
style; Modern Humanities Research Association [MHRA] style; and for newspapers,
Associated Press [AP] style).So where did APA style and format come from? In the very first
“Instructions in Regard to Preparation of Manuscript” (1929), a six-member panel
recommended “a standard of procedure, to which exceptions would doubtless be necessary, but
to which reference might be made in cases of doubt” (p. 57). On a less positive (but
believable) note, the 1929 “Instructions” noted that “a badly prepared manuscript always
suggests uncritical research and slovenly thinking” (p. 58). Whether fair or not, the quality of
our writing reflects the quality of our thinking! Good science requires communication, and if
we do not communicate well, even the best ideas in the world will not be understood by others
(think about the professor who you know is brilliant but has a hard time communicating on a
level any student can understand).Even though APA format may seem cumbersome to learn,
once you are familiar with it, you will feel more comfortable with its conventions. If you have
started to read journal articles and papers, you may notice that most, if not all, follow the same
organization. The more articles you read, the more thankful you will be that each article is
written in the same format and style. It really does make reviewing the literature much easier.
We cannot imagine reading a journal article in which the Results section appears before the
Method section (and that is not because we lack imagination or are geeks). By following (and
relying on) APA style and format, we provide readers scaffolding to process the complex ideas
and information being presented. Ever watch a movie in which the sequence of events is shown
out of order (e.g., multiple flashbacks)? Can you tell if something is foreshadowing or
background information? Then the movie jumps again. Are we back to the present, or is this a
peek into the future? Only once in a while does it work well (check out the movies Memento
[Todd, Todd, & Nolan, 2000], Inception [Nolan, Thomas, & Nolan, 2010], and David Lynch’s
Mulholland Drive [Edelstein et al., 2001] for real mind-bending experiences). Following a
sequence and order provides a framework for understanding what happened, what is
happening, and what will happen.
In the Long Run, Attention to Detail Matters (Including APA
Style and Format)
As you become familiar with the details of writing in APA style and format, either through
using this book alone or with the PM, you should keep two important points in mind. First,
there will be times when you are frustrated by having to learn a “new” format, when MLA,
Chicago, or another style was working just fine before. Although it may be frustrating to learn
something new, this is a task you will repeat hundreds if not thousands of times throughout your
work career. This task is part of being an educated person. New procedures will be
implemented, a new type of software will be installed, a new gadget will be invented—and
your task will be to figure it all out. An inherent love of learning and taking on new challenges
is an attitude that will serve you well with your future employers, whoever they may be. So the
ability to learn how to write capably in APA style demonstrates a competence you have that
others may not share; in fact, you might know fellow students who pick classes with the least
amount of writing. If you develop a skill in an area others systematically avoid, you inevitably
make yourself more marketable.The ability to pay attention to detail, particularly in regard to
APA format, can help separate the good from the great. In fact, in a study by Gardner (2007) on
the reasons new collegiate hires get fired, failure to pay attention to details is one of the top
reasons reported. If you can handle both the big picture and the minute details simultaneously,
that is a gift. These gifts can be developed with practice. Practice may not make perfect, but
practice allows one to get better and closer to perfect. You have to study, you have to learn
from mistakes, and you have to be willing to make the mistakes to maximize your learning
ability; obviously, you need to be willing to attempt the task numerous times to gain these
experiences. Paying attention to the details can make the difference between earning an A or a
B in a course. You may not like the details or how picky and arbitrary they seem, but knowing
the rules (and knowing those occasions when you can break the rules) is invaluable. Plus, as
you will read in this book, those seemingly “picky” rules can be very helpful to practicing
robust science.Keep in mind that these rules are not just in place for students learning to write.
We have some evidence to support the fact that psychologists (including your professors) must
also play by the same rules. Brewer, Scherzer, Van Raalte, Petitpas, and Andersen (2001)
reported that in a survey of journal editors in psychology, 39% of the editors responding
indicated that they had rejected an article submitted for publication solely because the writing
did not adhere to APA style and format. These rules are the same rules scientists play by, and,
clearly, the penalties for not following the rules can be harsh for faculty and students alike.

Write for Your Specific Audience: Term Papers Versus Formal

Research Papers
Ultimately, we all have to play by the rules. Unfortunately, the rules are often a moving target.
Have you heard the variation on the Golden Rule—those who have the gold make the rules? In
this case, your audience makes the rules for your writing, and your audience (your instructor)
may not always be clear about expectations, which means you have to be. Although there are
many excellent, skilled, caring instructors out there (we know many of them and salute them
all), not all pay as much attention to the assignment design as they could. For example, an
instructor may give a writing assignment, like the one in the box below, thinking the instructions
are perfectly clear. But see how many questions we have after reading the “assignment.
”The paper is due on Thursday, and here it is Wednesday night (though we do not recommend
waiting until the night before); you sit down to write your paper—no problem? Take a closer
look at this assignment; it is wide open and does not provide enough detail for you to be
confident about what your audience (your instructor) wants. The instruction “write in APA
format” is vague at best, especially because it is contradicted by the third point in the
assignment; APA format uses double-spacing in the text. Does this instructor want a title page?
An abstract (probably not)? A references page? Do the title page and the references page
“count” toward the 5- to 7-page requirement? Are direct quotations OK? Are a minimum
number of references required? Can you use all kinds of reference materials or just refereed
journal articles?

First, an important point: We hope you know that it pays to start the writing process earlier. Not
only would you have more time to get clarification on the assignment; you would have time to
write more than one draft, something that contributes to higher quality papers (Landrum, 2012).
Additionally, research shows that students who start assignments earlier do better in class
(Gurung, 2009).

A basic tenet of any type of writing is this: Write for your audience. In most cases now, your
audience is your instructor. So you need to know what your instructor wants, even if the
instructor thinks he or she is being clear in the instructions. You need to know the questions to
ask so you can get the answers you need to succeed. This book will help you identify which
questions to ask, and when you get the answers, we will give you specific tips on how to do
well on the major parts of your writing assignments, whether they are term papers or research
papers.

So what would a research paper look like? A research paper, especially in psychology (as in
an experimental paper), is typically scripted; you are likely to have specific subsections, such
as a Method section and a Results section, and many other details to attend to. A research paper
is likely to employ APA style and most, if not all, components of APA format. Even though APA
style and format provide particulars about how to write your paper, what you will discover is
that different instructors have different expectations about style and format; attention to detail
will be of ultimate importance to some, and others may not care at all. You cannot use a “one-
size-fits-all” approach and expect to be consistently successful in your coursework. You may
need to change your writing approach to fit both the assignment and the instructor; in fact, your
instructor’s expectations during a semester may change as well (we know . . . that can be
frustrating). Do not be shy. Ask questions. If you are brave, point out inconsistencies, pay
attention to details, and work to meet the needs of your audience. If you can conquer these
lessons as an undergraduate student, these skills and abilities will serve you well beyond
graduation.

Before class next week, I want you to pick a topic in psychology and write a research paper
about your topic. Be sure to use evidence to support your position. Make sure you complete
the following:

1. Write in APA format.

2. Your paper must be 5 to 7 pages in length.
3. To save paper, use single-spacing.
4. Use reference citations in the text of your paper to support any claims you make.
2 Your Visual Table of Contents QuickFinder

Have you ever had the challenge of looking up a word in the dictionary that you were not sure
you knew how to spell? In a similar vein, you might not know you need help in formatting your
running head if you do not know what a running head is. You cannot search for how to include a
part of your paper or how to follow a certain rule if you do not even know that part of the paper
or that rule exists. Consequently, we designed a “visual table of contents” for you in this
chapter, where we show you a complete sample research paper. Rather than give you tips about
it and suggestions for avoiding mistakes (which we will do in Chapter 19), in this chapter, we
use the sample paper as a visual organizer. Not sure how to cite a reference in text? Find an
example of what you are trying to do in the sample paper, and then follow the QuickFinder
guide bubbles that will point you to the chapter and page in this book where you can find help.

By the way, this is a real student paper. Parts of it have been modified from the original, but
this is meant to be a realistic example of student work. Is it a perfect paper? No (and Penny is
OK with that). Will you be able to find errors or mistakes in the paper? Probably. We use this
paper as a visual guide, not as an exemplar of perfection. The point is not to look for errors
but to identify easily where in this guide we discuss the different parts of a paper. So do not use
this paper as a model of exactly what to do (because, as we said, there are errors here);
instead, use it as a way to find what you want to learn about. Some of our QuickFinder bubbles
point at mistakes, but most are positioned just to draw your attention to different parts of a
paper and what needs to be considered before you turn in a paper. If you want to use this
sample paper to test your knowledge of APA style and format, feel free to mark up the errors
and see if you can correct them once you have mastered this guide.

Most of the items included in the QuickFinder bubbles you will also find in the table of
contents at the beginning of this book. We decided to include this visual table of contents in part
for those of us who prefer and are more comfortable seeing content illustrated visually. We like
the idea of helping you identify APA–style details using different mechanisms, including a
sample paper with a visual table of contents. So if you are trying to find information that you
think is or should be in this book, you can try the traditional table of contents at the front of the
book, the index at the back of the book, and the visual table of contents here in this chapter,
with the QuickFinder guides.

The Sample Paper With Content and Page Numbers

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
for Kaige, the policeman, insisted on roaming about the verandah
and kitchen, mainly occupied in consuming our tobacco. Had Debe
not been our servant, he would undoubtedly have been summoned
by his wife, and, this being his fifth offence in this direction, he would
have been sent a prisoner to Thursday Island. To show his penitence
he wore all day a black kerchief round his head; while, to smooth the
ruffled feelings of his wife, he bought from us (out of his next week’s
wages) some yards of red twill which he presented to her.”
Mr. Bruce has informed me by letter that early in 1899 Jimmy Rice
and Debe Wali had, for them, a serious quarrel. It happened in this
wise. Pedro, a Manila who had married Jimmy’s wife’s daughter by a
former husband, D. Pitt, had given Jimmy a small cutter. Jimmy’s
wife considered the boat was given to her as a present for her
daughter’s sake, so she began to “boss” the boat and crew. Debe
was captain, while Jimmy remained on shore to cook the bêche-de-
mer.
Jimmy’s troubles now began in earnest. First his wife thought that,
as she was owner of the boat, it was beneath her dignity to cook for
Jimmy, and told him when he asked for his breakfast or dinner to go
out and eat filth. Poor Jimmy asked Bruce for advice.
Shortly afterwards the “fish,” as bêche-de-mer is colloquially
termed, they obtained was demanded by Pedro, as owner of the
boat. This Jimmy gave him. Then the crew wanted their wages.
Jimmy said he had nothing to give them, that they were all his
friends, and had promised to work for nothing to clear the boat. Debe
Wali said no; he wanted wages. Jimmy and his wife had a bad time
of it, so the latter went to the Mamoose and summoned Jimmy for
wages.
The police then told Jimmy he was summoned; and great was the
clatter of tongues and mutual abuse. Debe ran into his house and
brought out a big rowlock of a boat, and stabbed Jimmy in the chest
with it. Of course it did not do Jimmy the least harm, but he
commenced shouting “Police! police!” knowing well enough that the
police were standing by and witnessing the whole affair. Of course
the police had to arrest Debe. Next day there was a cross-summons
in the court—one for wages, the other for assault.
We have here an interesting example of the confusion that arises
in the transition between one economic condition and another.
Formerly communal labour was the rule. If a well had to be sunk or a
house built, all friends would lend a hand, a feast with the
concomitant excitement being a sufficient immediate reward, the
reciprocity being, of course, fully recognised. Pedro’s loan of a boat
on the hire system of purchase is well understood. Before the white
man came it was customary for the Torres Straits Islanders to
purchase their canoes on what was virtually the three years hire
system. The crew demanding wages belongs to the new economic
custom introduced by the Europeans.
Pedro, the owner of the boat, was drowned in the hurricane that
swept across Northern Australia in March, 1899, and Jimmy had to
pay D. Pitt the balance due on the boat.
The new Erub (Darnley Island) church was to be opened in
September; and when the Murray Island contingent was about to
start to take part in the festivities, Finau could not get a passage for
himself or family unless he went with the Murray Islanders; so he
asked Jimmy to lend him his boat. Jimmy said he could not lend it.
Two months afterwards Jimmy’s cutter went to Garboi sandbank to
fish, and the crew slept on shore the first night. When they awoke
next morning no cutter was to be seen; she had parted her chain in
the night and had drifted away. So poor Jimmy lost his boat and all
his labour, and the worst of it is, he has the haunting fear that it was
the direct act of God because he did not lend his boat to the South
Sea teacher when he asked for it. All the people assert this is the
true explanation of his loss.
Jimmy is a happier man since his wife has ceased to be a
boatowner, as she now condescends to roast yams and cook fish for
him. Debe and he are as good friends as ever, and are always
plotting how they can get as many shillings as they can for the least
amount of work, and on the whole they succeed very well.
 Debe is now the proud father of a pretty little daughter, and
devotes a good deal of his time to nursing it. Occasionally he has a
row with Kaima, his wife, when he considers she is not doing the
nursing in a scientific manner. Then he generally takes the
management of the baby for a time, but the infant does not fail to
proclaim when it is Debe’s watch on deck.
On Friday, August 4th, 1899, there were two earth tremors on
Murray Island. I cannot do better than transcribe Mr. Bruce’s vivid
description of the occurrence. “I had just sat down to lunch when the
iron roof and the verandah floor made such a clatter that I could not
at all make out what was wrong; about five minutes later there came
another and stronger shock. I jumped up and went on the verandah.
“There was a great crowd of men playing hockey on the sand
beach in front of the house, and at first I thought some of them had
been larking on the verandah, but when I went out everything was
quiet. They were sitting down; not a word broke the deathlike
stillness. I thought at first they were resting after their game, but
even then they never sit still. I asked, ‘What’s wrong’? Then some of
them came up and said, ‘Why, ground he jump up and down all the
same as sea’!
“Then it struck me at once what had happened. I asked them how
they felt when the shock came. They said the whole beach was
heaving like the sea so that they could not stand. Some said they felt
sick and wanted to vomit; others said everything looked blurred and
indistinct, and men’s faces were all distorted when they looked at
them.
“I was sorry I was in the house at the time, as I should have liked
to experience the sensation. I should think each shock must have
lasted about two minutes, with an interval of five minutes between
them.
“After evening school I saw some of those who had been to their
gardens on the top of the hill. From their description the earthquake
was felt worse up there. Pasi told me he was sitting down on the
ground nursing the baby when the first shock came, and he and the
baby commenced to bob up and down, and he felt as if he were
sitting on something that was giving way with him. When the second
shock came, the coconuts on the trees were bobbing up and down,
everything was trembling and swaying; a bucket on the ground
opposite him was jumping up and down. He thought it was the devil,
and that he was bewitched, so he got up and called his wife to come
away. Soon they met other frightened people running home. Pasi
said he was ‘very glad to hear all man feel him all the same as
myself.’
“No doubt the people received a great scare. They were going
about in quite a subdued manner for a few days. When Sunday
came they were told by Finau that God was angry with them. God
has been very angry with them here this year; they were told the
same after the hurricane took place. But then I remember the
Princess Alice disaster on the Thames was referred to in the same
manner by Mr. Spurgeon at the Tabernacle; so we cannot wonder at
the coloured teacher attributing all disasters to the wrath of an
offended Deity.
“I had rather an amusing reason given to me why the cyclone of
the 4th and 5th of March (1899) happened. There was a crowd of
boats anchored in the bay, and a South Sea man wanted to hold a
service on the beach, but very few went to hear him pray. Whilst he
was praying, some unregenerate nigger had the impiety to play on
his concertina. That day the hurricane came. The men who told me
this thoroughly believed, since the praying South Sea man had
asserted it, that God had sent the hurricane because of that man
playing the concertina.
“That is the kind of God they like to have described to them, and
no other. Really the South Sea teachers know the kind of God to
depict to the native far better than the white missionary does; his
God of Love is beyond their comprehension. They look as if they
believed in Him, but converse with them, and you find the God of
Wrath is their ideal of what God is. He takes the place of Bomai, etc.,
which they have lost.
“At the opening of the new church at Erub, in September, all the
South Sea teachers from the Torres Straits were gathered together.
Captain H⸺ had just come across an article in a newspaper,
written by some German scientist, that a comet was to appear in the
heavens some time in October, and that it would strike our planet on
the 5th of November. The Captain described the comet to the Erub
Mamoose, who in his turn told the assembled teachers, and they, not
unnaturally, went to Captain H⸺ for further information. The
Captain, nothing loth, gave them what they wanted, with a practical
illustration of how the comet would act when it came in collision with
the earth. He got a ball of paper and a stick, making the latter
violently strike the ball of paper, which flew some distance away.
‘That,’ said he, ‘is the way our world will go, and I know that Old Nick
is preparing his fires for a lot of you fellows now.’
“The teachers held a meeting, and arranged that when each
teacher went home to his station he was to appoint three weeks of
special prayer, and to beseech God not to allow the comet to destroy
the earth. Finau arrived here full of it, and the people with him arrived
equally full of influenza through living in over-crowded houses in
Darnley.
“On Sunday I went as usual to church. At the close of the service
Finau told all the people to remain, as a special service was to be
held; so I remained along with the rest.
“After a short interval Finau told them about the comet, and that a
very wise man had written in the newspaper that the world was
shortly to come to an end. This was true. He then read from the
Gospel of Mark, chapter xiii., from which he proved that this was the
time all these things were to happen, because this wise man said so
in the newspaper.
“He kept on until he had all the people in a proper state of fear.
Then he directly referred to me that I knew it was all true, and would
happen. I said ‘No.’ He took no notice, but told them that in three
weeks’ time, on the 5th of November, if God did not hear their
prayers, they would all be destroyed.
“After praying he invited anyone to stand up and pray and speak
on the subject of the comet. Immediately all the Murray Herschels
and Sir Robert Balls were on their feet, one after another,
expounding on comets and their destructive powers, and they also
finished up by saying, ‘Oh, it’s true! That wise man said so in the
newspaper.’ The subject suited them immensely.
“After they had all had their say, which occupied nearly two hours,
Finau told them from that day until the 5th of November there were
to be special prayers, asking God to rebuke the comet and make it
go another road away from the earth. They would all know in three
weeks’ time whether God had heard their prayers. If He did not
destroy the world then, that would be a sign that He had heard them,
and was pleased with them; but if the comet destroyed the earth on
the 5th of November, then they would understand that God was
angry with them, and wished to destroy them as a punishment.
“He then again referred to me as knowing it to be true. I had to get
up and speak (it was the first time I ever did so on church matters). I
told the people that I had not heard anything about this comet, and
that they were not to be afraid; that even if there was a comet, it was
not likely to interfere with our world, and even if it did, I thought no
harm would arise from it. They would all find, on the 5th of
November, Murray Island would be quite safe, and everyone would
be going about their work as usual. I might as well have said nothing;
but there was so much sickness about (mainly influenza) that I
thought this frightening of the people would have an injurious effect
on them.
“The 5th of November came round, and nothing extraordinary
happened. So Finau appointed the 6th to be a day of thanksgiving to
God, because He had heard and answered their prayers by turning
the comet away from the earth.
“Thanksgiving took the form of prayers in the morning, feasting
and games in the afternoon. So you may be sure I had a good time
of it in school that Monday afternoon with the noise of the
thanksgiving outside and the inattention of the children inside.
“You people in England ought to be truly thankful that we have
such effectual fervent prayers in this part of the world. I think this
answer to prayer is quite as good as any I read in Mr. Stead’s
Review of Reviews last year. All that was wanting to make the wise
man in the newspapers and Finau’s predictions perfect was to have
had the earth tremors introduced in November instead of August,
and then what a tableau!
“Captain H⸺ is delighted at the good work he considers he has
done in stirring up the people to such a time of prayer. In his last
letter he says he has been the means of leading these South Sea
teachers and the natives to more earnest prayer through fear than
has ever been done by any individual in the Straits before.
“The Mamoose and Pasi left for Erub to attend the memorable
opening of the church a fortnight earlier than the general public, but
before starting the Mamoose left strict orders with the sergeant if
anyone made a storm of wind while he was away to find him out and
have him punished. No sooner did he start than it blew ‘old boots’;
no boat could leave the island, and the Mamoose had a terrible
passage.
“Kadud, the new Sergeant of Police, came to me and told me he
was looking out for the person who had made the wind, as the
Mamoose had given him strict orders to have him punished by a fine.
One day he came, saying he had found a dry coconut leaf stuck in
the creek at Kiam, and thought he would find the party. Another day
he would find a similar leaf and a shell stuck in the sand on the
beach. Kadud was getting furious, and all the time it was blowing a
hurricane. The storm lasted four weeks, so that the majority of the
people from Murray Island were late for the opening ceremony.
“For months they tried to find out the miscreant; Wali, being a
church member now, is past suspicion. It would make you laugh to
hear how seriously the Mamoose and Kadud talk when I ask them if
they have found out who it was that made the ‘big wind.’ ‘Oh no,’
they reply; ‘by-and-by we shall catch him.’
“Mappa, a Murray Islander—one of the L.M.S. teachers—is here
at present on a six months’ leave of absence; he is a shrewd, sharp
fellow, but a thorough native. He brought with him a young fellow
named Wai from his station at New Guinea, another sharper, who
has already a great reputation on Murray Island of being able to
make, injure, and kill, and Mappa backs him up. Tuk is the form of
sorcery he is supposed to practise, and the Murray people are
terribly frightened of it; they tell me the New Guinea men are very
powerful in tuk, and from Kiwai they can kill a whole village full of
people on Murray Island, nearly a hundred miles away.
“Wai first began practising on William, the deacon, who lives at
Dio. He went with some others to Dio, and showed William two sticks
of tobacco, and said ‘Tuk.’ William began to shake when Wai told
him to go and look in his box and see if he had lost any tobacco.
William, still trembling, got his key, looked in the box, and said, ‘Yes.’
Wai held up the tobacco, and said, ‘This is it.’ William replied, ‘Yes,
that’s it.’ Wai exclaimed ‘Tuk,’ and the two sticks of tobacco
disappeared, much to the astonishment of the crowd. William
pressed a present on Wai, to secure himself against tuk. When
William told me about the affair I nearly exploded, trying to keep
serious, and endeavouring to sympathise with him. Wai is a smiling,
comedian-faced young fellow; he comes along to see me every other
day, and to have a smoke. Ulai and Mappa, a good pair, are always
extolling Wai’s great powers.
“A fortnight ago Mappa, who is taking Finau’s place, the latter
having gone on a visit to Mabuiag, had a crowd round him after a
Friday morning’s service, and used some strong language about
some men who had not attended church and about Kadud, who
owns a well at Kiam, about which he and the South Sea teacher
have a dispute.
“A woman named Deau went and told these men that Mappa was
speaking ill of them. They hurried along to the church compound,
Deau along with them. She then asked Mappa to repeat what he had
said, and told him he was bad man, that he thumped the pulpit with
his hand when preaching to them, and then went home and thumped
his wife. Mappa then began to tell her she was a bad woman, a
Samaria kosker—that is, a woman of Samaria. Deau could not stand
that, so she went to the police and summoned Mappa for swearing
at her by calling her a Samaria kosker. Mappa then threatened the
whole of Deau’s friends that he and Wai would put tuk on them all.
They were in a great panic; the sergeant, Kadud, was nearly white
when he came to see me, with some of the threatened people, and
asked if they could not arrest Mappa. They all declared that Mappa
had learnt tuk in New Guinea, and could destroy them all if he chose.
“Mappa was summoned for slandering Deau, and dismissed on
this count; next he was charged with threatening the people. The
witnesses all held that when Mappa went back to New Guinea he
would destroy anyone he chose by using the sorcery of tuk. It was
tuk, tuk, and nothing but tuk. I asked Mappa if he had threatened the
people with this, and he said he had, and that he was angry. I asked
him if, when he went back to New Guinea, he or the Fly River men
could shoot tuk to Murray Island. He said they could, but he was not
sure about himself. I warned him to think about what he was saying,
and if he really believed that Wai could do such a thing. He hummed
and hawed, and said ‘No.’ That was all I wanted in order to quiet the
fears of the people, so I asked Mappa to tell the Mamoose and the
people that the Fly River men could not injure them, and that neither
he nor Wai knew tuk. He told them so, but at the same time they did
not believe him, and would rather have heard him say that he and
Wai were au kali tuk le (very big tuk people). Mappa was dismissed
from court, and advised not to practise tuk any more whilst on his
holidays. The whole tuk affair has been very amusing. Mappa and
his wife are now teaching the Murray youths New Guinea dances, so
that they may beat the Dauar men on New Year’s Day.”
In a letter dated September 30th, 1900, Mr. Bruce gave us the
later history of some of our friends, and as it illustrates the social life
of the Murray Islanders in a very interesting manner, I do not hesitate
to print the greater part of it for the benefit of my readers.
“This year we are experiencing the results of a big drought. The
north-west monsoon, which generally brings a young deluge with it,
has been very mild this year, so mild, in fact, that but for the change
of winds we might say we had no ‘nor’-west.’ In December of 1899
we had good rains, which gave promise of a good harvest from the
gardens this year; but there has been such a dearth of rain in 1900
that all the garden stuffs died off. First the sweet potatoes went (that
is, the vines), for they never got to the length of tubers; then the
yams died off, but the people managed to get a few small ones out
of the crop. So the people are reduced to coconuts and bananas,
which are fairly plentiful. The natives are perfectly happy, carrying on
play night after night, and their boats lying idle at anchor, instead of
being at work getting black-lip shell, which has been a splendid price
this year, to buy flour and rice for their families. Douglas Pitt’s son
did very well with one boat working from here; he cleared £350 in six
months with a crew of mainland boys, whilst the Murray men did not
clear as many shillings with seven boats which they obtained from
individuals to work out and on shares. They kept on getting
advances (‘draws’) of calico and tobacco, and do no work.
“Your two ‘curry and rice chefs,’ Debe Wali and Jimmy Rice, both
got boats. Debe obtained all the draws he could out of the owner in
eight months, and collected about £4 worth of shell to pay about £10
worth of draws. The consequence was, when he went to Thursday
Island for more draws the owner took possession of his boat, and he
was lucky to get it, because if she had remained much longer at
Murray Island she would have broken up on the beach. Jimmy Rice,
poor fellow, has not been quite so fortunate as his friend Debe. In the
first place, he could not get so many draws out of his man as did
Debe, and he had signed before the Shipping Master, with a solicitor
to see that all was fair and square. When Jimmy got all the draws he
could from the owner of the boat, he and his crew refused to do any
work, and they were taken before the Shipping Master at Thursday
Island. The Shipping Master prosecuted them in court. All the crew,
beside Jimmy Rice and Toik, decided to go to work and finish the
time they had signed for. Jimmy and Toik held out, thinking they
would be sent back to Murray Island by the steamer, as she was
coming out the day following; but they made a mistake, and each of
them got two months in jail to work out their time. One of the young
Pitts paid for a boat here in four months with a mainland crew, and
although the Murray men have these object lessons before them,
they seem to be no incentives to make them go and do likewise,
which they could easily do.
“Papi has a boat on half-shares from a Manila man named Zareal,
a jeweller at Thursday Island. Like the others, Papi was doing no
work after getting what he could out of Zareal; but he was lucky
enough to find a good pearl in a shell, so he took it to Thursday
Island and sold it for £150, then went flashing about town. Zareal
came to know of the pearl, and claimed half of its value for the boat;
but Papi objected, and got away from Thursday Island to Murray
Island with the cash. Not a bad haul for a Murray man! There is likely
to be trouble about it, but I bet my boots Papi comes off the winner.
“You remember old Gasu; his eyes were bad. He is now quite
blind; can only tell the difference between night and day. He looks
physically well, but takes no exercise whatever, as he tells me he is
ashamed to go walking about with a boy to lead him. When I visit
him I give him a spin along the road, and he enjoys it immensely.
Poor old Gasu! He had not his equal on the island; a thorough,
genuine old gentleman, and quite free from all cant, although he had
his fears of the ‘White Man’s Zogo’ (the Church) like all the rest.
“The great drought this year has been put down to many causes.
Your party came in for some of the blame for taking away the good
doioms, so that the rain-makers were handicapped in giving a
plentiful supply. But the principal cause for a time was our old friend
Debe Wali; he was charged with defiling and throwing down the yam
zogo at Dauar, named Zegnaipur—this is the principal yam zogo.
Debe’s brother, Komabre, and Harry, the Murray Mamoose, were the
two head zogo men who prepare it every year. Komabre died last
year, and Debe, of course, believes someone was the cause of his
death, and the people say that he was angry at the death of
Komabre and knocked down the zogo, hence the drought. Mamoose
and Pasi came to me to have a talk about it, and wished to know if
they could not prosecute Debe in court. I told them they would have
to get proof that he had done the injury, well knowing they could get
none. Mamoose said he was certain Debe did the thing to spoil the
yams and food, and that the law should punish him. I had to cool him
off as best I could. The next one accused was Joe Brown. They said,
because he has a quarrel with Jimmy Dei, he burnt the coconut zogo
at Zeub by wilfully setting fire to the grass, and that he had stopped
rain from coming and blighted all the crops. It was very amusing
when I asked Debe and Joe confidentially why they had been and
gone and done it. A knowing smile stole all over their faces, as much
as to say, ‘I’ll teach them to interfere with me!’ Still, they would never
confess to anything, but you could see how pleased they were at the
prominent place they held among the people. When I represented to
them how they were making me suffer too from having empty water-
tanks, old Joe said, ‘By-and-by, Jack, you stop; I make him all right;
you see your tank full up by-and-by!’ That ‘by-and-by’ means so
much to them, and is such a handy phrase I don’t know what they
would do without it now!
“In the early part of the year I was pestered by the men who had
boats, and also by their crews, coming every day inquiring when the
big blow was to be. I told them it was impossible for me to fix any
stated time, but they knew we always had strong winds in the north-
west. It was of no use, they kept on coming to inquire. At last I asked
if anyone had been telling them there was to be a big blow. They
said yes, one man told them; but who he was they would not say. Of
course it made a good excuse for not going to work, and they made
the most of it and let the boats lie up.
“The following is an example of the power zogo men are credited
with. After Debe’s and Joe’s reputation was on the wane and being
forgotten, Mamoose and Jimmy Dei were in my house one day, and
the conversation turned on the everlasting drought, which both were
bewailing. I began to twit them about the powers of the rain-makers,
trying to bring them out. Mamoose did not like it, and began to
converse with his optics to Jimmy (Murray men do a lot of talk on the
quiet with their eyes). Jimmy assented, so Mamoose got up out of
his seat, looked out of the front door, then out of the back—to make
sure there was no one about who would be likely to hear—sat down
again, and after sundry ahems Mamoose whispered to me the real
cause of the drought. He said the rain-makers were afraid to make
rain and prepare the ceremony, in case they might make too much
wind along with it, and therefore cause another big hurricane, like
that of last March, and they feared the Government would punish
them if many lives were lost; besides, Gasu being now blind, he
could not see to prepare the zogo properly, and they were afraid to
make it! I had to condole with them on the hard luck of having to risk
the chances of either a cyclone or a famine, and agreed with them
that a famine was the safest, for, as Mamoose said, the hurricane
might smash up the island altogether. But I assured him at the same
time that the Government would on no account hold them
responsible for any damage done by any cyclone in this part of the
world. I never heard of any Murray man getting the credit of making
the hurricane last year; no doubt they have been afraid to hint at it,
and I have no doubt the people give the honour to some of the zogo
le for having caused that disaster.
“I had a gentleman living with me for a month or so; he came from
New Zealand, and is travelling all round, doing the ‘grand tour of
Australia, New Guinea,’ etc. He was grand company, although a very
strict churchman and an extreme ritualist. I had no idea colonial high
churchmen could be so high! He out-ritualed everything I had ever
seen or heard of, but he was one of the good sort who could give
and take a joke.
“We had a trip to Dauar one Saturday; went in the whale-boat, and
several passengers accompanied us. We had a walk all round, and
had a nice day of it. After we had returned home and had had
supper, and were sitting talking and smoking, a deputation headed
by Pasi, who is Mamoose of Dauar, came to inform me that those
who had accompanied us to Dauar had gone on purpose to see the
zogo of Wiwar. This is a round stone (sandstone) about the size of a
pumpkin; if it is prepared by a zogo man it has the power of causing
constipation, and the person affected will die if there is no antidote
used in the form of taking off the power of this zogo. Pasi had a
small packet in his hand, wrapped up very carefully, like tobacco, in
a dried banana leaf. He asked me if I would examine it, and spread it
out, telling me this was the cause of the sickness of an old lady
named Sibra. She remembered that the last time she had been over
to Dauar she had passed the zogo Wiwar, and now knew the cause
of her sickness. Her friends had gone over with us to find out if the
zogo was prepared; they were to take away the power of the zogo by
cleansing it with sea-water, and placing the leaf of a plant called gebi
on top of the stone, and pouring water over the stone. Pasi wished to
know if the police could apprehend old Lui, as he was the only Dauar
man who knew how to prepare the zogo. I asked Pasi how the zogo
was prepared; he said, ‘The zogole, after having a stool, placed the
excreta on the stone, using an incantation, in which he referred to
the person he wishes to blight.’ To prove the case, the friends went
to the stone and found it had been prepared, and brought away a
sample of the excreta with them. My visitor could not refrain from
laughing, although I warned him to keep serious. Pasi said there was
no chance of Sibra’s recovery, as the zogo had been prepared too
long. I was giving the old lady medicine, and thought she was going
on nicely, but on the Monday afternoon she died. Of course old Lui
got the credit of removing her, because they had had a quarrel of
words. The friends of Sibra do not consider our law of much account,
as Lui cannot be punished, even after the strong evidence they
brought to me. When Lui dies, his relatives will charge Sibra’s
relations with using a zogo, appropriate to whatever sickness he may
have been afflicted with.
“It was too much when Pasi asked my visitor to have a sniff, and
tell him if it was the real thing or not. He fairly exploded and roared,
and spoiled the whole effect, as I had to follow suit. The deputation
did not remain much longer, but carefully rolled up their sacred
bundle and left. They are very sensitive to ridicule, and do not like
their customs laughed at. The consequence was that they would not
for some time tell me anything that occurred of a similar nature. You
will perhaps think I ought to rebuke them and advise them not to
follow these old customs, but it is of no use doing this, as these are
so engrained into their everyday existence that they could not, as
yet, live without them. Their disappearance is, I think, only a matter
of time.
“It is very seldom that houses are burned down on Murray Island,
considering the inflammable material they are constructed of, and
the carelessness of the people with fire. This year, however, three
houses were burned down. The first one belonged to a widow
named Nicky. The people were all at one of their night plays, and
Nicky’s house was burned, and nothing saved. The play was a long
way from Nicky’s place, but it is considered that the spirit of her
deceased husband (Arus) was angry with her for her conduct, and
burned her house down. It was a serious loss to Nicky, as she has a
large family. I spoke to the Mamooses about getting the people to
assist her, and another widow, Anai, whose goods were also all lost
in the fire. The poor women had really saved nothing except their
petticoats. I gave them a start in goods, and I was really astonished
at the manner in which the people assisted; some gave her a
camphor-wood box, others half-bolts of calico, plates, spoons,
knives, and so forth, so the camphor-wood boxes were well filled
with useful articles, and calico galore. All vied in beating each other
in the giving line, and of course a ceremony was made in presenting
the goods. I only hope the next unfortunate will come off as well, but
I fear not, as it is so foreign to the Murray Islanders to give without
getting an equivalent in exchange. However, they deserve all credit
for the way in which they assisted Nicky and Anai, and ought to
make Arus’s lamar (spirit) leave the widow’s house alone in future.
The other houses were burned down in the daytime, and all the
contents saved.
“This year (1900) has been a fairly healthy year. Up to the present
there have been five deaths—two adults and three children. Matey is
dead; he was a young man about thirty years old; he died of
consumption, I think, and was ill for a long time. I tried to get him to
go to the hospital at Thursday Island, but he would not go. There is a
Queensland Aboriginal working in the boats at Darnley, who has
quite a reputation as a medicine-man. When Matey was very weak
he wished to be taken to Darnley to see this mainland boy. He was
taken over in a dying state. The mainlander had a look at him and
told him, ‘You fellow, you die; no more blood stop along you; two day,
three day, you finish!’ This consultation was quite satisfactory to
Matey and his friends, so Matey requested them to take him back to
Murray Island to die there. They started back with him, and as soon
as the anchor was dropped at Murray, poor Matey’s spirit took flight
to Boigu (an island to the west of Murray, where spirits are supposed
to live in a very happy state without any fears of brimstone).
“Murray Islanders have a great dread of dying anywhere than on
Murray, and no people have a greater love of their native land than
they have. Since this mainland boy on Darnley gave so good a
prognosis in Matey’s case, his reputation has gone up like a rocket,
and has not yet come down, several have gone over to consult him.”
 The natives of Erub and the Murray Islands frequently used to
make mummies of their dead relations. The details of the process
are not particularly edifying, and need not be narrated here. The
wizened corpse, which might almost have been made of papier-
mâché, so light was it, was lashed to a bamboo framework. To be
made more presentable it was painted red and pieces of mother-of-
pearl from a nautilus shell were inserted in the orbits, a round spot of
black beeswax serving for a pupil. Finally the mummy was decked
with various ornaments. When it was complete and inodorous a final
feast would be provided, and it would be suspended in the house.
There the mummy would remain, swinging with every breath of wind
and turning its gleaming eyes with each movement of the head, until
it fell to pieces with old age.
When the body crumbled away word was sent to the friends to
come and assist in cutting off the head. A big feast was held, and a
man who was skilled in making portrait faces in beeswax on skulls
was also present. Later the artist made the wax model of the
deceased’s face; anyhow, the length of the nose was accurate, as
immediately after death the length of the nose was measured with a
piece of wood, which was safely kept for the purpose of securing the
right proportion of the imitation nose.
When the face was finished the head was given to the nearest
male relative. The men then cried. Later it was taken to the women,
who also had a good cry. The inevitable feast followed, at which the
artist received a large share of food.
The modelled and decorated skulls of relatives were kept probably
partly for sentimental reasons, as the people are of an affectionate
disposition, and like to have memorials of deceased friends, but
mainly for divinatory purposes.
A duly decorated skull when properly employed became a divining
zogo of remarkable powers, and was mainly used in discovering a
thief, or the stolen article, or a man who had by means of sorcery
made someone sick. But this could only be done by bezam le, or
members of the shark clan, who were also members of the Malu
fraternity. All who engaged in this hunt went in the early evening to
the zogo house, and one of the zogole took the Main mask and put it
on, repeating a certain formula. After leaving the house, the zogole
carried the skull in front of him, and all marched with a particular gait
till they heard a kind of grasshopper called kitoto, and they rushed in
the direction from which the noise proceeded. One particular kitoto
was believed to guide the men to the house of the offender. Should
the men lose the right direction the kitoto would wait for them to
come up, ever and again making its sound, “Sh, sh.” Ultimately they
were led to a house, and this must, of course, according to their
ideas, be the house of the malefactor.
It was of no use for the man to deny the evil deed, for kitoto had
found him out; and, moreover, the bezam le were so powerful that it
was as much as his life was worth to resist. If he happened to be a
bezam le himself he might try to brazen it out among his friends; but
if he was an outsider it would be useless, and he would have to pay
the fine.
I was naturally anxious to obtain one of these divining heads; even
by the time of my former visit they had all been done away with, at
least, so I was informed. I had therefore to be content to have a
model made for me. (Plate XII., B, No. 2; p. 139.)
First a skull had to be procured—and for other reasons I was very
desirous of making a collection of skulls; but it was long before I
could obtain any (I am referring now to my former visit), though I
constantly said, “Me fellow friend belong you fellow. ’Spose you get
me head belong dead man, I no speak. ’Spose you get him, I no
savvy what name you catch him, that business belong you fellow.
What for I get you fellow trouble?”
Eventually I came across a man who volunteered to get me some,
and I promised to give him sixpence per head; or, as I put it to him,
“One head belong dead man he sixpence, one head belong dead
man he sixpence; you savvy?” and as I spoke I touched and turned
down, native fashion, the fingers of the left hand, beginning with the
little finger. He understood perfectly.
Next day he brought me a basket of skulls, and he could tell me
the names of some of them, too! As he handed out one skull and
mentioned a man’s name, I noticed that the nursemaid of the
missionary’s wife, who was standing by, looked rather queer; but as
it was none of my business, I took no notice. Later I found that the
skull in question belonged to the girl’s uncle! I do not believe she
objected to my having the skull, but that the other man should have
the sixpence—the money had gone out of the family. When paying
the man I ticked off each skull on the fingers of my left hand, and
paid for it; but I had not enough sixpences, and so gave him half a
crown for five skulls. At this he looked very askance, although I
assured him the payment was quite correct. Fortunately Bruce was
standing by, and said he would give him five sixpences for it at the
store. My friend Baton made me one or two divining heads from
these skulls in the “old-time fashion.”
Hearing one day, during my former stay at Murray, that a woman
had died, and being grieved at the particular circumstances
attending her death, I determined to pay my visit of condolence. After
dark I went to the village where she had lived, and found her laid on
the beach with her head to the sea, and clothed in her best dress
and wearing her new hat, all her fancy calico being laid on the body.
The husband was sitting at the head, and close by were several
men, women, and children laughing and chattering over their
evening meal. Then the brother came up and bent over the body,
wailing and sobbing.
Shortly afterwards a canoe was brought to convey the corpse to a
more populous village, so that they might have a good cry.
Then I saw one of the most impressive sights it has yet been my
lot to witness. It was a beautiful tropical moonlight night, the sand
beach being illuminated with soft whiteness by the moon, and
countless stars glittered overhead. On one side the strand was
bordered by the gently lapping waves of the calm ocean, and on the
other by a grove of coconut palms, their grey stems, arising from a
confused shadow of undergrowth, topped by sombre feathery
crowns, a peaceful adjunct to a scene of sorrow, and the antithesis
of the ghastly mockeries of the funeral plumes of the professional
upholstery, which have only lately been abolished in England. A
small crowd of some twenty or so of us were walking along the
beach with the noiseless footfall of bare feet, keeping abreast of the
canoe which, with its sad freight, was poled along by the husband at
one end, and the brother at the other. As I saw the black silhouette of
the canoe and its crew against the moonlit sky and sea, silently
gliding like a veritable shadow of death, and heard the stillness of the
air broken by the moaning of the bereaved ones, my mind wandered
back thousands of years, and called up ancient Egypt carrying its
dead in boats across the sacred Nile—there with pomp, ceremony,
and imagery, here with simplicity, poverty, and stern realism.
At length we came to the village, the inclosure of which was
covered with family groups, mothers with babies surrounded by their
families, and many a little one was laid asleep upon the sand, well
wrapped up to keep off the flies.
The corpse was carried to a clear space, and again the gay
trappings of life were spread over the dead. An old woman, I believe
the deceased’s mother, came to the head, and sitting down, bent
over the body and commenced wailing. Then on all sides the cry was
taken up mainly by the groups of women who by this time had taken
their places round the dead. As one dropped out, another would join
in, and so with varying accessions in volume, occasionally dying
away to all but silence, the mournful sound continued through the
night, rising and falling in weird manner, recalling to my memory the
keening I had heard in far-away Kerry eighteen months previously.
Then I left them. The dead one surrounded by a changing circle of
weeping women; beyond, the family groups each illumined by its
own flickering fire, babies asleep, children playing, adults talking,
young men laughing, and a little love-making taking place in the
background; and above all the quiet, steady, bright face of the moon
impassively gazing, like Fate, on the vicissitudes of human life.
 CHAPTER VII
KIWAI AND MAWAITA

We left Murray Island at 10 a.m., September 8th, by the Nieue,

which the Rev. James Chalmers very kindly sent to us. A small
crowd assembled to bid us farewell, and I know many of the natives
were genuinely sorry that we were leaving. We spent such a happy
and profitable time there, that we shall always have a soft corner in
our hearts for this beautiful island.
We reached Erub (Darnley Island) about 3 p.m., landed, and
called on Captain H⸺, who entertained us with his reminiscences
of New Guinea. We sailed at daybreak next morning, and reached
Daru in the early afternoon. About midday we ran on to a sandbank,
but as the tide was rising this did not much matter; in fact, it was
rather convenient, as we were thus enabled to have a meal on a
steady boat, a matter of importance to some of our party.
At Daru we were boarded by Mr. H. W. de Lange, the Sub-
Collector of Customs. Our little formal business was soon over, and
we then called on the Hon. Bingham A. Hely, the very efficient
Resident Magistrate. He kindly asked us to dinner, and we had an
interesting talk about the natives of his division. Mr. Hely has lately
made some observations on the important subject of totemism. On
Sunday, September 11th, we arrived at Saguane in the forenoon,
and Tamate, my old friend the Rev. James Chalmers, who has been
described as the Livingstone of New Guinea, gave us a hearty
welcome.
Unfortunately Mrs. Chalmers was ill with fever, which had
prostrated her for some time. Tamate, as he likes to be called by his
black and white friends, had also been quite ill from the effects of a
nasty fall from a verandah in the dark, and he was scarcely well yet;
indeed, it appeared to me that his health was much shaken, and no