Mechanics 22UPH101 - Engineering Physics

COURSE MATERIAL
22UPH101 - ENGINEERING PHYSICS
UNIT- IV
MECHANICS
Introduction – Center of mass (CM) – CM in one and two dimensions – Rotation of rigid bodies:
Rotational kinematics – Rotational kinetic energy – Moment, couple and torque –Conservation of
angular momentum – Rotational energy state of a rigid diatomic molecule – Gyroscope.

INTRODUCTION

In the Universe, the bodies will either be at rest (or) in motion. Mechanics is a branch
of physics, which deals with the motion of bodies under the action of forces.

In elementary mechanics, most of the bodies are assumed to be rigid. But in actual
practice, no body is perfectly rigid. When a stationary body is acted upon by some external
forces, then the body may start to rotate (or) may start to move about any point. If the body
doesn't move (or) rotate then it is said to be in equilibrium.

We know that a rigid body is a combination of many particles i.e. multi-particle. In

this chapter we are going to discuss about the multi-particle dynamics, centre of mass,
moment of inertia of various bodies, different types of motions, diatomic particle energy,
torsional pendulum, double pendulum and introduction to non-linear oscillations.

BASIC DEFINITIONS

Let us discuss about some of the basic definitions related to motion of the particles in
a circular (or) rotational motion.

(i) Angular displacement

Definition

The change in position of the particle moving in a circular path with respect to an
angle (𝑑𝜃) is called angular displacement.
Mechanics 22UPH101 - Engineering Physics

Proof

Let us consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving in a circular path of radius ‘R’ with respect to
the centre of circle O. At t = 0 s, the particle is located at the point A and after time interval
‘t’, it reaches the point B as shown in Fig. 4.1.

Figure 4.1 Angular displacement

We know that, the angular displacement of a particle is the change in angular position
between two points A and B, which can be measured by the angle (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) between the
radius vector of these two positions A and B.

∴The angle between A and B is dθ = (θ2 − θ1 )

∴Angular displacement 𝐝𝛉 = (𝛉𝟐 − 𝛉𝟏 )

Unit for angular displacement: Radian

From Fig. 4.1, we can write Arc length AB = l

∴The relation between angular displacement (𝐝𝛉) and linear displacement (l) is
given by, are length l= R dθ

(ii) Angular velocity

Definition

The rate of change of angular displacement is called angular velocity.

𝒅𝜽
∴ 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝝎 =
𝒅𝒕

Unit for angular velocity: 𝑹𝒂𝒅 𝒔−𝟏

Mechanics 22UPH101 - Engineering Physics

The relation between angular velocity (𝝎) and linear velocity (v) is given by, v =
rω.

(iii) Angular acceleration

Definition

The rate of change of angular velocity is called angular acceleration.

𝒅𝝎 𝒅𝟐 𝜽
∴ 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝜶 = (𝒐𝒓) 𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Unit for angular acceleration: 𝑹𝒂𝒅 𝒔−𝟐

(iv) Angular momentum

Definition

The moment of inertia times of angular velocity of the particle is called angular
momentum.

∴ 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝑳 = 𝑰𝝎

where I is moment of inertia of the particle and 𝜔 is the angular velocity.

Unit for angular momentum: 𝑲𝒈𝒎𝟐 𝒔−𝟏

(v) Inertia

Definition

Inertia is defined as the tendency of an object to maintain its state of rest or uniform
motion along the same direction. Inertia is a resisting capacity of an object to alter its state of
rest and motion (direction and/or magnitude).

CENTRE OF MASS IN A ONE DIMENSIONAL SYSTEM

Definition

The system consists of many particles with different positions and different masses. If
the mass of the entire particles in the system is concentrated at a particular point, then that
point is called the centre of mass of the system.
Mechanics 22UPH101 - Engineering Physics

Explanation
Let us consider a fulcrum placed along the x-axis which is not at equilibrium position
as shown in Fig.4.2.

Fig. 4.2. Sea-saw board

Let the position of masses m1 , m2 , m3 , … … . . mn−1 , mn be at a distance

𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … … . . 𝑥n−1 , 𝑥n respectively from the supporting point (or) fulcrum.
The tendency of a mass to rotate with respect to origin or supporting point is called
moment of mass.
The moment of mass for an elemental mass m with respect to the fulcrum can be
written as 𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 .
If the moments on both sides are equal, then the system is said to be in equilibrium.
Therefore, total moments with respect to the fulcrum shall be written as
𝑛

𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 + 𝑚3 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛−1 𝑥𝑛−1 + 𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 = 0 _________(1)

𝑖=1

If the total moment is equal to zero, then the centre of mass will lie at the supporting point
(or) fulcrum and the system is said to be in equilibrium.
But from Fig. 4.3, we can see that the total moment of the system is not equal to zero
(unbalanced position), therefore the fulcrum should be adjusted (to a distance X) with respect
to the centre of mass area in order to get the balanced position of the system and to reach
equilibrium condition (balanced position) as shown in Fig. 4.4.
Mechanics 22UPH101 - Engineering Physics

∴Under equilibrium conditions, we can write equation (1) as

𝑛 𝑛

∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑋 = 0
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑛 𝑛

∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑋 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑛 𝑛

𝑋 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑋= _________________(2)
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖
where.
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 is the moment of the system &
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 is the mass of the system
Therefore, the system should be moved to a distance of X metres in order to attain the
balanced position (equilibrium) of the system as shown in Fig. 4.4.
The distance moved to obtain equilibrium position for) so called the centre of mass
in a one dimensional system is given by
𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 + 𝑚3 𝑥3 + ⋯
𝑋= _________(3)
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 + ⋯

CENTRE OF MASS IN A TWO DIMENSIONAL SYSTEM

Let us consider a system consists of two particles of masses and their position vectors
𝑟1 and ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟2 separation distance between them is d.
Position of centre of mass unaffected in the absence of external force.
Let us assume their center of mass located at ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟𝑐𝑚 ,
From the eq (2)
Mechanics 22UPH101 - Engineering Physics

∑ 𝑚𝑖 ⃗𝑟𝑖
𝑟𝑐𝑚 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀

𝑚1 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 + 𝑚2 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2
𝑟𝑐𝑚 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑚1 + 𝑚2

Its components in Cartesian coordinate system

𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2
𝑋=
𝑚1 + 𝑚2

and
𝑚1 𝑦1 + 𝑚2 𝑦2
𝑌=
𝑚1 + 𝑚2

Let us assume origin at centre of mass (CM) vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑟𝑐𝑚 .
Both the particles lies on the x axis. Let the (CM) will also lie on the x axis.
Then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟𝑐𝑚 Vanishes.
0 = 𝑚1 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 + 𝑚2 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2 ________(4)

Either of the masses m1 and m2 cannot be negative. Then to satisfy the above relation
𝑟1 and ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟2 must be in opposite direction.

0 = 𝑚1 (−𝑟⃗⃗⃗1 ) + 𝑚2 (𝑟⃗⃗⃗2 )

Then

𝑚1 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 = 𝑚2 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2

𝑟⃗⃗⃗2 𝑚1
= _____(5)
𝑟1 𝑚2
⃗⃗⃗

From the eq (5)

𝑚2 𝑚1
𝑟1 =
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟2 = 𝑟
⃗⃗⃗
𝑚1 𝑚2 1

As we know the separation distance between them is d,

𝑑 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2
𝑚2 𝑚2
𝑑 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 = 𝑟2 + ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟2 (
𝑟2 = ⃗⃗⃗ + 1)
𝑚1 𝑚1
𝑚1
𝑟2 = 𝑑
⃗⃗⃗
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
similarly
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𝑚2
𝑟1 = 𝑑
⃗⃗⃗
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
This concludes that the centre of mass of the two-particle system lies between the two
masses on the line joining them and divide the distance between them in the inverse ratio of
their masses.

ROTATION OF RIGID BODIES

Rigid body
A rigid body is an object which has definite shape and size and does not change due
to external force. In other words, rigid body can be defined as an extended object in which
the distance between particles is not altered during its motion.
Rotational motion
A rotational motion in a rigid body may be considered as a stationary motion and here, the
rotation is caused by a couple acting on the body. Its state can be changed only by applying a
couple (or) a set of couples.

Explanation
Let us consider a rigid body, which revolves around an axis OY through ‘O’ as shown
in Fig. 4.7.
Let us consider two particles say P1 and P2, which revolves in a circular path, about
the point A and B respectively.
Here, it is found that the centre of each circle lies on OY and the radii of these circles
(AP1 and BP2) will be equal to perpendicular distance from the axis OY.
We know that in rotational motion, though the particles will have different linear
velocities, they will have same angular velocity. Therefore all the particles will rotate
through an angle de in a small interval of time dt.
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𝐝𝛉
∴ Angular velocity 𝛚 =
𝐝𝐭
∴The corresponding angular acceleration i.e., Rate of change of angular velocity is
𝐝𝛚
𝛂=
𝐝𝐭
ROTATIONAL KINEMATICS
Rotational kinematics describes the inter-relationship between the angular
displacement, angular velocity and angular acceleration with respect to the time.
It describes the rotational motion of the particles without considering the mass (or)
force that affect the rotation.
Kinematics of rotational motion for constant angular acceleration with respect to an
axis of rotation is analogue to kinematics of linear motion. The equations governing the linear
motion and rotational motion with various relationship between displacement, velocity,
acceleration and time are provided in the table as follows.
S.No Linear Motion Rotational Motion
1 vf = vi + at ωf = ωi + αt
2 1 1
S = vi t + at 2 θ = ωi t + αt 2
2 2
3 vf2 = vf2 + 2aS ω2f = ω2i + 2αθ
Here, Here,
vi is the initial velocity at t=0 ωi is the initial angular velocity at t=0
vf is the final velocity at ‘t’ ωf is the final angular velocity at ‘t’
a is the acceleration α is the angular acceleration
t is the time t is the time
S is the displacement θ is the angular displacement

ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY

Let us consider a rigid body rotating about an axis XX' with constant angular velocity
‘𝜔’ as shown in Fig.4.8.
Mechanics 22UPH101 - Engineering Physics

All particles in rigid body have the same angular velocity ‘𝜔’ but with different linear
velocity ‘v’, Here, the velocity ‘v’ varies with radial distance from the axis XX'.
Let v1 , v2 , … . vi , be the linear velocities of the particles of masses m1 , m2 , … . mi , rotating
about the axis of rotation at distance r1 , r2 , … . ri , respectively.
The K.E. of the particle with mass m1
1
m1 = m1 v12
2
The K.E. of the particle with mass m2
1
m2 = m2 v22
2
The K.E. of the particle with mass mi
1
mi = m v2
2 i i
Here, total K.E., of all the particles will correspond to the K.E. of the body
1 1 1
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐾. 𝐸. = m1 v12 + m2 v22 + ⋯ + mi vi2 ____________(1)
2 2 2
Since all the particles move with same angular velocities (𝜔) but with different linear
velocities (v1 , v2 , … . vi ) at different distances (r1 , r2 , … . ri ) from the axis of rotation.
We can write v1 = r1 ω ; v2 = r2 ω ; … . . vi = ri ω
∴Equation (1) becomes
1 1 1
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐾. 𝐸. = m1 r1 2 𝜔2 + m2 r2 2 𝜔2 +. . . . . + mi ri 2 𝜔2
2 2 2
1
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐾. 𝐸. = (∑ mi ri 2 ) 𝜔2 ______________(2)
2
𝑖

Since I is the moment of inertia of body about the XX' axis and is given by

𝐼 = ∑ mi ri 2 __________(3)
𝑖

∴Equations (2) becomes

1
Total Kinetic Energy = Iω2 ____________(4)
2
Equation (4) represents the rotational kinetic energy of the particles in a rigid body.
Mechanics 22UPH101 - Engineering Physics

MOMENT, COUPLE AND TORQUE

Moment of a force
The moment of a force about a point is defined as the product of the magnitude of the
force and the perpendicular distance from the point to the line of action of force.
Explanation
Let ‘F’ be the force acting on a body, at A as shown in Fig. 4.9.

Then the moment of force ‘F’ about ‘O’ is Mo = F × d

Where ‘d’ is the perpendicular distance from the point ‘O’ to the line of action of force F.
Couple
A couple constitutes a pair of two equal and opposite forces acting on a body, in such
a way that the lines of action of the two forces are not in the same straight line.
Explanation
Let ‘P’ and ‘Q’ be the two equal and opposite forces acting on the body AB as shown in Fig.
4.10, then these two forces form a couple and if the moment of the couple about A is MA and
about B is MB then we can write
Couple = MA = MB = P × d

Torque
Torque is defined as moment of force acting on the body in rotational motion with
respect to the fixed point.
Mechanics 22UPH101 - Engineering Physics

Explanation
Torque is the rotating force and is equal to the moment of the couple. Torque is the
product of one of the forces forming couple and the perpendicular distance from the pivot
(or) central point at which the two opposite forces act.
If ‘F’ is the force acting at a distance ‘r’ from the centre point ‘O’ as shown in
Fig. 4.11.

Then, the product of one of the force forming couple and the perpendicular distance from
pivot to force acting point is called torque or moment of force.
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝜏 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
(or) 𝜏 = 𝐹 × 𝑟
Torque is a vector quantity, which is perpendicular to both the direction of force and
radius vector.

CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

We know that, the relation between torque (𝜏) and angular momentum (L) is,
𝑑𝐿
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝜏 =
𝑑𝑡
If no net external torque is acting on the body i.e.. if 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0, then the angular
momentum (L) of the body will become a constant.
𝑑𝐿
i. e. , if 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0 ⇒ =0
𝑑𝑡
Therefore, L is a constant.
The above equation is known as the law of conservation of angular momentum. It
shows that the angular momentum of the rigid body is constant at any instant of time ‘t’, if
the net torque is zero.
In other words we can say that if the net torque is zero, then the angular momentum in
a rigid body will be equal.
If L1 and L2 are the angular momentum, then we can write
L1 = L2
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(𝑜𝑟) 𝐼1 𝜔1 = 𝐼2 𝜔2 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
1
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐼∝
𝜔
Therefore, for a rigid body when the moment of inertia increases, then, the angular
velocity will decrease (and vice-versa), if the external net torque is zero.

ROTATIONAL ENERGY STATE OF A RIGID DIATOMIC MOLECULE

Let us consider a rigid diatomic molecule having two atoms of masses m1 and m2
connected by a weightless rod of length ‘x’.
This rigid diatomic molecule rotates with an angular velocity ω, with respect to an
axis through the centre of mass ‘O’ and is perpendicular to the connecting rod as shown in
Fig. 4.12.

We know that, the kinetic energy of rotating diatomic molecule is

1 2
𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝐼𝜔 __________(1)
2
We know the angular momentum of a rotating body is
𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔
𝐿
(𝑜𝑟) 𝜔= _________(2)
𝐼
Substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we get
1 𝐿2
𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝐼
2 𝐼2
1 𝐿2
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐾. 𝐸. =
2 𝐼
𝐿2
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐾. 𝐸. = ________(3)
2𝐼
We know that the moment of inertia of a rotating diatomic molecule it
𝐼 = 𝜇𝑥 2 __________(4)
where 𝜇 is the reduced mass
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Substituting equation (4) in equation (3) we get

𝐿2
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐾. 𝐸) = __________(5)
2𝜇𝑥 2
Equation (5) represents the classical equation for kinetic energy of a rigid diatomic
molecule, in which the energy levels are continuous for all possible valves of ‘L’.

But, according to quantum mechanics, we know that the energy values are discrete.
∴Based on the quantum theory, the angular momentum 'L' shall be written as
𝐿 = √𝐽(𝐽 + 1) ℏ _________(6)
Where. J is the total angular momentum quantum number and its values are 0, 1, 2, 3,... and
so on.
Substituting equation (6) in equation (5) we get
2
(√𝐽(𝐽 + 1) ℏ)
𝐾. 𝐸 (𝐸𝐽 ) =
2𝜇𝑥 2
𝐽(𝐽 + 1)ℏ2
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐸𝐽 = _________(7)
2𝜇𝑥 2
Thus, equation (7) represents the rotational kinetic energy a rigid diatomic molecule,
quantum mechanically.
Special cases
(i) When J=0, equation (7) becomes E0=0.
(ii) When J=1, equation (7) becomes
2ℏ2
𝐸1 =
2𝜇𝑥 2
ℏ2
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐸1 = ________(8)
𝜇𝑥 2
(iii) When J = 2, equation (7) becomes
2 (3)ℏ2
𝐸2 =
2𝜇𝑥 2
3ℏ2
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐸2 = 2 ________(9)
𝜇𝑥
From eqn (8) and eqn (9), we can write
𝐸2 = 3𝐸1
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(iv) When J = 3, equation (7) becomes

3 (4)ℏ2
𝐸3 =
2𝜇𝑥 2
6ℏ2
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐸2 = ________(10)
𝜇𝑥 2
From eqn (8) and eqn (10), we can write
𝐸3 = 6 𝐸1
∴The general equation for finding energy states of a diatomic molecule is given by
𝐽(𝐽 + 1)
𝐸𝐽 = 𝐸1
2
Various energy states of the diatomic molecule for various values of angular
momentum quantum number (J) is as shown in Fig. 4.13.

From the above results, we can confirm that rotational kinetic energy of rigid
diatomic molecule is quantized and discrete.

GYROSCOPE
A gyroscope is a device which is used to measure (or) maintain the angular velocity
and orientation, without changing its magnitude.
The device has a spinning wheel (or) disc mounted on a base in which the axis of
rotation (or) spin axis of the disc will freely move in order to maintain its orientation.
irrespective of the movement of the base.
Principle
The main principle used in gyroscope is the product of angular momentum which is
experienced by the torque on the wheel (or) disc is used to produce a gyroscopic procession
in the spinning wheel.
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Here, the direction of rotation axis will continue, until an external torque act on it.
Types
There are different type of gyroscope viz..
1) Mechanical gyroscope
2) Optical gyroscope.
3) Gas bearing gyroscope.
Let us discuss about a mechanical gyroscope.

Design

The gyroscope consists of four main parts as shown in Fig. 4.14 viz.,
1. Rotor
2. Gimbals
3. Spinning wheel
4. Gyroscope frame with base.
In gyroscope the massive rotor is fixed on the supporting rings known as gimbals. The
rotor will have three degrees of rotation, which will be helpful to alter the following
parameters. i.e..
i) Angular velocity (𝜔)
ii) Angular momentum (L) and
iii) Torque (𝜏) of the rotational motion.
The above three parameters are inter related. Here the direction of angular momentum
act in the same direction as that of the rotational axis in symmetrical bodies.
Working
Lets us consider a gyroscope with its one end is connected with the pivot as shown in
Fig.4.15.
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Without spinning
If there is no spinning of wheel (i.e. L=0), the free end only move to horizontal plane
(xy plane) due to gravitational force.
With spinning
If there is spinning of wheel, the free end moves towards downward direction
combined with the spin of the wheel about the axis.
Hence, a downward force W=mg will act at a distance ‘r’ and will produce a torque
which in turn will produce an angular momentum simultaneously and rotates the spinning
wheel along the horizontal plane as shown in Fig. 4.16.

Therefore, gyroscope movement steadily increases depends upon time interval in

horizontal direction based on the equation given by.
𝑑𝐿
∑𝜏 = (𝑜𝑟) ∑ 𝜏 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝐿 ________(1)
𝑑𝑡
From equation (1), we can see that the gyroscope experience a net torque and
therefore angular momentum must change.
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Due to the constant direction, torque and angular momentum will alter its direction
without change of magnitude. As a result, the axis of rotation of wheel does not fall. Thus the
gyroscope maintains its orientation even though the base is moved to any place.

Applications
Gyroscopes are used in the following areas.
1. They are used as compasses in boats, aeroplanes, air crafts etc.,
2. Gyroscope is used in spacecraft in order to navigate the spacecraft to the desired target.
3. It is also used to stabilize the ships, satellites, ballistic missiles, etc..
4. Gyroscopes are used in gyrotheodolites for maintaining the direction in tunnel mining.
5. In recent days, gyroscopes along with accelerometers are used in smart phones for
providing excellent motion sensing.