TON DUC THANG UNIVERSITY

Faculty of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

VIETNAM GENER

401081

MODERN REFRIGERATION
AND AIR CONDITIONING ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF REFRIGERATION
PhD. Nguyen Dao
 CHAPTER 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF REFRIGERATION

THIS COURSE INTRODUCES

1.1. Parameters of Gas and Steam
1.2. Thermodynamic of Gas and Steam
1.3. Heat Transfer
1.4. Refrigerants
1.5. Cooling Cycles

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 Introduction
 Heat Q and mechanical work (work energy) W are two forms of
energy that travel from one object to another.
 Thermal energy is related to the movement of gas molecules and the
mechanical energy involved in the movement of an object.
 Gas and vapor are intermediates
(substance) that convert between
thermal energy and mechanical
energy in heat and cold engines.

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 Introduction

 Unit of measurement of thermal energy and mechanical energy

- SI unit: J, KJ
- British unit: Btu
Btu = 1055 J
 The three parameters of the gas, vapor are temperature, pressure
and specific volume (can be measured directly) at one status
 The 5 parameters of the gas, vapor are energy parameters: inner
energy, enthalpy, entropy and thermal energy, work energy (can be
calculated by the temperature, pressure and specific volume)

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 1.1. Parameters of Gas and Vapor

1.1.1 Temperature
Temperature can be considered as a description of heat, a high
temperature object that contains high heat.

-Kenvin Grad: T0K= t0C + 273

-Celsius Grad: t0C= 5/9 (t0F -32);
-Fahrenheit Grad:
t0F =1,8 t0C+32

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 1.1. Parameters of Gas and Vapor

1.1.2. Pressure
1.Pressure is force per unit of area.
The impact force of the molecules of gas or vapor on the surface
of the container
Unit:
SI system: Pascal=N/m2 (1bar =105 N/m2; 1 MPa =106 N/m2 =10
bar..)
British unit:
. psi (1 pounds per 1 square inch)
1psi = 6894,76 N/m2 = 6,8976 kPa
1 bar =15 psi; 1 psi = 1/15 = 0,067 bar

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 1.1. Parameters of Gas and Vapor
1.1.2. Pressure
2.Types pressure:+ 3 types of measured:
- Atmospheric pressure (pa=15 psi or 1bar)
- Positive pressure (pp); (pp>pa)
- Vacuum pressure- Negative pressure (pn); (pn < pa)
+ Absolute pressure (p):
p= pa + pp
p= pa - pn
.

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 1.1. Parameters of Gas and Vapor
1.1.3. Specific volume
+ Specific volume v: is volume of 1 unit of mass,
- SI unit: m3/kg
- British unit: ft3/lb

+Density ρ =1/v
The Density is the mass of 1 unit volume
SI unit: kg/m3
- British unit: lb/ft3
1kg/m3 = 0,06243 lb/ft3

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 1.1. Parameters of Gas and Vapor
1.1.4. Enthalpy and Entropy
1.Enthalpy: H
-Enthalpy is the inner heat energy content of a substance at one status
- Specific enthalpy: h= H/M
- SI unit: kJ/kg
- British unit: Btu/lb
2.Entropy: S
-Entropy is using of the measure for the heat energy of a substance
at one status: dS = dQ/T-> dQ=TdS
-Specific entropy: s = S/M
- SI unit: kJ/kg.0K ;
British unit: Btu/lb.0K
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 1.1. Parameters of Gas and Vapor
1.1.5. Heat energy, Q
Heat energy: dQ =T dS
2
In thermodynamic process 1-2: Q= M‫׬‬1 𝑇𝑑𝑠
Specific heat energy q= Q/M or q= C x Δt
- SI unit: kJ/kg
- British unit: Btu/lb
C- specific heat- kJ/kg-K
dS < 0 -> Q < 0 (substance rejects heat)
dS >0 -> Q > 0 (substance absorbed heat)
Graph Temperature- Entropy is heat energy
graph (graph T-s)

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 1.1. Parameters of Gas and Vapor
1.1.6. Work , W
Work: is mechanic energy; In thermodynamic process 1-2:
2 2
Wv = M‫׬‬1 𝑝𝑑𝑣 or Wp= M‫׬‬1 (−𝑣𝑑𝑝)
Wv- work born from v changes;
Wp- work born from p changes
Specific work w = W/M
- SI unit: kJ/kg - British unit: Btu/lb
dv > 0 -> Wv>0 -substance removed work
dv < 0 -> Wv<0 -substance absorbed work
dp < 0 -> Wp> 0 (substance removed work
dp < 0 -> Wp> 0 substance absorbed work
Graph Pressure- Volume is work graph (graph p-v)
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 1.1. Parameters of Gas and Steam

1.1.7. Sensible Heat and Latent Heat

Fig: Sensible Heat and Latent Heat (boiling, condenser) of water
1 - ice (water),
2 - ice begins to melting
3 - water is liquid,
4 - boiling water,
3-4 temperature of water
required= sensible heat
5 - dry saturated vapor,
4-5- saturated vapor
(boiling process = latent
heat)
5 – supper heat vapor

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 1.2. Thermodynamic of Gas and Steam
1.2.1 Laws of Thermodynamic of gas
1) First’s Law of thermodynamic
-Thermodynamic process is process for mutually convertible of
heat and work energy.
-The formula of First’s Law:
in thermodynamic process Q = ∆H + Wp
Q- absorbed heat into the system or rejects heat from the system;
Wp- work from or to system.
ΔH- difference of enthalpy in process
Special:
in Process adiabatic Q= 0 -> Wp= - ∆H and dS = 0-> s1=s2
In Process p = const-> -vdp = 0->Wp= 0 and Q = ∆H
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 1.2. Thermodynamic of Gas and Steam
1.2.1 Laws of Thermodynamic of gas
2) Second’s Law of thermodynamic:
Heat machines (heat engine and cooling machine) are operation
cyclical, which is a closed thermodynamic process. Include at minimum
2 processes: 1.rejects heat pro. and 1.absorbed heat pro.(1a2, 2b1).

In cooling cycler :work energy to heat energy; Cycle counter clockwise

in heat machines cycler : heat to work energy Cycle goes clockwise
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 1.2. Thermodynamic of Gas and Steam
1.2.2. Energy balance in the cycle
QH = QC+ Wcycle
In cooling cycle:
QH- substance rejects heat from the cycle
QC- substance absorbed heat from the object needs to be cooled
Wcycle- work of cycle:
Wcycle= W1b2 –W2a1<0
(substance absorbed
Work from el. Motor)
-Coefficient of cooling:
ε = QC/Wcycle >1

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 1.3. Heat TransferTand
Heat transfer: Heat flows from a warm object
to a cold object
1.3.1.Conduction
Heat conduction is the process of transmitting
heat energy between the solid, liquid or gas
with one another
Condition:
having temperature difference and contact with
one another (most using in solids)
The copper rod is held in the
- All metal is a very good heat conductor , flame only for a short time
- All metalloid... is very poor heat conductor. berfor heat is felt at the fared

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 1.3. Heat TransferTand
1.3.1.Conduction
calculate the amount of heat transferred from the
hot surface to the cold surface of the wall by heat:
λ. Δ𝑇
Q=F ;W
δ
λ; W / m. K - thermal conductivity coefficient,
F- surface area of flat walls, m2
Δt = | tw1 –tw2 | - temperature difference between
the hot surface to the cold surface of the wall ; 0C
δ; m-wall thickness
-When thin tube can use the above formula

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 1.3. Heat TransferTand
1.3.2 Convection.
Convective heat is the heat transfer between the surface of
the solid wall and the flow of liquid (or gas)
Condition:
having temperature difference and contact with one another.
-2 types: Natural convection and Forced convection

condition:
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 1.3. Heat TransferTand
1.3.2 Convection.
Calculating of Convective heat:
Q = α F Δt; W
α [W / m2.K]- coefficient Convective heat
F- solid surface area, m2
Δt = | tf -tw | - temperature difference
between solid wall and liquid flow; 0C

condition:
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 1.3. Heat TransferTand
1.3.3 Radiation
-Radiation is the heat transfer by
electric-magnetic wave
-Radiation can travel through a
vacuum.
-Radiation is not using medium of
heat transfer.

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 1.3. Heat TransferTand
1.3.4.Combination of Heat Transfer
Heat flows from a warm fluid to the wall and to a cold fluid
Q = k. F. Δt; W
k- coefficient of heat transfer;
1
k= 1 δ 1 ; W/m 2-K
+ +
α1 λ α2
F- surface area of wall; m2
α1,α2- coefficient of heat convection on
hot wall and cold wall; W/m2-K
Δt = tf1- tf2
tf1, tf2 -temperature of hot and cold mediums - 0C
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 1.4. The Refrigerants

1.4.1 The Refrigerants for Air Conditioning

Refrigerant is substance in cooling machine.
1.Requirements for refrigerant :
- Chemical: degradation, no plasticizer, no corrosive equipment,
- Physical: good safety, low condensing pressure, boiling
pressure> 1 bar, water and oil dissolved well, high refrigeration
capacity, good heat conduction, no electrical conductivity
- Economy: cheap, easy to find, produce, transport, preserve
- Environment: no adverse effect on the environment

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 1.4. The Refrigerants

1.4.1 The Refrigerants for Air Conditioning

2. Symbol of refrigerant Freon:
-The original gas : CH4-metan,C2H6,-etan,C3H8-propan .
-Example: R113:
R- Refrigerant; 1- number of Carbon atom C -1, (=0 ignore)
1- number of Hydro atom H +1, 3- 1- number of Flo-atom
->Chemical formula: C2Cl3F3
-R 410a, 407c ... mixture of 2, 3 mono refrigerants.
Example: R407c: mixture of R32 +R125 +R134a (23/25/52)

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 1.4. The Refrigerants

1.4.1 The Refrigerants for Air Conditioning

3.Traditional refrigerants
R-12 (CCl2F2): Used primarily in medium- and high temperature.
Manufacturing and importing banned as after 01/1996.
R-22(CHClF2): Used primarily in residential, and industrial air
conditioning applications and in some comerical and industrial
refrigeration. Manufacturing and importing banned as after 2040
R-502(R22/R115-48,8/51,2): Used primarily in low-temperature
refrigeration applications. Manufacturing and importing banned as
after 2040

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 1.4. The Refregerants

1.4.1 The Refrigerants for Air Conditioning

4. New refrigerants (no ozone depletion)
R-134a(CH2FCF3): Used primarily in medium- and high
temperature refrigeration applications and air conditioning,
replacing R-12
R-410A(R32/R125-55/50): Used primarily in residential- and indu-
strial air conditioning applications,replacing R-22
R-404A(R125/143a/134a-44/52/4): Used primarily in low- medium
tempe- rature refrigeration applications, replacing R-502
R-407C(R32/125/134-23/25/52): Used residential- and industrial
air conditioning applications, replacing R-22
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 1.4. The Refrigerants
1.4.2 Relationship of Temperature and Pressure of Refrigerants
Boiling and condensing at process unchanged pressure
-Boiling: liquid to vapor (heat is added )
-Condensing: vapor to liquid (heat is removed)
Higher or low pressure -> higher or low temperature in boiling and
condensing process

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 1.4. The Refrigerants
1.4.3. Pressure-enthalpy graph of Refrigerants
(boiling liquid: vl, hl, sl; saturated vapor (gas): vg, hg, sg)

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 1.4. The Refrigerants
1.4.3. Pressure-enthalpy graph of Refrigerants

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 1.4. The Refregerants
1.4.3 Pressure-enthalpy graph lgp-h (R22)

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1.4.4 The Refrigerant table-Example

Bai tapKTDL TOP 100

CHUONG1, 3
 1.5. Cooling Cycles
1.5.1 Introduction to
refrigeration
-The refrigeration is the
cooling process(for food or
air cooling).
-Refrigeration is the process
of removing heat from a cool
medium (heat in the room or
refrigerator) and transferring
that to a hot medium.

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 1.5. Cooling Cycles
1.5.1 Introduction to refrigeration
-The unit measurement of cold productivity q and Q:
SI system: J, kWh
British unit: Btu
- cold capacity
SI system: W, kW (1W =1J/s)
British unit: Btu/h;
1 Ton of cool = 12000 Btu/h = 3,5169 kW

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 1.5. Cooling Cycles

1.5.2. Cooling cycle with compressors

1)The four components make refrigeration systems:
1. The evaporator
2. The compressor
3. The condenser
4. The Expansion
valve

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 1.5. Cooling Cycles

1.5.2. Cooling cycle with

compressors
3) Equipments system:
1. Compressors;
2. Outdoor units and high
pressure containers;
3. Indoor unit;
4. The Expansion valve.
4) Working principles

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 1.5. Cooling Cycles
1.5.3. The Cooling cycle with absorption :
1) Introduction
uses thermal energy.
The refrigerant is a pair of 2 substances:
- absorbed into each other,
- boiling temperature at different high pressure.
Two refrigerants:
- NH3-H2O ( for cooling below 00C)
- H2O-LiBr (for cooling above 00C and air conditioning).
.

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 1.5. Cooling Cycles
1.5.3. The Cold machine with absorption :
2) Equipment diagram and working principles
1- Condenser,
2-The Expansion valve
3 - Evaporation;
4- Absorption;
5- Pump;
6- Vapor born;
7- Pressure dow valve.

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 1.5. Cooling Cycles

1.5.4 Plotting the Cooling Cycles

1) Cycle with dry saturated vapor- is the basic cycle of cooling machines
Four components:
1. The evaporator
2. The compressor
3. The condenser
4. The Expansion valve
The Process:
1-2: at The compressor- s= cosnt
2-3: at The condenser - pk= cosnt
3-4: at The Expansion valve -h= cosnt
4-1: at The evaporator- p0= cosnt
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 1.6. Cooling Cycles
1.5.4 Plotting the Refrigeration Cycles
2) Cycle with Heat recovery -Cycle for Freon cooling machines

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 1.5. Cooling Cycles
1.5.5 Plotting the Refrigeration Cycles at p-h graph

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 1.5. Cooling Cycles
1.5.5 Plotting the Refrigeration Cycles at p-h graph
3). The processes of the Refrigeration cycle
1 The processes 4-1’: p0= const
Freon absorbed heat Q0 (boiling-liquid to vapor)
2. The processes 2-3’: pK = const
Freon condensing, rejects heat Qk (vapor to liquid)
3. The processes 1-2: Q = 0
Compressor pumping the vapor, work W to used ( p0->pK)
4. The throttle process 3 - 4: Q = 0, ∆H = 0.
The liquid of refrigerant in metering device (pK->p0)
p0- evaporation pressure; pK- condensation pressure

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 1.5. Cooling Cycles
1.5.5 Plotting the Refrigeration Cycles at p-h graph
3). The processes of the Refrigeration cycle
The processes 1’-1 and 3’-3
The heat changed between hot fluid (3’-3) and cold vapor (1’-1)
Δt(3’-3) = t3’ –t3: degree of temperature reduction of subcooled liquid
Δt(1’-1) = 5 -100C degree of temperature rise of superheated vapor
(t3 ? h3’- h3= h1-h1’ -> h3 = h3’-(h1-h1’) -> t3= at graph)
4)Pounts;
1- super heated vapor region;
1’-saturates vapor
2- hot super heated vapor; 3- subcooled liquid;
3’- saturates liquid; 4- saturates vapor region
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 1.5. Cooling Cycles
1.5.6 Calculate the Refrigeration cycles
1) Calculate energy parameters of cycler
q0- specific heat into evaporator; kJ/kg –> Q0 = M.q0; kJ
qk- specific heat from condenser; kJ/kg ->QK = M.qK; kJ
ws- specific work (theory) of compression process.; kJ/kg
ε- cooling factor: ε = q0/ws
Ns-theory (adiabatic process) capacity of compression process. kW
Ne-real (real process) capacity of compression process:
Ne = M.ws/ηe ; kW
ηe- Compression number <1 - diagram.
M- flow of refrigerant; kg/s

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 1.5. Cooling Cycles
1.5.6 Calculate the Refrigeration cycles
2) Given parameters;
The total heat capacity in room, kW
t0- evaporation temperature and tK- condensation temperature.
c)Steps of Calculating:
-Step1: Calculate Parameters: p, t, h- at the point: 1,2,3,4,3’,1’
and Plot the Cooling Cycle in Pressure-enthalpy graph lgp - h.
-Step 2: Calculate energy parameters of cycler (q0, qk, ws, ε).
-Step 3: Calculate the flow of refrigerant, the heat of condenser
and real capacity (Ne) of compressor in cycle.

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 SUMMARY AND ASSIGNMENT

In this chapter, we have learnt:

1.1. Parameters of Gas and Steam
1.2. Thermodynamic of Gas and Steam
1.3. Heat Transfer
1.4. Refrigerants
1.5. Cooling Cycles
Reading assignment:
[1]: 2-66, [2]: 121-136, [3]: 25-52, [5]: 1-69, 137-
153

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