Concrete

Hardstanding
DESIGN GUIDANCE
Guidelines for the design of
concrete hardstandings
3rd Edition 2023

The British Cementitious Paving Association

 This guidance updates and replaces Edition 2 of the Britpave ‘Concrete Hardstanding Design Handbook, 2007’. It includes updated
information on materials, specifications and industry practice by calling upon the experience and expertise of the Hardstanding
Working Group.

Members of the Hardstanding Working Group include:

Matt Bolle, Danley Ltd

Jack Bull, Mott MacDonald
Bachar Hakim, AECOM
Alex Lake, Norder Design Associates Ltd
Nick Thom, University of Nottingham
Joe Quirke, VolkerFitzpatrick

Britpave wishes to extend its thanks for their valued time and input in the review and preparation of this guidance.

Front cover image: Next Plc Distribution Centre, South Elmsall, West Yorkshire featuring the Danley Strategic Reinforcement
Design™

Britpave, the British In-situ Cementitious Paving

Association, was formed in 1991. It is active in all areas
of infrastructure including roads, airfields, light and The British Cementitious Paving Association

heavy rail, guided bus, safety barriers and drainage

channels, soil stabilisation and recycling. Published by:

The Association has a broad corporate membership Britpave

base that includes clients, contractors, consulting Easthampstead Park, Off Peacock Lane,
engineers and designers, suppliers of plant, equipment Wokingham,Berkshire RG40 3DF
and materials.
Tel +44 (0)118 4028915
Britpave aims to forward industry best practice and www.britpave.org.uk
technical information dissemination. In addition,
it provides members and clients with networking
opportunities and the opportunity to address industry
issues via specific working groups.

All advice or information herein is intended for those who will evaluate the significance and limitations of its contents and take responsibility for their use or application.
No liability (including that for negligence) for any loss resulting from such advice or information is accepted by either Britpave or its members. Readers should note that
this publication may be subject to future revision and should therefore ensure that they are in possession of the latest version.

Published by Britpave
First published: 2023
Ref: BP/73
 Contents

Concrete CONTENTS Page

Hardstanding 1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
The Hardstanding Market........................................................................3

Design Handbook 1.2

1.3
Long Term Performance..........................................................................3
Scope Of This Guidance Document.........................................................3

Guidelines for the design 2 TERMINOLOGY........................................................................5

of concrete hardstandings 2.1 Definitions...............................................................................................5
2.2 Pavement Types.......................................................................................5

3 DESIGN....................................................................................7
3.1 General....................................................................................................7
3.2 Site Appraisal...........................................................................................7
3.3 Subgrade.................................................................................................7
3.4 Subbase...................................................................................................7
3.5 Concrete.................................................................................................7
3.6 Thickness Design.....................................................................................7
3.7 Joints.......................................................................................................8
3.8 Surface Characteristics.............................................................................8
3.9 Integrated Design....................................................................................8

4 SITE APPRAISAL.......................................................................9
4.1 General....................................................................................................9
4.2 Site Survey...............................................................................................9
4.3 Soils Investigation....................................................................................9
4.4 Traffic Estimation...................................................................................12

5 SUBGRADE.............................................................................13
5.1 General..................................................................................................13
5.2 Subgrade Support.................................................................................13
5.3 Subgrade Uniformity.............................................................................14
5.4 Stabilised Subgrade...............................................................................14

6 SUBBASE................................................................................15
6.1 General..................................................................................................15
6.2 Subbase Thickness.................................................................................15
6.3 Foundation Class 2................................................................................15
6.4 Foundation Class 3................................................................................16
6.5 Subbase Construction............................................................................16

7 CONCRETE.............................................................................20
7.1 General..................................................................................................20
7.2 Specifying Concrete...............................................................................20
7.3 Strength................................................................................................20
7.4 Durability..............................................................................................21
7.5 Consistence...........................................................................................22
7.6 Cement.................................................................................................23
7.7 Chemical Admixtures.............................................................................23
7.8 Construction Practices...........................................................................23
7.9 Winter Working.....................................................................................24
7.10 Opening To Traffic.................................................................................25
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

8 THICKNESS DESIGN................................................................26
8.1 General..................................................................................................26
8.2 Design Concept.....................................................................................26
8.3 Parameters............................................................................................26
8.4 Concrete Slab Thickness........................................................................27
8.5 Steel Reinforcement...............................................................................27
8.6 Fibre Reinforcement...............................................................................27
8.7 Telescopic Landing Gear........................................................................27

9 JOINTS...................................................................................29
9.1 The Need For Joints In Concrete............................................................29
9.2 Types Of Joint........................................................................................29
9.3 Joint Sealing..........................................................................................34
9.4 Joint Spacing And Layout.......................................................................35
9.5 Joint Maintenance.................................................................................38
9.6 Joints In Roller Compacted Concrete ....................................................38
9.7 Alternative Methods Of Design And Constuction ..................................39

10 SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS..................................................41
10.1 General..................................................................................................41
10.2 Regularity..............................................................................................41
10.3 Gradient................................................................................................41
10.4 Skid Resistance......................................................................................42
10.5 Abrasion Resistance...............................................................................43
10.6 Impact Resistance..................................................................................43

11 INTEGRATED DESIGN.............................................................44
11.1 General..................................................................................................44
11.2 Drainage...............................................................................................44
11.3 Services.................................................................................................45
11.4 Designing For Edge Drain Units.............................................................45

12 HARDSTANDINGS AND EMBODIED CARBON..........................46

12.1 General..................................................................................................46
12.2 Estimating The Carbon Impact Of Concrete Hardstandings...................47

APPENDICES..........................................................................49
A Vehicle Damage Factors.........................................................................49
B Parameters Adopted In Thickness Design...............................................51
C Design Examples .................................................................................52
D Calculating Joint Spacing For Plain Concrete Pavements
On Bound Subbase................................................................................55

13 FURTHER READING ...............................................................56


Introduction
1.1 THE HARDSTANDING MARKET
Each year, considerable areas of hardstanding pavements
and circulatory routes are constructed around industrial,
commercial and warehousing premises for use by heavy
goods vehicles and other handling plant. The market for
hardstanding pavements is likely to grow in parallel with
the ongoing growth of the logistics industry from retail,
food and manufactured goods storage and distribution.
Hardstandings are typically constructed from concrete for
long-life performance and minimum maintenance. Design
life varies from 20 to 40 years. Significant advances in
reinforcement detailing, new low carbon high strength
concretes, steel and synthetic fibre reinforcement, and roller
compacted concrete offer increased potential for additional
construction efficiency and savings.
Figure 1.1 Modern distribution and process facilities demand
significant hardstanding areas
Figure 1.2 Traditional construction of a concrete hardstanding
alongside fast track building construction. Image: Lagan
Construction Group/Couldwell Concrete
Introduction
1.2 LONG TERM PERFORMANCE
1
Long term performance with minimum maintenance
interruptions is important if disruptive downtime and loss
of availability are to be avoided. As part of the long-term
performance, it is important to make full consideration of
the whole life cost of the hardstanding. This includes the
initial cost of pavement construction or rehabilitation, the
costs of routine maintenance and planned strengthening
over the design life, and the value of the asset at the end
of its life. Other factors include the non-engineering and
user cost as a result of delay and increase in operating cost.
Therefore, where the cost of disruption during pavement
maintenance and strengthening is high, constructing
strong low maintenance durable pavement would have a
major advantage.
Concrete pavement requires little maintenance during
its life. However, premature concrete failure is commonly
associated with inadequate structural design and materials
specification, poor construction quality and increased or
inappropriate operational loading. Design details including
joint types and spacing to account for the expected
traffic pattern and aggregate thermal properties, use of
reinforcement and edge details are crucial for successful
pavements. Additionally, the interaction with other design
elements such as drainage design and potential ground
settlement or heave must also be considered.
It is important that sufficient focus is placed on the
hardstanding planning, design and construction. If not, the
end result could be a hardstanding that is inappropriately
specified, over- or under-designed, poorly laid out and
constructed to marginal levels of quality. All of the above
will impact the long-term performance of the hardstanding.
1.3 SCOPE OF THIS GUIDANCE DOCUMENT
This guidance document has been prepared for
designers, constructors, owners and operators of concrete
hardstandings that are subject to heavy goods vehicles and
forklift trafficking. The design thickness methods adopted
within are based upon this type of loading. The document
offers guidance only. It is not a governing standard. Readers
should use their own judgment to develop a solution that
is fit for purpose in line with the recommendations of this
guide and with the specifications and guidance that are
referenced throughout.
The guidance provided explains the simple steps that can
be taken to ensure successful concrete hardstanding design
and construction. It follows the latest advice on selecting
appropriate concrete classes for hardstandings in accordance
with European Standard BS EN 201-1. It incorporates
simple standardised foundation design methodology based
3
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

upon the latest foundation design to Foundation Class 2

(unbound) and Foundation Class 3 (bound) in National
Highways standard CD225.The guidance includes the
commonly adopted PAV 2 and RC40/50XF concretes.

The guidance does not follow the approach in TR34. TR34

is not intended for external hardstandings but for internal
floors and, as such, is mainly associated with static loading
rather than repeated loading and temperature induced
stresses.

The advice given on integrated design offers the opportunity

to adopt fast track paving methods such as slipforming
laser spreading and roller compacted concrete as well as
the consideration of new innovative modern construction
methods.

Due note should be made that where very heavy loads

from container handling vehicles such as straddle carriers
and front reach stackers are envisaged, then the thickness
designs outlined in this guidance are insufficient. It is
recommended instead that the concrete pavement be
designed in accordance with the Interpave document ‘The
structural design of heavy duty pavements for ports and
other industries.’

4

Terminology
2.1 DEFINITIONS
To understand why concrete is such a good material
for hardstandings, it is important to understand the
composition of a typical hardstanding construction.
Hardstandings are essentially made up of layers of different
materials, generally increasing in stiffness towards the
surface. The wheel loads applied to the finished surface
are spread through the hardstanding construction such
that the underlying ground is not overstressed. The
principal terminology used to describe the layers within the
hardstanding structure is shown below:
Principal elements of
a concrete hardstanding
2.2 PAVEMENT TYPES
Bound pavement layers
2.2.1 Unreinforced Concrete Pavement (URC)
Bound or unbound subbase
Bound or unbound capping layer
Natural subgrade
Figure 2.1 Principal elements of a concrete hardstanding
Subgrade: The natural subgrade, be it clays, chalks, sands
2.2.2 Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavements (JRC)
or gravels, will usually be insufficiently robust to support
construction traffic, let alone the operational traffic.
Capping and subbase: To provide a construction platform
on which bound layers can be satisfactorily placed and
compacted it is common to strengthen the natural subgrade
with a capping layer. In turn providing a subbase layer
above using a stiffer bound or unbound material further
enhances this capping layer.
Where the natural ground conditions permit, it is
occasionally possible to eliminate the capping layer by
providing a thicker subbase layer directly onto the natural
subgrade.
Terminology
2
Capping and subbase layers may be formed from imported
materials. Alternatively, the existing subgrade materials, if
suitable, can frequently be modified through the process
of ‘soil stabilisation’ to provide an equivalent material.
The capping and subbase layers form the foundation to
the higher stiffness bound pavement layers above. The
foundation serves two principal functions:
• To provide a robust platform to the construction of the
higher quality bound pavement materials above,
• May also serve as part of the overall load spreading
structure of the hardstanding, ultimately protecting
the underlying natural subgrade from becoming
overstressed.
Bound pavement is the main structural element of the
concrete pavement, providing the durable and skid resistant
trafficked surface.
Five concrete pavement types can be considered as follows:
This pavement type is constructed using Pavement
Quality Concrete (PQC) and contains no drying shrinkage
reinforcement except in irregularly shaped slabs, or slabs
containing inclusions such as manholes and gulleys.
Transverse contraction joints are placed across the pavement
at approximately 4 – 5 metre centres (depending upon the
slab thickness and aggregate used in the PQC mix). Usually,
the transverse joints are dowelled or tied to ensure a good
level of load transfer across the joints.
Where URC pavements are constructed without dowels and
ties, aspects of the pavement design and detailing must
be reviewed for the subsequent higher edge and corner
loading at joints.
This pavement type is constructed using PQC and is
characterised by transverse contraction joints that can
be extended to 9 metres or more. Steel reinforcement is
provided to control, but not prevent, cracking which may
occur between the joints.
Whilst the reinforcement is provided to control cracking,
and not for structural purposes, it indirectly contributes
to increasing the cyclic load carrying capacity. It does so
by relieving the concrete matrix of much of the thermal
stresses that would otherwise reduce the pavement’s life.
5
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

2.2.3 Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete Pavement (SFRC)
SFRC is constructed using PQC incorporating a specified
level of steel fibre dosage which is added at the point of
mixing. SFRC is characterised by transverse and longitudinal
contraction joints typically spaced at 4 – 12 metres apart.
The steel fibre reinforcement is provided to control, but
not prevent, the cracking that may occur between these
joints. Dowelled contraction joints can be specified where
there are concerns over the long-term performance of the
load transfer mechanism (aggregate interlock + fibres)
under high load repetitions. Dowels should allow for two-
directional shrinkage to eliminate restraint at the joints.
SFRC is easy to place and provides improved control of
shrinkage stresses. A wide range of steel fibre size and
type is available. The fibre dosage required to attain a
required performance level varies considerably. The design
procedure should therefore take into account the particular
characteristic of the fibre used and guidance should be
sought from the fibre supplier.
2.2.4 Micro synthetic (polypropylene)/macro synthetic
(part-polypropylene) fibre reinforced concrete
pavement (PFRC)
This pavement type is constructed using Pavement
Quality Concrete (PQC) incorporating a specified level of
polypropylene/synthetic (part polypropylene) fibre dosage,
which is added at the point of mixing.
2.2.5 Roller Compacted Concrete Pavement (RCC)
Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) is a versatile heavy duty
pavement that is ideal for concrete hardstandings where
strength and durability rather than surface appearance are
needed more – although the appearance can be improved
with the use of power-floating.
RCC is more economic than PQC as it is produced at lower
moisture contents and, therefore, less cement is required
to achieve the same strength. Production rates for RCC are
high using modified pavers and rollers. Commonly, RCC is
compacted with both vibratory rollers and pneumatic-tyred
rollers to close the surface.
RCC does not have conventional sealed joints, using the
process of controlled cracking instead to provide fully
interlocked wet-formed joints at approximately 3x3m
nominal centres. Useful guidance on the design of RCC
can be found in the Portland Cement Association guide
‘Structural design of roller-compacted concrete for industrial
pavements’ and the Bripave ‘Guide to roller compacted
concrete’. Roller compacted concrete pavement is now
specified in the Specification for Highway Works 1000 Series

The addition of polypropylene micro-fibres will provide

some resistance to freeze-thaw damage. However, it will
not provide the equivalent level of freeze-thaw resistance
that air entrainment will otherwise provide in concretes
with strength class less than RC40/50XF.

Micro synthetic (polypropylene) fibre reinforced

concrete
Micro synthetic fibres are extremely fine polypropylene
micro-fibres of approximately 20 to 50 microns in thickness,
and typically up to 12 mm long.

Macro synthetic (part polypropylene) fibre

reinforced concrete
Macro syntheticfibres are typically 40 - 50mm long and
nominally 1 – 1.5mm in diameter. Macro synthetic fibre
reinforced concrete is characterised by transverse and
longitudinal contraction joints typically spaced at 4 – 9
metres. The macro synthetic fibre reinforcement is provided
to control, but not prevent, the cracking that may occur
between the joints. As with SFRC, dowelled contraction
joints can be specified where there are concerns over
the long-term performance of load transfer mechanism
(aggregate interlock + fibres) under high load repetitions.
Dowels should allow for two-directional shrinkage to
eliminate restraint at the joints.

Like SFRC, PFRC is easy to place and provides improved

control of shrinkage stresses in acute slab corners where
conventional reinforcement is of minimal benefit.

6

Design
3.1 GENERAL
This chapter outlines the various elements considered
in determining the layout, alignment and detailing of a
concrete hardstanding, the thickness of the concrete slab,
the materials to be used in the foundation and consideration
of how to integrate other design elements such as drainage
inclusions. If all of these aspects are correctly considered
at design stage and carried through to construction then
any concrete hardstanding should remain functional
throughout its design life.
Each of these elements is discussed separately in Chapters
4 to 11.
3.2 SITE APPRAISAL
The three principal elements that should form part of any site
appraisal prior to the design of a concrete hardstanding are:
• Soils investigation
• Estimation of design traffic
• Topographic and services survey.
The soils investigation determines the characteristics and
strength of the natural soil on which the pavement, and
any fill, is to be constructed. The soil properties influence
subgrade preparation, the need for a subbase, the type
of subbase required and the overall concrete pavement
thickness.
The design procedures adopted for determining concrete
pavement thickness require an understanding of the
frequency and spectrum of commercial vehicle types, as
well as any other load types such as forklift trucks and tugs.
It is necessary to carry out topographic and services surveys
to evaluate the site levels and any existing features, such as
utilities, which may influence the pavement design.
3.3 SUBGRADE
The high stiffness, or modulus of elasticity, of concrete
enables concrete pavements to distribute loads over much
larger areas than flexible pavements. Concrete pavement
thickness is therefore less sensitive to the strength of the
subgrade. It is much more important that the subgrade
provides reasonably uniform support.
Subgrade uniformity is influenced by moisture/density
control and variations in material type. These are discussed
in more detail in Section 5.3.
Design
3.4 SUBBASE
3
The subbase comprises one, sometimes two, layers of
material between the subgrade and the concrete slab. The
principal purposes of the subbase are to:
• Provide a working platform from which to construct the
concrete slab without damaging the subgrade
• Improve the uniformity of the slab support
• Reduce deflection at joints therefore maintaining
effective load transfer across joints
• Eliminate erosion and pumping of the subgrade
(particularly at joints) as a potential failure mode under
repetitive loading from heavy goods vehicles
• Contribute to the structural strength of the pavement
• Insulate frost-susceptible soils from frost by increasing
the total depth of construction.
For concrete hardstandings the requirements for subbases
are less onerous than they are for flexible roads. Bound
subbases are more effective than granular for reducing
joint deflection and the risk of pumping but are less
economic. Despite this, unbound granular subbases have
a successful track record beneath hardstandings. Whether
bound or unbound however, subbase materials must be
hard, durable, chemically inert and frost resistant. They
must be suitably graded so that they are capable of being
compacted to a high density.
The process of stabilisation, using the addition of hydraulic
binders (such as lime, ground granulated blast furnace slag
and cement) to naturally occurring subgrade materials, can
also successfully convert subgrade strata into materials that
possess the above qualities, suitable for the subbase.
3.5 CONCRETE
The concrete slab provides the pavement’s major structural
capacity. However, because this layer is trafficked it must
satisfy many criteria in addition to structural capacity. The
principal properties of the concrete slab are stiffness, skid
resistance and durability. These properties are discussed in
detail in Chapters 7 and 10.
3.6 THICKNESS DESIGN
The thickness of a concrete pavement is a function of its
foundation support from below (the subgrade and subbase),
traffic loading and the concrete quality. Joint stability or
Load Transfer Efficiency (LTE) is also an important factor to
consider as it is the edge and corner loadings that normally
determine the slab thickness design.
7
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

The procedures adopted in the United Kingdom for concrete 3.8 SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS
pavement design are largely derived from empirical data
Surface characteristics such as regularity, gradient and
from highway pavements subject to predominantly heavy
texture are important functional requirements to ensure
goods vehicles. These procedures would not be appropriate
that the planned activities are as safe as possible. These
for non-road-legal heavy axle loads which are outside the
are discussed further in Chapter 10.
scope of this publication.

Conversely, whilst analytical methods exist for concrete

pavement design where they are to be subjected to
3.9 INTEGRATED DESIGN
abnormally high wheel loads (such as is the case for port Many well-designed concrete hardstandings are
and airport pavements), these should be used with caution compromised by a lack of forethought in co-ordinating
for concrete hardstanding design for general heavy goods other project elements that need to be integrated into the
vehicle use. This is because the controls on the construction pavement.
process necessary to replicate the assumptions made within
Typical project elements include services, drainage, crowns
the analytical design approach are often not present or
and valleys as well as the columns from canopies or plant
affordable on such sites. Therefore, it becomes a risk the
supports. Some simple steps can be taken during the
design is not replicated on site.
design stage to eliminate the problems that can occur
through inadequate concrete pavement detailing, borne
3.7 JOINTS out of having to work around penetrations that could be
otherwise better located.
Joint are engineered cracks/discontinuities provided to
minimise the risk of uncontrolled cracking, to avoid conflict
of movement with other structures and to allow penetrations
such as for service covers and lighting columns. The types
of joints that may be required include:

• Contraction joints
Control transverse and longitudinal cracking and
warping due to drying shrinkage. Reinforcement placed
in the upper third of the concrete slab is frequently
used with more widely spaced contraction joints to
achieve this.

• Construction (warping) joints

Divide the pavement into suitable lengths and widths
for construction.

• Isolation joints
Isolate the pavement elements from each other or
other penetrations that may cause differential thermal
movement, and subsequent failure.

• Expansion joints
Accommodate expansion of the pavement as
temperatures rise to beyond that at which the
pavement was constructed. Expansion joints also relieve
stresses within the pavement that may occur if nearby
contraction joints are not functioning correctly.

These above joints, including how to achieve correctly

functioning joint layouts, are discussed in Chapter 9.

8
 Site appraisal

Site appraisal
4.1 GENERAL
The site appraisal covers three areas: soils investigation,
estimation of design traffic and site survey.
The time and resources devoted to these will vary
according to the size and complexity of individual projects
and previous experience. Nevertheless, to meet the design
objectives, each of these areas warrants some consideration.
The basic criteria that need to be determined are shown in
Figure 4.1 below [8].
4.3 SOILS INVESTIGATION
4
An investigation should be made of the characteristics and
strength of the soil on which the pavement is to be constructed.
It cannot be emphasised too strongly that ground investigation
for pavement design requires techniques and tests outside
those used for building foundations, fill classification and
ground contamination. This is particularly true for projects
that would benefit from soil stabilization. Too often the
benefits are recognized too late in the programme to take
full advantage of the cost savings. It is strongly advised that
specialist pavement design input should be included in the
ground investigation scope.

Loading The soil investigation is necessary as the subgrade preparation

and specification of the fill and subbase will be influenced by
Design Operation
life the soil properties. To some extent, the concrete slab thickness
will also be influenced by the soil properties, although it
Site Design Location should be noted that the design thickness of the concrete slab
conditions
is not particularly sensitive to the subgrade strength.

Surface Material classification can be made visually, but the plasticity

requirements Cost index and material grading should ideally be confirmaed by
testing.

Ground investigation should also establish the ground water

table level, whether natural or perched, to establish if any of the
pavement structure will come within 300 mm of groundwater.
Figure 4.1 Basic criteria
It should always be recognised that ground water table levels
vary seasonally and should be allowed for depending upon
4.2 SITE SURVEY when the investigation takes place.
Before hardstanding detailed design can occur a site survey
From both the soils classification and water table status,
is required. The site topography, drainage and surface
empirical methods exist to estimate subgrade properties to be
features such as existing or proposed utilities will influence
made, in terms of the California Bearing Ratio (CBR).
geometric design.
Table 4.1 Equilibrium subgrade CBR estimation [10]
On most sites, it is essential to balance the earthworks
requirement to avoid either excessive importation of fill Type of soil Plasticity Predicted
materials, or alternatively creating large volumes of surplus index (PI) CBR (%)
material cut from the site that will need to be disposed of. Heavy clay 70 2
60 2
This balance of volumes can best be achieved by digitally
50 2
modelling the proposed hardstanding surface (and
proposed building platform if applicable), which can be 40 2 to 3
compared with the topographic survey. To enable this, Silty clay 30 3 to 4
three-dimensional digital surveys should be specified 20 4 to 5
wherever possible. Sandy clay 10 4 to 5

Achieving an earthworks balance can affect the chosen Sand (poorly graded) – 20
vertical geometry of the hardstanding. Sand (well graded) – 40
Sandy gravel (well graded) – 60
The site survey should also record existing features such
as watercourses and main services as these may require
diversion, lowering or culverting, all of which may affect
the hardstanding vertical geometry.

9
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG
DESIGNN H A ND B O O K
HANDBOOK
Table 4.2
Table 4.1 Extended
ExtendedCasagrande
CasagrandeClassification
Classification
Description and field
Major divisions
identification
Boulders and Soils consisting chiefly of boulders
cobbles larger than 200 mm in diameter or
cobbles between 200 mm & 75 mm,
identifiable by visual inspection
Gravel and Soils with an appreciable fraction
gravelly soils between the 75 mm & 2.36 mm.
Generally easily identifiable by visual
inspection. A medium to high dry
strength indicates that some clay is
present. A negligible dry strength
COARSE-GRAINED SOILS
indicates the absence of clay.
Sands and Soils with an appreciable fraction
sandy soils between the 2.36 mm and the
75 micron sieve. Majority of the
particles can be distinguished by eye. Well graded sands with
Feel gritty when rubbed between
the fingers. A medium to high dry
strength indicates that some clay is
present. A negligible dry strength
indicates absence of clay
Fine grained Soils with an appreciable fraction
soils having low passing the 75 micron sieve, and
plasticity (silts) with liquid limits less than 35%. Not
gritty between the fingers, cannot
Containing little or no coarse grained material
be readily rolled into threads when
moist. Exhibit dilatancy.
FINE-GRAINED SOILS
Fine-grained Soils with liquid limits between 35%
soils having and 50%. Can be readily rolled into
medium threads when moist. Do not exhibit
plasticity dilatancy. Show some shrinkage on
drying.
Fine-grained Soils with liquid limits greater than
soils having 50%. Can be readily rolled into
high plasticity threads when moist. Greasy to the
touch. Show considerable shrinkage
on drying. All highly compressible
soils.
Fibrous inorganic Usually brown or black in colour.
soils with very high Very compressible. Easily identifiable
compressibility visibly
10
Sub-groups
symbol
Boulder gravels
Well graded gravel-sand
mixtures, little or no fines
Well graded gravel-sands
with small clay content
Uniform gravel with little or
no fines
Poorly graded gravel-sand
mixtures, little or no fines
Gravel-sand mixtures with
excess of fines
Well graded sands and
gravelly sands, little or no
fines
small clay content
Uniform sands, with little or
no fines
Poorly graded sands, with
little or no fines
Sands with excess of fines
Silts (inorganic), rock flour,
silty fine sands with slight
plasticity
Clayey silts (inorganic)
Organic silts of low
plasticity
Silty clays (inorganic) and
sandy clays
Clays (inorganic) of
medium plasticity
Organic clays of medium
plasticity
Highly compressible
micaceous or diatomaceous
soils
Clays (inorganic) of high
plasticity
Organic clays of high
plasticity
Peat and other highly
organic swamp soils
Applicable classification tests
Group
(carried out on
disturbed samples)
Particle-size analysis
–
Particle-size analysis
GW
Particle-size analysis, liquid and
GC
plastic limits on binder
Particle-size analysis
GU
Particle-size analysis
GP
Particle-size analysis, liquid and
GF
plastic limits on binder if applicable
Particle-size analysis
SW
Particle-size analysis, liquid and
SC
plastic limits on binder.
Particle-size analysis
SU
Particle-size analysis
SP
Particle-size analysis, liquid and
SF
plastic limits on binder if applicable
Particle-size analysis, liquid and
ML plastic limits if applicable
Liquid and plastic limits
CL
Liquid and plastic limits from
OL natural conditions and after oven-
drying
Particle-size analysis, liquid and
MI
plastic limits if applicable
Liquid and plastic limits
CI
Liquid and plastic limits from
OI
natural conditions after oven-drying
Particle-size analysis, liquid and
MH plastic limits if applicable
Liquid and plastic limits
CH
Liquid and plastic limits from
OH
natural conditions after oven-drying
Pt Moisture content and consolidation tests
 Site appraisal

Applicable
observations and Maximum
tests relating to Value as a road dry density
the material in foundation not Potential frost Shrinkage or Drainage at optimum
place (or carried subject to frost action swelling properties characteristics compaction
out on undisturbed action (kg/m3) and
samples) voids ratio, e

Dry density and relative

compaction Good to excellent None to very slight Almost none Good –
Moisture contents and
voids ratio >2000
Excellent None to very slight Almost none Excellent
Cementation durability e <0.35
of grains
>2080
Stratification and Excellent Medium Very slight Practically impervious
e <0.50
drainage characteristics
>1760
Ground water Good None Almost none Excellent
e <0.50
conditions
>1840
Large-scale loading Good to excellent None to very slight Almost none Excellent
e <0.40
tests
Fair to practically >1920
California bearing ratio Good to excellent Slight to medium Almost none to slight
impervious e <0.40
tests, shear tests and
other strength tests
>1920
Excellent to good None to very slight Almost none Excellent
e <0.40

>2000
Excellent to good Medium Very slight Practically impervious
e <0.35
>1600
Fair None to very slight Almost none to slight Excellent
e <0.70
>1600
Fair to good None to very slight Almost none Excellent
e <0.70
Almost none to Fair to practically >1600
Fair to good Slight to high
medium impervious e <0.60

Dry density and relative >1600

Fair to poor Medium to very high Slight to medium Fair to poor
compaction e <0.70
Moisture content and >1600
voids ratio Fair to poor Medium to high Medium Practically impervious
e <0.70
Stratification, fissures,
etc. >1440
Poor Medium to high Medium to high Poor
Drainage and ground e <0.90
water conditions
>1600
Consolidation tests Fair to poor Medium Medium to high Fair to poor
e <0.70
Large scale loading tests
Fair to practically >1520
California bearing ratio Fair to poor Slight High
impervious e <0.80
tests, shear tests and
Fair to practically >1520
other strength tests Poor Slight High
impervious e <0.80

>1600
Poor Medium to high High Poor
e <0.70

>1400
Poor to very poor Very slight High Practically impervious
e <0.90
>1600
Very poor Very slight High Practically impervious
e <0.70

Extremely poor Slight Very high Fair to poor –

11
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
A number of methods exist for establishing the subgrade
strength by in-situ testing, many of which are outlined in
more detail in the National Highways Design Manual for
Roads and Bridges, CD225.
Where measured CBR values vary on a particular site,
it is not uncommon to adopt the 15th percentile value,
acknowledging that some additional work to soft spots may
be required in localised areas.
It is important to note that the pavement design process
is based upon equilibrium CBR values, which are those
that are representative of the in-service moisture content.
Care should therefore be exercised in the interpretation of
soils investigation data containing in-situ CBR information
for soils whose strength is a function of their moisture
content (which is normally the case). The strength during
construction or in-service may be much lower than the
recorded values, particularly when measured during the
summer when unrepresentatively high figures may be
obtained due to the dryness of the soil.
As outlined in 4.2, the existing subgrade materials may
be re-used as fill material and it will be important to gain
an understanding of how these materials will behave
when they are disturbed and recompacted. Measuring
maximum dry density, natural and optimum moisture
content are essential. If cohesive fills are to be used, or any
fills over existing cohesive materials, then these are likely
to settle over time, possibly affecting the gradients of the
hardstanding. An understanding of the likely settlement
potential should be sought at an early stage by carrying
out laboratory testing to establish settlement parameters,
typically oedometer testing on extracted samples.
Where subgrade stabilisation with hydraulic binders is
considered, specific testing will be required to ensure that
the subgrade materials are compatible with the process and
also to determine the binder content required to achieve
the desired in-service layer strength. The requirements for
testing for stabilised materials are outlined in the Britpave
document ‘Soil Improvement and Soil Stabilisation: Definitive
Industry Guidance’.
Site vulnerability to the risk of frost penetrating through
the pavement structure down into any frost susceptible
subgrades should be checked. Information can be
obtained for UK sites in the form of a ‘frost index’ from the
Meteorological Office.
It is common practice to protect frost susceptible subgrades
by ensuring that the total pavement thickness (including
bound and unbound) is at least 450mm thick. However, for
sites where the frost index is less than 50, the UK National
Highways permit a reduction in this thickness to 350mm.
The Road Research Laboratory Road Note 29. Appendix
1, also provides some useful information on the frost
susceptibility of soils and road materials.
12
4.4 TRAFFIC ESTIMATION
Pavements fail gradually over time in response to repetitive
loading from stresses that are well below the failure
strengths of the materials. This fatigue loading is different
from the limit state design approach taken from structural
codes. It is for this reason that structural design models,
including those for internal floors, are seldom suitable for
external pavements.
It is important to understand as much as possible the likely
traffic frequency, vehicle types, its growth rate and the
required pavement life so that the overall cumulative design
traffic loading can be calculated
Normally, design traffic is expressed as the cumulative
number of ‘standard axles’ during the pavement design
life. The term ‘standard axle’ in the UK is defined as an axle
carrying a load of 80 kN (8.16 tonnes) when quantifying
the potential vehicle damage factor
This damage factor is a function of the number of standard
axles that a particular vehicle has, and this is related to
the weight of the vehicle, the number of axles and the
distribution of the vehicle weight on the axles. It is therefore
important to know from the outset what proportion of
heavy good vehicles will be loaded and unloaded.
It is also beneficial to understand vehicle movements across
the hardstanding. Traffic will differ in, for example, the
gatehouse area where all the vehicles have access, and the
parking bays where they do not. On specific sites there may
be cost benefits in thickening pavements in those areas that
will take all of the traffic, whilst thinning pavements in areas
where only a small proportion of the traffic will occur.
During the site appraisal stage an understanding of the
proposed goods handling vehicles should be sought.
Potential damage by forklift trucks must be accounted for,
particularly those with solid tyres. On occasion damage
from forklift trucks can result from their frequency of traffic
in specific areas, which can be significant.
Some handling vehicles, such as straddle carriers and reach
stackers can impose very heavy wheel loads and these are
beyond the scope of this publication. In such instances the
pavements should be designed specifically for these loads
using alternative design guidance such as the Interpave
document ‘The structural design of heavy duty pavements
for ports and other industries’.

Subgrade
5.1 GENERAL
A reasonably uniform foundation is essential to the successful
long-term performance of a concrete hardstanding. An
assumption that a concrete pavement will bridge over a
poor subgrade is incorrect. ACPA (2007) indicates that this
means “no abrupt changes or isolated weak or stiff spots”,
for example, cut-fill transitions or changes in subgrade
moisture condition. Experience is that reasonably uniform
support from a low strength subgrade leads to better
long-term performance compared with stronger but non-
uniform subgrades. Despite this, concrete pavements have
been constructed successfully on a wide range of poor sites
including reclaimed brownfield sites, very weak soils and
mining subsidence areas.
The following descriptions of subgrade support and uniformity
are abstracted from the Cement and Concrete Association of
Australia ‘Guide to residential streets and paths’.
5.2 SUBGRADE SUPPORT
5.2.1 General
The high modulus of elasticity of concrete, compared with
asphalt, enables concrete pavements to distribute loads
over large areas. As a result, deflections and pressures on
the subgrade are lower. Concrete pavement thickness is
therefore not sensitive to subgrade strength. It is more
important that subgrade support be reasonably uniform
with no abrupt changes.
Subgrade strengths for pavements have traditionally been
quantified using the California Bearing Ratio (CBR). A typical
range for weak to strong soils would be 2% to 15%. Section
4.3 has already described how a design CBR assessment can
be made during the site appraisal stage.
To understand the nature of different subgrades, it is
sometimes useful to categorise them into different soil
strengths. The following table provides an approximate
subgrade categorisation against CBR.
Table 5.1 Approximate categorisation of subgrades
Approximate subgrade Equilibrium CBR (%)
category
Poor 2 Some situations where these soil conditions may exist are:
Moderate 5 • Zones which have good drainage, e.g. embankments,
High 10
Very high 15
Subgrade
5
As described in Section 4.3, where measured CBR values vary
on a particular site, it is not uncommon to adopt the 15th
percentile value, acknowledging that some additional work to
soft spots may be required in localised areas. In selecting the
design CBR in this way, the designer is attempting to assign
a value slightly above the weakest soil strength condition
likely to be endured during the design life. This may or may
not be present at or during construction, and should be a
conservative rather than optimistic value for several reasons:
• It is difficult to accurately predict changes in soil
strength for 20 or more years into the future. The
effectiveness of pavement drainage and the large range
of environmental influences often introduce significant
uncertainties,
• The amount of test data on soil strengths is likely to be
limited,
• The designer has little direct control of construction
variables or the future maintenance,
• Additional construction costs of an adequate pavement
are invariably relatively minor in comparison with the cost
of the remedial works associated with a deficient design.
5.2.2 Poor strength soils
Poor strength soils are those that would normally require
pre- treatment if the pavement were to be constructed
while they are in that state. Pre-treatments include the
following options:
• Placing capping material to provide a better
construction platform,
• Stabilisation using lime and/or cement if soil conditions
are suitable.
A non-woven geotextile is important where CBR is less than
3% to prevent water accumulating at the subgrade surface.
5.2.3 Moderate strength soils
These soil conditions seldom require special pre-treatment
of the soil apart from compaction prior to the placement of
the pavement. However, most subgrades will benefit from
minimal disturbance, as the in-situ undisturbed soil structure
has intrinsic strength that should be preserved. Many highway
authorities generally avoid routine reworking of in-situ
subgrades in favour of soft spot identification by proof-rolling,
followed by local improvement.
• Climatic conditions causing perennially low soil moisture
content,
• Sands and low plasticity clays not subject to saturation.
In the UK, poor and moderate strength soils are generally most
common.
13
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
5.2.4 High strength soils
High strength soils have been assigned a design CBR of 10%.
Some situations where these soil conditions may exist are
where:
• Native soil comprises weathered rock,
• Good quality selected fill has been placed with good
compaction,
• Soil has or will be stabilised and laboratory testing has
confirmed high strengths,
• The pavement is on a well-drained site.
It is expected that high strength soils would only rarely
occur in UK conditions.
5.2.5 Very high strength soils
Very high strength soils have been assigned a design CBR of
15%. Some situations where these soil conditions may exist
are where:
• Native soil comprises rock and is levelled using a
granular layer including, where appropriate, a granular
drainage layer,
• Structural fill (a designed layer of laboratory-tested
material) has been placed using controlled compaction,
• Selected structural fill has been or will be stabilised and
laboratory testing has confirmed very high strengths,
• A granular subbase 100 mm thick is placed on a
subgrade characterised as a high strength soil.
Unless such soil conditions already exist, the benefits gained
from engineering this soil strength are often marginal
compared with the cost of providing it.
5.3 SUBGRADE UNIFORMITY
5.3.1 General
Factors that influence subgrade uniformity are:
• Moisture/density control,
• Variations in material type.
5.3.2 Moisture/density control
In clay or other fine-grained soils, subgrade uniformity can
be enhanced by correct moisture/density control during
construction. Two conditions can lead to movement within
these soils in service:
• Soils that are too dry when compacted, or which are
allowed to dry out prior to paving. In this instance the
soils will subsequently gain moisture,
• Subgrades with varying natural moisture contents may
result in differential in-service moisture changes.
14
Ideally, to reduce the potential for high moisture gain and/
or differential moisture change, cohesive subgrades should be
at, or marginally below, their optimum moisture content. As
a general rule, moisture contents at OMC +/– 2% should be
satisfactory for compaction and in-service performance. After
some time in service cohesive soils will attempt to reach this
‘equilibrium’ state, upon which little further moisture change
should occur. Likewise, the tendency to subsequently swell or
shrink due to moisture change will diminish.
Cohesive soils greatly above their OMC will be very difficult
to compact.
Subgrade and fill preparation and compaction requirements
are detailed in the UK National Highways ‘Specification
for Highway Works, Series 600, Earthworks’ and it is
recommended that all subgrade and filling works are carried
out in compliance with this document.
5.3.3 Variations in material type
Where sites present abrupt changes in subgrade material (such
as outcropping bedrock) measures should be taken to provide
a transition between these materials to avoid overstressing of
the concrete hardstanding.
Where materials with differing settlement potentials (such as
cohesive and granular) occur side-by-side, careful consideration
should be made of the potential future settlement profile and
measures taken to avoid abrupt differential settlement.
5.4 STABILISED SUBGRADE
5.3.1 General
Weak foundations and those with high natural moisture
contents can be both modified and stabilised to both reduce
moisture contents to closer to the optimum moisture content,
and also significantly strengthen the subgrade.
The stabilisation of cohesive subgrades will enhance their
stability under conditions of alternate wetting and drying
and will extend the construction period by providing an all-
weather working platform.
The subject of stabilisation is covered in detail within Britpave
document ‘Soil improvement and Soil stabilisation: Definitive
Guidance’, and the European Standard BS EN 14227, Parts
1–5.
 Subbase

Subbase
6.1 GENERAL
Beneath a concrete hardstanding, the function of the
subbase differs from that of the equivalent layer in a
flexible pavement. Within a rigid pavement the concrete
slab provides the pavement’s major structural capacity with
the subbase contributing only minimally to reducing slab
thickness, particularly at the traffic levels associated with
hardstandings.
LWD methodology
6
The LWD is used to measure the surface modulus of
pavement foundation. The results are presented as stiffness
modulus but can be converted to CBR values if required.
The LWD with a 300mm diameter plate will test to a depth
of approximately 450mm. Therefore, if the test is being
carried out on a granular layer over a subgrade layer, the
value will be a composite value. A typical LWD is shown
below.

6.2 SUBBASE THICKNESS Figure 6.1 LWD methodology

In the UK, subbase thickness for trunk roads has been for
many years determined using the design charts contained
within the UK National Highways ‘Design Manual for Roads
and Bridges, CD225 Design for new pavement foundation’.
However, for rigid pavements this document is based upon
the provision of cement bound subbase, with the enhanced
subbase thickness (i.e. those that provide thicker subbase in
lieu of an additional capping layer) being precluded from
rigid pavement design. On subgrades with CBR < 15%,
a capping layer will generally be required to enable the
satisfactory compaction of a cement bound subbase.

However, cement bound subbases were introduced for

very heavily trafficked roads to prevent gradual erosion
of the subbase under repetitive loading. For concrete
hardstandings the level of trafficking is in many cases
significantly lower than for highways. As such, it is common
practice to permit both the granular subbase/capping
combinations and also the granular subbase thickness only
beneath concrete hardstandings.

To determine the subbase thickness a choice must firstly be

made between different foundation classes as described in
CD225. However, from a practical point of view Foundation
Class 2 with surface stiffness of 100MPa (typically unbound)
and Foundation Class 3 with surface stiffness of 200MPa
(typically bound) are the preferred options.
CD225 foundation design is based on subgrade surface
modulus which can be estimated from the California
Bearing Ratio (CBR) using the following equation:
E = 17.6 (CBR) o.64MPa
Key
1 Weight release with adjustable drop height (max. 850mm)
2 Drop weight (10kg, 15kg or 20kg)
3 Position of buffer(s)
4 Personal digital assistant (PDA) display unit to display and store data
5 Load cell with a range of (1 ±0.01)kN to (15 ±0.15)kN
6 Deflection sensor (velocity transducer) with geophone range 2 200µm,
geophone accuracy better than ±2% and one to three geophones
7 Communication port (option for wireless data transfer)
8 Bearing plate 100 mm, 200 mm or 300 mm in diameter
9 Geophone foot

Where:
Foundation Class 2 and 3 design charts for subbase thickness
E = estimated subgrade surface modulus
are shown in figures 6.1 and 6.2. Foundation Class 2 and 3
CBR: California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of the subgrade
design charts for subbase and capping thickness are shown
The above equation is approximately valid for clay soils CBR in Figures 6.3 and 6.4.
values in the range of 2% to 12%
The following class descriptions are taken from CD225.

15
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
6.3 FOUNDATION CLASS 2
The requirements for unbound subbases, their composition
and compaction, are to be found within the UK National
Highways Specification for Highway Works Series 600 and 800.
The use of recycled and secondary aggregates arising
from construction industry waste within subbase layers is
encouraged. So long as the materials can be successfully
compacted, will remain durable during the pavement’s
lifespan and are stable under construction traffic, recycled and
secondary aggregates should perform satisfactorily beneath a
concrete hardstanding.
Subbases beneath concrete hardstandings, with relatively
little traffic in comparison with trunk roads will be the most
economic if Foundation Class 2 is adopted.
Foundation Class 2 is a subbase only (Option 1) or subbase
on capping (Option 2) design that is considered here as the
appropriate standard for unbound granular foundations.
Option 1
For subgrade surface moduli of >30 MPa (CBR > 2.5%)
materials within Foundation Class 2 may typically include
subbases in accordance with UK National Highways
Specification for Highways Works Series 800 and 1000 - such
as those listed below:
• Unbound granular material, Type 1 and, depending on
traffic, Type 2,
• Unbound asphalt arisings, Type 4,
• Slag bound materials,
• Cement bound materials, Classes CBGM Categories A
and B with minimum Rc Class C3/4
• Soil treated by cement (SC), soil treated by slag (SS), soil
treated by fly ash (SFA) soil treated by hydraulic road
binder (SHRB) with minimum Rc Class C3/4
These materials should be laid to a nominal thickness that
varies with the subgrade surface modulus as shown in Figure
6.1, with a minimum thickness of 175mm.
Option 2
For poor subgrade some treatment of the subgrade whether
by stabilisation or incorporation of a granular start layer may be
necessary to ensure adequate compaction of these materials.
Alternatively, a capping layer in accordance with Clause 613 of
the UK National Highways Specification for Highways Works
Series 600 can be considered below the subbase as shown in
Figure 6.3.
16
6.4 FOUNDATION CLASS 3
Foundation Class 3 designs incorporating hydraulically
bound materials provide a range of foundations of superior
quality to current standard unbound foundations.
Subbases with Foundation Class 3 may be adopted beneath
concrete hardstandings, although at low traffic intensities
there may be insufficient savings in PQ concrete slab
thickness to make these foundations worthwhile. They
will, however, provide an excellent working platform for
mechanised slab construction such as slipform techniques.
For subgrade moduli of > 30MPa (CBR > 2.5%) materials
with Foundation Class 3 may typically include hydraulically
bound subbases in accordance with UK National Highways
Specification for Highway Works Series 800 and 1000, such as:
• Cement bound materials, Classes CBGM categories A
and B with minimum Rc Class of C3/4
• Soil treated by cement (SC), soil treated by slag (SS), soil
treated by fly ash (SFA) soil treated by hydraulic road
binder (SHRB) with minimum Rc Class C3/4
These materials should be laid to a nominal thickness
that varies with the subgrade surface moduli as shown
in Figure 6.2, with a minimum thickness of 200mm. For
poor subgrade some treatment of the subgrade either by
stabilisation or incorporation of a granular starter layer may
be necessary to ensure adequate compaction of these bound
materials. Alternatively, a capping layer in accordance with
Clause 613 of the UK National Highways Specification for
Highways Works Series 600 can be considered below the
subbase as shown in Figure 6.4.
6.5 SUBBASE CONSTRUCTION
It important that the subbase is constructed to the crossfall
and surface tolerances dictated by the design to avoid
undesirable fluctuations in the concrete slab thickness above.
Such fluctuations may result in a non-uniform restraint to
thermal movement at the base of the concrete slab, as well
as the potential for slab thicknesses falling below the design
target required for structural performance. Either of these
aspects could lead to premature failure of the hardstanding.
Subgrades must be trimmed and subbases constructed to
crossfalls to achieve adequate drainage of the foundation,
without which high moisture contents may well build up
within the foundation resulting in its weakening and potential
premature failure of the overlying pavement.
The tolerance on the finished subbase surface levels should
be specified as +10 mm to –30 mm for unbound or +10mm
to -10mm for bound subbase to ensure that the concrete slab
thickness is not unduly compromised.
For bound subbases, it is important to ensure that construction
joints within the subbase are arranged such that they will not
occur within 300mm of the joints within the finished concrete
hardstanding slab above.
 Subbase

Figure 6.1 Foundation Classes 2 subbase thickness design [16]

Figure 6.2 Foundation Classes 3 subbase thickness design [16]

17
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

Figure 6.3 Foundation Classes 2 subbase on capping thickness design [16]

18
Figure 6.4 Foundation Classes 3 subbase on capping thickness design [16]

19
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
7 Concrete
7.1 GENERAL
Concrete specified for hardstandings must meet specific
requirements if it is to perform successfully. The principal
requirements for the concrete are:
• Has sufficient stiffness to satisfactorily distribute the
predicted loads,
• Has sufficient durability for the exposure conditions,
• Maintains sufficient skid resistance for safe operations in
all weather.
The above requirements will only be achieved if correct
construction practices are adopted whilst the concrete is in
its plastic state.
The four key elements of construction affecting the long-
term performance are: concrete placing, compacting,
finishing and curing.
7.2 SPECIFYING CONCRETE
Concrete for hardstandings should be specified in
accordance with European Standard BS EN 206-1 and
complementary standard BS 8500-1.
These standards prescribe the methods by which both
‘Designated Concretes’ and ‘Designed Concretes’ can
be chosen and specified depending upon strength
requirements, exposure conditions and intended use.
Only specific concrete classes will satisfy the strength
and durability criteria required for hardstandings – this is
explored in the following paragraphs.
Carbon reduction of construction materials is part of the
UK drive to lower Greenhouse Gas emissions by 2050. As
explained in the introduction, concrete has many beneficial
effects, but it remains true that cement production is a
carbon hungry process, and the industry is making a huge
effort to lower the carbon produced.
In the short-medium term the use of SCMs (supplementary
cementitious materials) in concrete production will be a key
method to lower the emissions of concrete. SCMs can be
used as replacement for up to 65% of the OPC content. -
see section 12 for further details.
At these replacement % the short-term strength gain is likely
to be less than that of OPC and therefore consideration
should be given to using 56-day strengths instead of the
BS8500 28-day requirement - particularly on larger projects
where slabs are unlikely to be loaded with traffic.
20
7.3 STRENGTH
The ability of the concrete slab to adequately accommodate
the stresses resulting from traffic and thermal loading is a
function of its strength and thickness.
In classical pavement design, traffic stress is resisted by
concrete flexural strength. This approach is still used for
airfield pavement design and in many overseas design
guides. However, the UK highways sector has always used
compressive cube strength. This was the approach taken by
TRL in RR87 and this is the design model used in this guide.
Flexural strength requires beam testing. Whilst this is fine
for normal design, it is inconvenient for examining existing
pavements because beam specimens would have to be
cut out. Compressive strength testing on core samples is
normally used instead.
Compressive strength is in effect an indirect measure
of flexural strength. For mixes containing cements in
accordance with BS EN 197-1, an approximate relationship
between flexural and compressive strength can be
expressed as follows:
fcuf = 0.75 √fcu
Where fcuf and fcu are flexural and compressive strength
respectively, in MPa. It must be recognised that different
mixes may yield different ratios of flexural to compressive
strength. For large projects it may be prudent to validate
this relationship using mix trials. Additionally, crushed
rock aggregate will perform differently from gravel in this
respect (see Appendix B).
For both designated and designed concretes, BS 8500–1
adopts a dual numeric system to identify the appropriate
compressive strength class, expressed for normal weight
concrete in the form C(X)/(Y). Here ‘X’ is the minimum 28-
day characteristic 150 mm diameter by 300 mm cylinder
strength and ‘Y’ is the minimum 28-day 150 mm cube
strength, for example C32/40.
The strength of cores retrieved from the pavement is
generally lower than that of laboratory cured cubes and
cylinders. Even under excellent conditions of placing
and curing, the strength of cores taken from the slab is
unlikely to exceed 70 to 85% of the strength of standard
test specimens [19]. The specified strengths are those to
be achieved within laboratory prepared site specimens as
opposed to those within the slab. As such, this factor must
be taken into consideration if cores retrieved from the slab
are to be used for compliance testing.
It should be noted that the choice of a designated mix will
predetermine the concrete strength class.
 Concrete

7.4 DURABILITY Table 7.1 Commonly-encountered Exposure Classes from BS 8500–1

To avoid deterioration and wear under service conditions Class Class Examples
the concrete used for industrial hardstandings should designation description
possess adequate durability. To achieve this the concrete Corrosion induced by carbonation
should be sufficient quality to ensure resistance to frost XC3 & XC4 Moderate External reinforced and
attack, abrasion and also protect any reinforcement from humidity or prestressed concrete
corrosion. cyclic wet surfaces sheltered from,
and dry or exposed to, direct
Key factors in producing durable concrete include an
rain and/or alternate
appropriate water cement ratio, avoiding concretes with
wetting and drying
high water cement ratios and, importantly, achievement
of high density through compaction. It should be noted Corrosion induced by chlorides other than from sea water
that higher water/cement ratios result in lower concrete XD3 Cyclic wet Reinforced and
strengths. and dry prestressed concrete
surfaces directly affected
To determine the correct concrete for industrial paving, BS by de-icing salts or spray
8500-1, Table A.1 [4] defines specific exposure classes for: containing de-icing salts
• Reinforcement corrosion induced by carbonation Corrosion induced by chlorides from sea water
(XC Classes)
XS1 Exposed to External reinforced and
• Reinforcement corrosion induced by chlorides other airborne prestressed concrete
than sea water (XD Classes) salt but not surfaces in coastal areas
• Reinforcement corrosion induced by chlorides from sea in direct
water (XS Classes) contact with
• Freeze/thaw attack on the concrete (XF Classes) sea water
Freeze/thaw attack
Not all of the exposure conditions listed within BS 8500-1
will be relevant to concrete industrial hardstandings. The XF3 High water Horizontal concrete
following table highlights those that may be relevant. saturation surfaces where water
without accumulates or are
de-icing exposed to frequent
agent splashing with water
and which are exposed
to freezing
XF4 High water Horizontal concrete
saturation surfaces, such as roads
with de-icing and pavements, exposed
agent to freezing and to
de-icing salts either
directly or as spray or
runoff

It is prudent to assume that hardstandings will be subjected

to de-icing salts and XF3 would therefore not normally be
specified.

For reinforced concrete hardstandings, extensive experience

suggests that the requirements in BS 8500-1 for XD3 are
overly-onerous. In this respect, the recommendations in BS
8500–1 are for a working life of at least 50 years, which is
greater than the normal hardstanding life.

For lightly reinforced hardstandings, where the steel wire

or fibre reinforcement is introduced for crack control only,
XD3 is normally ignored and only XC3, XC4, XS1, XF3 and
XF4 are considered. When the steel reinforcement has been
incorporated for structural purposes then XD3 must be
taken into account.

21
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

Table 7.2 lists the designated concrete specifications 7.5 CONSISTENCE

that are normally used for hardstandings. With a 55 mm
nominal cover to reinforcement (45 mm minimum plus
an assumed 10 mm tolerance for fixing) all these mixes
will satisfy the BS 8500-1 requirements for exposure
classes XC3, XC4, XS1, XF3 and XF4. However, they
will not necessarily satisfy the BS 8500-1 requirements
for XD3. Reference to BS 8500-1 will be necessary
where the ground contains sulphates or the maximum
aggregate size is other than 20 mm.
Roller compacted concrete is not expressly covered in
BS 8500-1. It can be treated as a Designed concrete,
but with no requirement for air entrainment and with
minimum cement content of 10% of mass of total solids
in the mix. It is inappropriate to specify a consistence
class for RCC and XD4 need not be taken into account
as the material is unreinforced.
The term ‘workability’ is replaced within the European
standards by ‘consistence’.
The consistence of fresh concrete should be suitable
for the conditions of handling and placing so that after
compaction, concrete surrounds all the reinforcement,
completely fills against forms and does not retain voids
within the hardened concrete – otherwise known as
‘honeycombing’.
The concrete must not segregate during delivery or
compaction as it is important to have the aggregate
and matrix evenly dispersed throughout the depth of
the finished pavement.
Consistence is specified by referring to the relevant
consistence class. The default consistence class for hand-
laid concrete hardstanding is Class S3 (refer BS 8500-
1, Table A.18) although the decision on consistence
class in best left to the contractor. For mechanised
construction, the consistence may need reviewing
on an individual basis. It is not necessary to specify a
consistence class for roller compacted concrete which is
a zero slump material.

Table 7.2 Concrete specifications commonly used for hardstandings

Concrete quality Specification provided to the concrete producer

Designed PAV 1 The concrete shall be PAV1 designated concrete to BS 8500-2
(C28/35 with air Consistence class (see note b)
entrainment) All aggregates must be freeze-thaw resisting
Only recommended for
use in lightly loaded
pavenments such
as house drives and
domestic parking
PAV 2 (C32/40 with air The concrete shall be PAV2 designated concrete to BS 8500-2 Consistence class (see note b)
entrainment) All aggregates must be freeze-thaw resisting
RC40/50XF The concrete shall be RC40/50XF designated concrete to BS 8500-2 Consistence class (see note b)
All aggregates must be freeze-thaw resisting
Notes
(a) See Section 7.6 for advice on selecting different cement types.
(b) See Section 7.5 for advice on selecting the consistence class.

22

7.6 CEMENT
The chosen cement or cement combination type may affect
the long-term durability of the pavement and it is important
that only the cements recommended for particular
exposure conditions be specified. A wide range of cement
and combination types are included in BS 8500-1 and Table
7.3 below lists those commonly used for hardstandings.
Minimum cement contents are dependent on the chosen
maximum aggregate size and water cement ratio. Where
these are to be varied from those indicated within Table 7.2,
reference should be made to BS 8500-1.
Generally, the cement and combination types in Table 7.3
are suitable for hardstandings. However, weather conditions
during laying may need to be taken into account. The
reduction in rate of hydration associated with the use of
higher levels of fly ash and ggbs could be an advantage
in periods of hot weather but would be less welcome in
winter.
CEM I is now seldom specified in pavements because of the
higher embodied CO2 and benefits of cement additions.
Because of the challenge with supply and variable take up of
air entrainment, fly ash is seldom specified for pavement work.
Table 7.3 Cement and combination types commonly used in
concrete hardstandings
Broad Composition Comprises
design- cement and
ation(a) combination
types(a)(c)
CEM I Portland cement CEM I
CEM IIA Portland cement with CEM II/A-L,
6 to 20% ggbs or CEM II/A-LL,
limestone CEM II/A-S
CEM IIB Portland cement with 21 CEM II/B-L,
to 35% ggbs or limestone CEM II/B-LL,
CEM II/B-S
CEM III/A Portland cement with 36 CEM III/A
to 65% ggbs
Notes
(a) The use of broad designations is sufficient for most applications.
Where a more specific cement or combination type is required,
refer to the full list of cement and combination types in BS EN
197-1 Table 1.
(b) Combination cements may be prefixed using ‘CEM’ or ‘C’. This
depends on whether the cement is factory made or blended at
the time of batching. These prefixes are technically equivalent
but only CEM is used in Table 7.3 for simplicity.
(c) Maximum ggbs content is limited to 55% because of possible
risks with surface scaling and enhanced bleed.
(d) Silica fume is unusual in pavement work but is occasionally
specified for enhanced abrasion resistance or in cold regions for
enhanced freeze-thaw resistance.
(e) Where slabs are reinforced for crack control instead of mesh,
reference should be made to BS 8500-1 Table A.4 and A.9 for
appropriate selection of cement types, cement content and
cover using exposure classes XC4,XD3 and XF4 for external
concrete hardstandings..
Concrete
7.7 CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES
Chemical admixtures are commonly used to modify the
concrete properties, making it more suitable for a particular
purpose. Chemical admixtures should be regarded as an
integral part of the mix design.
As well as air entraining agent, commonly introduced
admixtures include water reducing agents which allow
for the effective reduction in water/cement ratio and/
or reduction in cement contents whilst at the same time
maintaining, or even enhancing, the required concrete
strength and consistence.
Other chemical admixtures include accelerators or retarders
that assist cold and hot weather working respectively.
Shrinkage reducing admixtures are sometimes specified to
mitigate drying shrinkage.
7.8 CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
The placing, compacting, finishing and curing of concrete
have a major influence on its subsequent strength and
durability.
These processes should be carried out in strict conformance
with the National Highways Specification for Highways
Works, Series 800 and 1000.
7.8.1 Polythene membrane
A polythene membrane consisting of polythene sheeting
laid beneath a slab with overlaps of a least 200mm is
usually placed immediately prior to concrete pouring. A
minimum of 125 micron polythene sheeting should be
used. It is important that the sheeting is laid flat without
folds or wrinkles as these can easily lift and form planes of
weakness within the body of the slab, most likely inducing
an unplanned crack.
The polythene membrane performs two functions:
• To reduce friction between the underside of the
concrete slab and the subbase,
• To reduce excessive fines and moisture loss from the
base of the slab during curing.
Reducing the friction at the base of the slab allows the
slab to shrink more freely and so reduces the level of stress
developed by movement restraint. Whilst this freedom of
movement is beneficial in reducing the risk of unplanned
mid-bay cracking, it can also increase the spacing at which
induced cracking will occur. This can result in some joints
moving more than others, reducing the aggregate interlock
and load transfer at these locations.
23
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
Figure 7.1 Polythene membrane laid out in advance of paving
Impermeable polythene membranes also result in the
majority of the moisture loss occurring through the surface
of the slab whilst it cures. This can result in some curling
of the slab due to differential moisture loss as the upper
surface shrinks and cures faster than the base of the slab.
Where a bound subbase with a tightly closed surface is used,
such as can be achieved with blinding or lean concrete
layers, then the aspects of moisture loss and frictional
resistance are minimised sufficiently to allow the omission
of the polythene membrane. Instead, it is usual to apply a
sprayed bitumen coat to bound foundation layers prior to
casting concrete slabs.
7.8.2 Placing and compaction
Concrete should be thoroughly compacted, particularly
around reinforcement and in corners of forms. If concrete
is not adequately compacted (by surface and/or poker
vibrators) air voids in the hardened concrete will result
in an under-strength pavement and possibly corrosion of
reinforcement and/or spalling.
The strength of concrete diminishes rapidly as the
percentage of air voids increases. For example, a 2%
reduction below maximum density resulting from poor
compaction lowers the strength by approximately 10%. If
concrete contains 5% air voids, its strength is likely to be
30% below that of fully compacted concrete.
7.8.3 Finishing and curing
Concrete hardstandings are generally relatively thin and
have a high surface-to-volume ratio. Under most site
conditions, the potential for moisture loss immediately
after placing is therefore quite high. Moisture loss must be
controlled by appropriate curing.
When placing concrete during high evaporative conditions
such as hot, dry and/or windy weather, the finishing
operation will require additional attention. These conditions
will reduce the time available for the finishing operation
and may also result in plastic cracking due to the surface of
the concrete drying rapidly, generally before the full depth
of the concrete has had time to take its initial set. Loss of
surface moisture due to evaporation can be minimised by
the erection of tenting.
24
Figure 7.2 Tenting in place to protect newly laid concrete
The application of an evaporation retardant, or curing
compound, to the surface of the concrete is required
immediately after the floating and finishing processes have
been completed and excess moisture has evaporated from
the surface. The curing compound forms a thin film over
the surface of the wet concrete that reduces evaporation
by up to 80% in windy conditions without interfering with
subsequent finishing.
During hot sunny periods additional benefits can be
obtained by using a compound containing a suspension
of fine particles of aluminium. The resulting reflective
membrane helps to prevent excessive temperature rises
within the concrete.
The continued presence of moisture for hydration of the
cement binder, especially after the first few days after the
concrete is placed, is essential for the development of
concrete strength and durability. If a concrete pavement is
not properly cured, the surface will be weak and, since it is
subject to abrasion, it will be prone to wear.
7.9 WINTER WORKING
7.9.1 Definition of cold weather
In the UK it is quite common for the air temperature to be
below freezing during the night and above freezing during
the daytime in spring and autumn as well as in the winter
months. However, there is no reason why concrete cannot
be laid in cold and even freezing conditions, provided
precautions are taken.
Wind chill can also lower the effective temperature and the
latent heat of snow and frozen subbase may also need to be
taken into account.
Portland cements stop reacting at sub-zero temperatures
and GGBS at around 2°C, but water freezes at 0°C and then
expands. It is this that can cause disruption to newly laid
pavements.
If no precautionary measures are taken, cementitious
materials should not be laid when the air temperature falls
below 2°C. However, with appropriate precautions in place,
concrete can be placed at temperatures below this value.
 Concrete

7.9.2 The need for precautionary measures Reference should be made to BCA publication ‘Fast-track
Precautionary measures are needed to ensure that: concrete paving’. Proprietary rapid-hardening concretes
are also now available.
• Early age concrete is not damaged due to freezing. As
concrete hardens, a large percentage of the mixing With these techniques concrete pavements can be
water is used to hydrate the cement. The remainder is trafficked within 12 – 24 hours or even sooner. However,
left in the developing pore structure and the degree of early trafficking of concrete pavements can lead to loss of
saturation falls below a critical level at much the same surface texture.
time as concrete reaches a compressive strength of 2
MPa. At a concrete temperature of 10°C, most concretes
would have achieved this at little more than 24 hours
and within 48 hours at 5°C.
• Normal strength development is allowed by appropriate
curing, as described in section 7.8 above. Whilst it is
highly unlikely that the heat generation or retention will
be a problem inside a concrete slab, surface temperature
retention is a problem and the degree of water
saturation may need to be considered.
• The concrete is strong enough to withstand thermal
shock as this can cause cracking, which has strength and
durability implications.

For more information on the precautions that can be taken,

reference should be made to the joint UK Highways Agency
and Britpave document, Concreting pavements in winter [13].

7.10 OPENING TO TRAFFIC

There is often the need to traffic concrete hardstandings as
soon as possible after they have been constructed, either for
construction traffic, or for the earliest access by the end user.
As there are significant differences in the manner in which
concrete industrial hardstandings are trafficked compared
with public highways, the requirement to ensure adequate
maturity of the surface prior to trafficking is more acute.
The required long-term concrete surface characteristics are
explored in more detail in Chapter 10, but it is appropriate
to comment here on the early trafficking of the concrete
pavement.

Early trafficking of concrete pavements is generally

discouraged. However, if it is unavoidable, it is recommended
that the pavement should not be trafficked until it has
gained at least 60% of its specified 28-day pavement
design strength, and only then by lighter vehicles. For CEM
I cement concrete this is usually about 7 days after placing,
but to assess the time for use of a concrete slab by traffic,
the strength development rate should be predetermined
by cubes stored at 20°C from trial concrete mixes and
maturity meters placed in the pavement. Alternatively, pairs
of cubes may be made from each 600m2 or less and stored
alongside the pavement in containers or in such a way that
their sides are well insulated. If thermal insulation is used for
accelerated curing, the cubes should be similarly insulated.

If earlier trafficking is necessary or trafficking by heavy

vehicles is required, then there are a variety of techniques
that can be used, solely or in combination, to attain the
necessary strength in the required time. These techniques
include the use of higher strength concrete, accelerating
admixtures, thermal curing, heated mixing water, etc.

25
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

8 Thickness design
8.1 GENERAL
Many pavement designs exist worldwide for rigid
pavements. However, not all are suitable for concrete
hardstandings. There are three basic categories of pavement
design: mechanistic; analytically based; empirical.
For hardstandings, the thickness design should be based
on informed methods of analysis using parameters that are
repeatable on site.
8.3 PARAMETERS
The key parameters that must be defined in order to
determine the concrete slab thickness are outlined below:
8.3.1 Foundation class
The subbase thickness is determined using Figures 6.1 and
6.2. Reference should be made to Chapter 6 for details of
the various subbase options that exist. Four foundation
classes are available: F1; F2; F3; F4.

8.2 DESIGN CONCEPT 8.3.2 Traffic class

Presently in the UK unreinforced and reinforced concrete Traffic is determined by establishing the cumulative vehicle
pavement design is based upon the empirical method set damage factor (VDF) that will occur over the design life
out within the TRL document ‘RR87 Thickness design of of the pavement. The VDF is most usually determined
concrete roads’. by reviewing the numbers of vehicles that will traffic the
pavement and their various axle loads, expressed as millions
Fibre reinforced concrete pavements are often designed on of standard axles (msa).
a mechanistic approach as their behaviour at ultimate stress
is quite different from that of plain concrete. The tables within Appendix A provide an easy method of
determining the total VDF. The traffic classes are summarised
As concrete hardstandings are often constructed in in Table 8.1 below:
relatively uncontrolled conditions, as opposed to pavements
constructed on highways and airfield projects where tight Table 8.1 Traffic class
quality control procedures are put into place, the design Traffic (msa) Traffic class
methods must contain sufficient redundancy to allow for
less than ideal construction conditions. ≤5 T1
≤ 10 T2
For this reason, this guidance advises caution in the use of
≤ 15 T3
analytical design approaches for hardstanding constructed
by traditional methods. If a supplier proposes such an ≤ 20 T4
approach then sufficient quality control measures must
be put into place both on site and at any off-site batching 8.3.3 Concrete class
facilities to ensure that the material parameters assumed Three concrete classes from European Standard BS EN 206-
within the design are truly reflected in the finished product. 1 and complementary standard BS 8500-1 (4) have been
identified in Chapter 7 as being appropriate for external
Within this chapter some simple design processes have concrete hardstandings.
been developed to provide the reader with easy steps
• Designated – PAV1 (air entrained C28/35 – lightly
towards determining the appropriate ground bearing
loaded pavements only and therefore not recommended
external concrete slab thickness. The designs represented
for industrial use)
below are based upon empirical design methods. Where
steel or polypropylene fibres are introduced to justify a • Designated – PAV2 (air entrained C32/40 –
reduction in slab thickness through effective increases in recommended)
flexural strength, then the following design steps should • Designated – RC40/50XF
not be used and the fibre manufacturer’s recommendations
should be followed.
8.3.4 Reinforcement class
Please note, there are a range of different design tools and
Where wire mesh reinforcement is incorporated into the
these must be calibrated to meet UK criteria and standards.
slab this will affect the slab thickness design by virtue of the
Where vehicles regularly traffic joints and load transfer is thermal stress that the reinforcement will accommodate in
not provided, the slab thickness should be increased by lieu of the concrete.
25% to account for edge loading.
Using standard wire mesh sizes, the following reinforcement
classes have been defined:

26

Table 8.2 Reinforcement class
Wire mesh designation Reinforcement class
Unreinforced R0
A142, A193, A252 R1
B385, A393 R2
B503 R3
B785 R4
8.4 CONCRETE SLAB THICKNESS
The thickness of the concrete slab can be determined either
through direct analysis using RR87 or by other acceptable
means by the designer using an appropriate design
approach. However, using the four key predetermined
parameters – foundation class, traffic class, concrete class
and reinforcement class – Table 8.3 provides an instant
determination of the concrete slab thickness.
A more detailed description of the material parameters
adopted within the analysis underlying this table is
contained within Appendix B.
8.5 STEEL REINFORCEMENT
Steel wire reinforcement is commonly incorporated into
concrete hardstandings within the top third of the slab
depth to allow for wide joint spacings. However, for the
steel reinforcement to satisfactorily accommodate the
thermal stresses, it is important the minimum laps (up to 50
times the main bar diameter) are incorporated.
It is also important where structural (B-class) and long wire
mesh is used, that the mesh is placed so that the larger
diameter bars run parallel to the longitudinal joint. Whilst
this may sound obvious, it is not uncommon to see the
mesh inadvertently placed in an incorrect orientation.
8.6 FIBRE REINFORCEMENT
8.6.1 Steel fibres
Steel fibre reinforcement is most usually incorporated within
ground bearing concrete slabs with the intention of reducing
slab thickness by effectively increasing the concrete’s ability
to accommodate tensile stresses under flexure. In effect,
the fibres maintain tight aggregate interlock across cracks,
transferring tensile stresses, which the plain concrete would
otherwise not be able to accommodate. This process also
allows for the joint spacing to be increased considerably.
The analysis of steel fibre reinforced pavement is a complex
process and is not covered within this guidance. This is
primarily because at the thickness required for concrete
hardstandings accommodating typical heavy goods vehicle
loads, the benefit of introducing steel fibres in reducing
the slab thickness is likely to be outweighed by the cost
of introducing them. However, for slabs and hardstandings
subject to very heavy loads, such as in port environments
where straddle carriers and reach stackers operate, the
Thickness design
concrete slab can become very thick, and consequently the
introduction of steel fibres can provide overall cost benefits
within the design.
In such cases the design of these pavements should be in
accordance with the Interpave document ‘The structural
design of heavy duty pavements for ports and other
industries’.
Where steel fibres are incorporated, the process of brushing
the slab surface to provide texture will ‘lift’ some of the
fibres that are closest to the surface. These fibres may require
removal before trafficking. It should also be expected that
some corrosion staining will become evident from those
fibres that remain close to the finished surface.
8.6.2 Polypropylene/part-polypropylene fibres
Synthetic fibres can be broadly divided into two categories:
micro synthetic fibres and macro synthetic fibres (otherwise
known as synthetic structural fibres).
• Micro synthetic fibres do not contribute to any
reduction in slab thickness. They are based on
100% polypropylene, typically 12mm long and are
predominately introduced into concrete to improve
durability and performance. These aspects are discussed
in Chapter 10.
• Macro synthetic fibres (or synthetic structural fibres)
are significantly larger than micro synthetic fibres,
typically 40-50mm long and 1.0 – 1.5mm wide and
whilst containing some polypropylene, these fibres
are predominantly made from selected polymers. In
addition to the performance enhancements described
in Chapter 10, claims for reduced slab thickness are
controversial and obtaining specialist advice is strongly
advised.
Please note, for specific guidance, reference should always
be made to the fibre supplier/manufacturer.
8.7 TELESCOPIC LANDING GEAR
Trailers on articulated vehicles commonly have telescopic
landing gear with steel rocking plates that allow the tractor
unit to be unhitched from the trailer.
Allowance must be made for the impact effect of trailers
being dropped onto landing gear as shunting units quickly
withdraw from the trailer. This is poor operational practice
but is one that should be anticipated and catered for.
Without additional calculation, the designer should specify
a minimum hardstanding thickness of 200mm beneath
zones where fully laden trailers are likely to be dropped onto
the concrete slab. Experience is that punching shear failures
have not tended to occur at thicknesses above this value.
The inclusion of steel or macro fibres may be beneficial in
such instances to reduce both the requirement for localised
thickening and impact damage.
27
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

Table 8.3 Concrete slab thickness table

Concrete slab thickness (mm)

Concrete Designated Concrete to BS8500 Part 1 Table A.15

Class
Traffic
PAV1(i) PAV2 RC40/50XF
Class
Reinforcement
R0 R1 R2 R3 R4 R0 R1 R2 R3 R4 R0 R1 R2 R3 R4
Class
Foundation
Class

F2 205 205 190 175 175 185 185 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175
T1
F3 185 185 180 165 150 175 175 165 155 150 150 150 150 150 150

F2 235 235 220 205 180 210 210 200 185 175 190 190 180 175 175
T2
F3 215 215 205 190 165 200 200 190 175 155 175 175 170 155 150

F2 255 255 240 220 195 230 230 215 200 175 205 205 195 180 175
T3
F3 230 230 225 205 180 215 215 205 190 170 190 190 185 170 150

F2 270 270 255 235 205 240 240 230 215 185 220 220 210 190 175
T4
F3 245 245 235 220 190 225 225 220 205 180 200 200 195 180 155

(i) Recommended for light and domestic use only – PAV1 is not recommended for industrial hardstandings where frequent use by HGVs is expected

28
 Joints

Joints
9.1 THE NEED FOR JOINTS IN CONCRETE
9
TOP CRACK INDUCER
Concrete slabs will crack in an uncontrolled manner unless
their bay lengths and widths are suitably proportioned.
Factors that affect proportioning include base type (bound
or unbound) coarse aggregate properties and the inclusion
of reinforcement. By providing joints the thermal expansion (A)
and contraction movements expected within the concrete
hardstanding slab can be accommodated as the ambient
temperature changes without unduly stressing the main
body of the concrete section.

Correct joint detailing and installation is required to ensure

adequate load transfer. These will reduce edge and corner
stresses within the concrete slab and thus enhance the life
of the hardstanding. Maintaining high levels of load transfer (B)
will also aid in preserving the ride quality across joints. US
research and experience suggest that maintaining high
joint load transfer and limiting joint deflection to less than
0.5mm ensures good performance and long service life
(American Concrete Institute document ACI 360-10 – Guide
to Design of Slabs-on-Ground).
(A & B)
Where variable joint performance and load transfer
A two-part top crack inducer and joint former. The top section should be
efficiency are of particular concern, dowelled joints, using removed after concrete has cured, leaving a sealant void of 25mm x 10mm.
pre-assembled dowel cradles that allow for two-dimensional • Supplied in 5mtr lengths
lateral shrinkage should be considered; this will ensure • Available in depths of 50 and 75mm

consistent joint stability and performance.

Figure 9.1 Top crack inducer

9.2 TYPES OF JOINT When sawing, each joint should be sawn as soon as possible
For traditional long strip construction, joints fall into two after adequate strength is obtained in the slab. Determining
distinct categories: transverse and longitudinal. Transverse the proper time to begin sawing is critical; sawing too late
joints are those perpendicular to the direction of paving. often leads to uncontrolled cracking. Sawing too soon,
Longitudinal joints are those that are parallel to the before sufficient strength has been gained, can result
direction. in spalling and ravelling along the joint face. Weather
conditions have a large influence on concrete strength
Transverse and longitudinal joints fall into four primary joint
gain and the optimal time to begin sawing. The concrete
types:
mix design will also affect the proper timing, for example,
• Contraction joints mixes with softer limestone aggregates require less strength
• Construction joints development than mixes with harder coarse aggregates
• Expansion joints such as flint gravels or granite.

• Isolation joints.
These joints are more fully explained below. For mechanised
large bay pours incorporating either mesh reinforcement or
fibre reinforcement, the slab is divided into smaller bays by
partial depth saw cutting to induce controlled cracking.
9.2.1 Contraction joints
Contraction joints are induced cracks that control transverse
cracking in the pavement due to drying and shrinkage.
They are induced by means of partial depth sawing at an
early age or by insertion of a removal insert into the plastic
concrete. See Figure 9.1.
Either of these methods serves to locally reduce the concrete
thickness thus promoting cracking at this location and
reducing the likelihood of cracking occurring elsewhere.
Both the insert and the saw cut should have minimum
depth of D/4 to ensure the successful crack inducement and
a maximum depth of D/3 to maintain a good degree of
aggregate interlock where D is the total depth of the slab.
Where it is proposed to leave the joints unsealed the use
of removable inserts can prove undesirable as the action of
removing them can disrupt the arris.
Free Movement Contraction Joint
Free Movement Contraction Joints can be formed or saw-
cut. They permit movement to occur at the joint which

29
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

provides relief to in-plane stresses induced by overall Dowels need to be smooth, free from burrs, sawn and
shrinkage and thermal movement and also helps to control not cropped and aligned correctly, perpendicular to
curling. Vertical load transfer is provided by smooth de- the joint direction and parallel to the pavement surface.
bonded dowel bars. Free Movement Contraction Joints If this alignment is not achieved then joints can lock
may be formed at the time of casting, induced by an resulting in uncontrolled cracking occurring away from
embedded crack inducer or by a single saw cut. the joint location. To maintain the dowel alignment during
construction, dowels should be placed in standard wire
Restrained Contraction Joint cradles or cages firmly fixed to the subbase surface to avoid
Restrained Contraction Joints can be formed or saw-cut. disturbance during concrete placing. The dowel cage itself
They permit limited movement to occur at the joint which should not be continuous through the joint. A typical dowel
provides some relief to in-plane stresses induced by overall cage arrangement is shown in Figures 9.2a, 9.2b and 9.2c.
shrinkage and thermal movement and also helps to control Pre-assembled dowel cages are also available. These avoid
curling. Any reinforcement in the slab continues across the need to fabricate on-site, saving time and providing a
the joint at lower level within the depth of the slab when more accurate and robust solution.
such joints are induced by saw cutting. Where these joints
The inserting of dowels during the placing of concrete is
are formed, deformed dowel bars are provided in lieu of
unlikely to achieve the correct alignment and should not
reinforcement across the joint.
be permitted.
Vertical load transfer is therefore provided by aggregate
interlock and also by the reinforcement which crosses the
joints or deformed dowel bars provided in formed restrained
contraction joints. The reinforcement or deformed dowel
bars ensure that induced crack widths remain sufficiently
narrow to maintain the required level of aggregate interlock
and load transfer. Restrained contraction joints may be
formed at the time of casting, induced by an embedded
crack inducer or by a single saw cut.

9.2.2 Construction joints

Construction joints divide the pavement into suitable
lengths and widths for construction purposes.

Transverse contraction joints (free movement)

Figure 9.2a Typical dowel bar cage
When located above a granular subbase, it is unlikely that
the aggregate interlock alone will provide sufficient load
transfer across transverse joints to achieve adequate long- The insertion of dowels during the placing of concrete is
term performance for industrial hardstanding requirements. likely to be unsuccessful and should not be permitted.
For this reason, supplementary load transfer across the
joint is provided by the inclusion at mid-depth of the Line of transverse joint

appropriately sized and spaced dowel – round, square or 0.5L 0.5L

plate dowels are suitable. Where bay lengths are extended Tack welds Tie wire
using reinforcement in the slab, it is likely that the bay ends
Dowel (debonded
will move to such an extent as to eliminate much of the
0.5d for 0.5L + 25 mm)
load transfer provided by aggregate interlock resulting in
the steel dowel providing almost all of the load transfer d
provision across the joint. Relative movement of adjacent
Subbase fixing Subbase fixing
slabs is accomplished by debonding the dowels using either
proprietary plastic sleeves or an effective debonding agent
applied to at least one half of the length of each dowel.
Fabric bent into shape shown and tack-welded Fabric must be cut after cage is fixed to
Round dowel bars have a long and successful history of to give correct location to dowel subbase and before placing concrete

use when designed and installed correctly. To fully enable

Figure 9.2b Typical dowel assembly cage
movement of the concrete at the joints and prevent the risk
of restraint that might lock the joints and cause cracking, a
dowel should be specified to allow two-dimensional lateral
joint movement. This can be achieved by using square
dowels with compressible sides or tapered plate dowels.

30
 Joints

Dowel wrap
Two rectangular plate dowels
Compressible material full length of
dowel between plate’s vertical faces
Rectangular plate dowel
Compressible material to
2/ length of dowel on
3
both vertical faces
Tapered plate
dowel

Tapered
plate
dowel
Half slab thickness
to center of dowel d
(typical /4 min Sealant reservoir
d and sealant
/3 max

d Induced crack
Figure 9.4 Plate Dowel

Figure 9.2c Typical pre-assembled dowel assembly cage Typical details of transverse contraction joints are shown in
Figure
(a) U n9.5.
dowelled tran sverse con traction join t for some join ted
unreinforced pavements
Plate Dowels
Plate Dowels have a wider cross-sectional area than Round d
/4 min 75 75 55 nominal cover,
or Square dowels creating a wider bearing surface to more d
/3 max
d
/3 maximum
evenly distribute load, therefore reducing point loading and
stress to lower the risk of concrete cracking or bursting. Due
to the tapered shape it allows for two directional movement 0.5d
d
being lateral movement and horizontal movement.
Dowel Debonding compound
Other benefits of plate dowels: (length, L)

• Superior load transfer 0.5L

0.5L + 25
• Construction efficiencies and tolerances
(a) D owelled tran sverse con traction join t for join ted rein forced an d
• Superior joint stability unreinforced pavements
• Limits joint deflection

55mm nominal cover,

d
3 maximum
d
4 min Saw cut or insert
d
3 max

Fabric Induced crack

Fabric
reinforcement reinforcement
d Lower reinforcement
placed centrally at 450mm
either side of joint
450mm 450mm

55mm nominal cover,

d
3 maximum

(b) restrained contraction joint

Figure 9.5 Transverse contraction joints

Transverse construction joints

These may be planned or unplanned and are typically
Figure 9.3 Plate Dowel Cradle formed using ‘stop end’ board securely fixed to the subbase.
Transverse construction joints should preferably be located
at the planned end of a bay and dowelled in exactly the
same manner as described above for transverse contraction
joints using appropriately sized and spaced dowel bars or
dowel plates.

Where a construction joint is required within the length

of the bay, it should be located within the middle third
of the bay length and tied with tie bars as opposed to
dowels. If this situation occurs within a reinforced bay, the
reinforcement should be continued across the construction
joint, with suitable laps.
31
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

Details for mid-slab and end of slab transverse construction Typically 12 mm diameter deformed bars at 600 mm
joints are shown in Figure 9.6. horizontal spacing, 1000 mm long will be suitable in
most cases, although other options are given in the UK
55 nominal cover, Specification for Highways Works, (9) Series 1000, Table
d
/3 maximum 10/5.

A typical detail of a longitudinal contraction joint is shown

0.5d
in Figure 9.7.
d
Deformed tie bar
(length, L) 0.5L
d
/4 min Saw cut or insert
0.5d d
(a) Transverse construction joint at mid-slab for reinforced and /3 max Induced crack
unreinforced pavements

Formed groove and sealant d Deformed tie bar

75 75 55 nominal cover, 0.5L
d (length, L)
/3 maximum

Figure 9.7 Induced longitudinal contraction joint

0.5d
d
Dowel Debonding compound Longitudinal construction joints
(length, L)
Longitudinal construction joints are formed joints parallel to
25
0.5L
the direction of paving, located at the edge of each paved
rip. They are held with tie bars similar to the longitudinal
(b) Transverse construction joint at bay end contraction joints described above. An example detail is
shown in Figure 9.8.
Tapered shape allows slab to shrink without being restrained
with a thin bond breaker on topand bottom surfaces
Bullnose not exceeding 5 mm radius
Slab construction joint
(unsealed joints only)
A formed void space or a compressible
material on both vertical faces with a
thin bond breaker on top and bottom
surfaces to allow horizontal movement
0.5d
Tapered-
shaped
plate dowel d
Deformed tie bar 0.5L
Rectangular-shaped (length, L)
plate dowel
(a) Tied longitudinal construction joint

Square dowel
(1 6" Bullnose not exceeding 5 mm radius
50
mi mm (unsealed joints only)
n )

Debonding compound
Figure 9.6 Transverse construction joints 0.5d

Longitudinal contraction joints Smooth tie bar

(Length, L)
Where paving techniques permit construction widths
0.5L
greater than the maximum permitted spacing between 25

longitudinal joints, contraction joints will need to be
induced in the longitudinal direction to avoid uncontrolled
longitudinal cracking resulting from curling combined with
traffic stresses. The induction of such joints is the same for
transverse contraction joints as described above.
Sufficient load transfer between adjacent slabs is provided
by tying them together with smaller diameter deformed
steel tie bars. Tie-bars are intended to yield and do not
provide load transfer. Their role is to hold the point to
promote aggregate interlock.
32
(b) Debonded longitudinal construction joint
Figure 9.8 Longitudinal construction joints
Every second longitudinal joint should be free to move and
these joints are referred to as debonded longitudinal joints.
On industrial hardstandings subjected predominantly
to heavy goods vehicles it is common to simply provide
plain tie bars, debonded over at least half their length
and design the slab thickness to cater for this edge load
condition. However, if the designer wishes to reduce edge
stresses then consideration should be given to providing
dowelled longitudinal joints, similar in detail to the end of
bay transverse construction joint shown in Figure 9.6.

9.2.3 Expansion joints
Expansion joints are provided to allow expansion of the
concrete pavement without inducing high point stresses,
and in extreme cases, buckling up of slabs. Although
expansion joints are rarely necessary in concrete paving in
the UK they should be incorporated in large hardstandings,
when one or all of the following criteria are met:
• The pavement slabs are less than 200mm thick
• Concreting is to be carried out during the winter
(beginning of November to end of March
• Contraction and construction joints are to remain
unsealed.
When required, expansion joints, as shown in Figure 9.9,
should be formed at the centres tabulated in Section
9.4 below. The expansion joint should replace either the
contraction or construction joint at that location. These
joints should have a full depth 25mm wide compressible
filler board between the adjacent slabs.
The absence of any aggregate interlock requires dowel
bars of greater diameter than used at contraction joints
to provide satisfactory load transfer, as shown in Figure
9.9. The dowels used in expansion joints must be capped
(at one end) with compressible material to accommodate
expansion.
Caps required for
25 expansion joint
Sealant
0.5d Compressible filler
d
Dowel Debonding compound
(Length, L)
25 0.5L
Figure 9.9 Dowelled expansion joint
Joints
9.2.4 Isolation joints
Isolation joints should be provided where:
• new and existing concrete slabs abut one another,
(unless the joint will be frequently trafficked by heavy
loads, requires load transfer and the new pavement can
be detailed to avoid locking up of adjacent slabs).
• around any inclusions within the slab such as manholes
and linear drains,
• where slabs abut against buildings and fixed structures,
• where adjacent pavement areas have been constructed
in different directions, typically at junctions and bends.
As there is no load transfer at isolation joints it is important
to design for edge loading conditions if such locations will
be subjected to traffic. Should the designer wish to reduce
edge stresses then isolation joints will need to be detailed
with edge thickening. A typical edge thickened isolation
joint detail is shown in Figure 9.10.
d
STRUCTURE
d/4 OR
2 in. (51mm) 4 ft.
MINIMUM (1.2 m)
MINIMUM
Figure 9.10 Thickened edge isolation joint
33
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

9.3 JOINT SEALING

Sealant material
The need to seal the pavement joints is dependent largely
upon the required life expectancy of the hardstanding. In
general, it is recommended that all joints be sealed for the 5mm below surface
following reasons:
Sawn joint face
• To prevent ingress of incompressible particles into
contraction joints,
Tape bond-breaker
• To protect the steel dowels and tie bars from excessive Backing cord
moisture and consequent corrosion and loss of load transfer,
• To prevent the ingress of surface water into the Initial saw cut
pavement foundation and consequent risk of premature
failure,
Induced crack
• To provide a pavement of sufficient impermeability to
protect underlying groundwater from the risk of fuel
and oil spillages.
Figure 9.11 Typical joint sealant details
Where pavements have limited exposure to surface water,
such as beneath canopies, where levels of surface particles
are likely to be low, or where a bound base is provided
(offering some protection to the foundation from water 9.4 JOINT SPACING AND LAYOUT
ingress), then the joints could be unsealed. In all other The long-term performance of a concrete hardstanding
circumstances the sealing of joints is advisable. relies on the correct joint spacing and layout. The following
paragraphs provide some rules and examples for new joint
When joints are to be sealed the top of the joint requires
layouts for a traditional mesh/fabric reinforced concrete
saw cutting to form a reservoir to accept the sealant,
hardstanding. If alternative design methodologies are used,
including optional 5mm chamfers if desired which can help
then refer to specific design guidance.
in removing weakened arrises with a propensity for shallow
spalling under hard wheeled traffic. This reservoir must be
9.4.1 Joint spacing
of the correct width and depth to ensure that the sealant
will have the manufacturer’s recommended orthogonal The designer should remember that the specified joint
ratio throughout the joint’s thermal cycle. spacing will have a significant influence on the anticipated
movement at the end of each slab and, therefore, on the
Joint sealants are designed to withstand repeated cycles of performance of the joint sealant.
tension and compression as the joint opens and closes. To be
effective sealants must resist the intrusion of incompressible Table 9.1 provides joint spacings for various plain concrete
debris into the joint. pavement thicknesses. A common rule of thumb for plain
concrete pavements containing of siliceous gravel coarse
Sealants are typically classified as liquid or preformed. aggregates, on unbound subbases, is that the spacing
Liquid sealant compounds are the most usual form of between transverse joints should not exceed 24 times the
sealant material. These can be either ‘hot poured’ sealants depth of the slab with a maximum spacing of 5 m. Where
complying with BS EN 14188-1 or ‘cold poured’ sealant to limestone coarse aggregate is used these values may be
BS EN14188-2. Both are acceptable, although hot poured increased by 20% up to a maximum of 6 m spacing after
sealants will generally last longer prior to replacement. enhancement. The spacing between longitudinal joints for
Both standards cover different classifications depending plain concrete pavements should follow the same basis
on requirements for fuel, de-icing and other chemical as above except that the maximum spacing should be
resistance. maintained at 4.5 m to minimise the movements at each
of these tied joints. See section 9.7 ‘Alternative Methods of
All liquid sealants depend on long-term adhesion to the Construction’ for alternative joint spacing guidance.
joint face for successful sealing. For this reason the faces
of the sealant reservoir must be thoroughly cleaned of
dust prior sealant application. The only proven method of
achieving this is by grit blasting, taking care not to damage
the surrounding concrete.

The typical joint sealant details shown in Figure 9.11

indicate the need to recess the sealant material 5 mm down
from the pavement surface for subsequent expansion.

34
 Joints

Table 9.1 Recommended joint spacing for plain concrete pavements

on unbound granular subbases

Pavement Joint spacing Joint spacing

thickness (gravel (limestone
(mm) aggregate) (mm) aggregate) (mm)
4320 T & L
3600 T & L 74
Restrained
150 7200 T& L
8640 T& L
Unrestrained
Unrestrained
4000 T & L 5000 T & L
Restrained Restrained
175
8000 T& L 10000 T& L
Unrestrained Unrestrained
4000 T & L 5000 T & L
Restrained Restrained
200
8000 T& L 10000 T& L
Unrestrained Unrestrained
6000 T & L Figure 9.12 Joint spacing in relation to weight of steel mesh
5000 T & L
Restrained reinforcement [15]
Restrained
>200
10000 T& L 12000 T& L
With joint spacings longer than approximately 9 m,
Unrestrained Unrestrained
reinforced slabs are prone to intermediate cracking
T = spacing between transverse joints between the joints. Whilst unsightly to some operators,
L = spacing between longitudinal joints these cracks are not troublesome if the correct level of
reinforcement is chosen in combination with the joint
The joint spacing for plain concrete pavements constructed spacing, the reinforcement ensures intermediate cracks will
on bound subbases is more complex and is related to the be held tightly closed and so protected from water ingress
radius of relative stiffness of the concrete slab. and corrosion.

For conventionally reinforced pavements the spacing Expansion joints, where required, should be provided
between contraction joints depends on the level of where bays are reinforced and at the following spacing in
reinforcement provided parallel to the direction of paving plain unreinforced concrete.
and within the upper third of the slab depth. If the
reinforcement is below this level, there is an increased risk Table 9.2 Recommended expansion joint spacing for plain
of unplanned cracking between the joint positions and concrete pavements
partial loss of load transfer across uncontrolled crack widths.
Figure 9.12 indicates the maximum desirable joint spacing Pavement Joint spacing Joint spacing
for different reinforcement weights, although this should be thickness (gravel (limestone
used with caution as intermediate cracking between planned (mm) aggregate) (m) aggregate)(m)
joints will likely occur which may be considered undesirable
by some owner/operator clients. Notwithstanding this, the 150 30 35
maximum joint spacing for reinforced concrete slabs should 175 40 50
be limited to approximately 17m, as longer bays will be 200 60 75
subject to ever increasing joint movements, affecting the
long-term performance of the joint sealant. 225 80 100
≥250 Not required Not required

35
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

9.4.2 Joint layout Continuity at joints

To achieve optimal pavement performance the joint layout
must be carefully thought out and designed.
The following recommendations should provide years of
low maintenance service.
Direction of trafficking
In so far as can be predicted, longitudinal joints should be
placed parallel to the predominant direction of trafficking.
Joints should be continuous across the length and breadth
of the hardstanding or at least to the point at which they
meet an isolation joint. Mismatched joints should be
avoided wherever possible as they can induce unplanned
sympathetic cracking within adjacent bays. If a mismatched
joint is unavoidable, the slab opposite the mismatched
joint in question should be reinforced within the upper
third of the slab depth, as shown in Figure 9.14, except
where the mismatched joint occurs at an isolation joint.

Bay shape
Odd shaped bays should be avoided by keeping slabs as
square as possible. Long narrow slabs tend to crack more
than square ones. For unreinforced pavements, the joints
should be located so that the ratio of the longest to shortest
joint spacing does not exceed 1¼ : 1.

Acute angles Figure 9.14 Reinforcing to avoid sympathetic cracking

The corners of slabs should wherever possible be 90° and
acute angles of less than 60° should be avoided. Acute
angles can commonly be avoided by incorporating a joint
offset of over 600 mm from the pavement edge, or inside of
the kerb. Refer to Figure 9.13. This is also applicable where
strips meet angled perimeter boundaries.
Treatment at chambers
The inclusion of manholes or gullies within the pavement
is likely to cause a structural weakness. Joints around such
features therefore require careful attention. Unfortunately,
the preplanning of the joint locations and chamber
positions is often compromised by the inaccurate nature
of drainage construction. Therefore, the detailing around
such chambers should allow for a degree of dimensional
alteration on site.

Joint offset It is normal for the chamber covers/gratings to have a

Direction of paving
minimum 300 mm wide reinforced concrete apron around
its perimeter, otherwise known as the ‘surround’. This
surround should be completely isolated from the pavement
Irregular bays by an isolation joint. Figures 9.15 and 9.16 show typical
reinforced
jointing arrangements that serve to avoid any re-entrant
angles being caused by the chamber surround.

Isolation joint

Direction of paving

Figure 9.13 Joint offset at junction

Where internal angles less than 60° at intersecting joints

cannot be avoided, even with offsets, the affected slabs
should be reinforced. The reinforcement should be either
mesh reinforcement within the upper third of the slab
depth, or 16 mm diameter bars in the form of ‘hairpins’
that radiate from the corners. Each leg of a ‘hairpin’ should
be at least 1 m long and have a standard hook at its end.

36
 Joints

Unplanned cracking is common from chamber corners and

this reinforcement therefore holds such cracks together.
Isolation joint

Isolation joint

Reinforcing bars
(a) Diagonal box cut recommended to
hold cracks tight
Figure 9.15 Typical jointing arrangements to avoid re-entrant angles

Figure 9.17 Anti-crack reinforcement at re-entrant corner

Isolation joint
Telescopic landing gear (trailer legs)
Where loading and unloading activity occurs it should be
anticipated that the tractor unit might be removed, with
trailers supported at their front end on telescopic landing
gear. In these areas it is good practice to ensure that the
joint layout is designed so that the landing gear will not
sit directly on a joint, as they may damage the joint arris,
particularly when dropped (see also Sections 8.7, Telescopic
landing gear and 10.6, Impact resistance).

(b) Box out with fillets

Figure 9.16 Typical jointing arrangements to avoid re-entrant

angles (continued)

However, this cannot always be achieved and in such

instances, the surrounding bay should be mesh reinforced
with additional anti-crack reinforcement consisting of pairs
of 1000 mm long T16 bars provided at an angle across the
re-entrant corner. This is shown in Figure 9.17.

37
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
9.5 JOINT MAINTENANCE
Joints must be maintained regularly to ensure that the
design life of a concrete hardstanding is achieved. Regular
maintenance includes resealing of joints and repairing
any spalling that has occurred along the joint. Concrete
pavement maintenance should be carried out by specialist
personnel. There are many ways in which concrete joints,
and indeed surfaces, can be maintained. More information
on this subject can be found in the joint Highways Agency
and Britpave publication, Concrete pavement maintenance
manual, 2001 [14].
9.6 JOINTS IN ROLLER COMPACTED
CONCRETE
Transverse and longitudinal joints in roller compacted
concrete (RCC) may be wet formed using the method
specified for pre-cracking cement bound materials in the
Specification for Highway Works – Clause 818, Induced
cracking of HBM.
A 4m x 4m grid has been found to substantially reduce
random cracking while maintaining load transfer across the
joints through aggregate interlock.
Construction joints should normally be sawn and constructed
as plain butt joints.
38
9.7 ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF DESIGN AND
CONSTUCTION
This guide provides designers with recommendations for
designing concrete hardstandings using the empirically
based RR87 methodology for jointed pavements. RR87 was
published in 1987 and remains the underlying design basis
for URC and JRC pavements in UK highway standards to
this day. In the airfield sector, necessarily the operational
risks for airfields mean that paving practice relies on
thoroughly tested methods and principles of design with a
solid understanding of surface serviceability and behaviour.
Within the industrial hardstanding market, often concrete
paving developments have been promoted by the flooring
industry, but these may not appropriate for external paving.
In some other countries, such as in the United States there
is a very large concrete pavement market supported by a
strong research culture at Federal and State level, as well as in
some universities with dedicated researchers. Developments
in overseas design and construction practices may benefit
UK concrete hardstanding design. This section provides a
short introduction to some of these developments.
Classical jointed concrete pavement design theory was first
proposed by H.M.Westergaard (1888 – 1950) in the 1920s
and 30s. In essence, this uses concrete flexural strength to
resist bottom-up cracking from the underside of the slab.
It has long been recognised that this theory has some
limitations because it does not consider curling, even by
Westergaard himself.
Slab curling is a result of two components:
• During service due to natural temperature and moisture
content changes,
• Built-in due to drying shrinkage. This largely occurs
during the first two years following construction.
Beneficially, because RR87 is an empirically based
design document, it intrinsically takes these factors
into account. However, it also relies on the pavement
thicknesses, dowel details, concrete strengths and traffic
ranges that were consistent with road conditions at the
time

The advent of finite element analysis (FEA) meant that
curling could be studied more rigorously. In parallel,
realisation has grown that field behaviour is governed by
top-down effects due to curling. Key insights from this
include recognition of the following:
• Concrete elastic modulus is a key design parameter as
well as strength,
• Foundation strength/stiffness uniformity can be more
important than magnitude,
• Traditional wisdom that large panels are preferred to
minimize the number of joints has been questioned
unless curling is expressly allowed for.
This is expressed in the current AASHTO Mechanistic and
Empirical Design Guide (MEPDG). The accompanying
software, ASSHTOWARE Pavement ME Design has been
developed from FEA.
Other pavement design software packages which make use
FEA and some calibration to field and laboratory data for
more realistic models include:
– ACPA StreetPave (Free version available at
www.pavementdesigner.org)
– OptiPave2.5
– cncPAVE
Joints
Using AASHOTO93 for concrete pavement design is no
longer recommended.
In addition, there are design guidance documents that
provide additional insight and perspective on concrete
hardstanding design, such as ACI 330.2R-17: ‘Guide for
the Design and Construction of Concrete Site Paving for
Industrial and Trucking Facilities’. This guide provides
insight into designing unreinforced concrete pavements
with dowelled joints (DUCP).
ACI 330.2R does not include information on mesh
reinforcement classes, and states that the nominal quantity
of steel typically used in industrial slabs is well below what
is required to be considered structural. It therefore has no
influence on concrete slab thickness design and only acts
to control in-service cracking. The design approach in
ACI 330.2R-17 aims to prevent out-of-joint, or mid-panel
cracking, but this cannot be guaranteed, and a small
percentage of cracked panels should be expected over the
life of the pavement. It mitigates mid-panel cracking through
strategic joint spacing and free movement at all joints,
limiting individual panel sizes based on slab thickness. This
allows more controlled cracking and stress relief throughout
the concrete pavement which prevents shrinkage and/or
stress cracks from forming outside of the joint locations. The
inclusion of debonded dowels at all the joints ensures long-
term stability and load transfer performance that minimises
the risks associated with excessive deflection, faulting and
pumping. Dowel design is therefore an important factor in
ACI 330.2R hardstanding design and should consider dowel
spacing, dowel geometry and dowel bearing area.
Refer to Design Example 2, Alternative method of design,
page 53.
39
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

Short Slab Design – The OptiPave System™

True short slab technology has been developed by The
Optipave System™. Their concrete pavement design
software, OptiPave2, is based on extensive research, trials
and experience in South America and the United States. Its
basis is that short slabs are stronger than large slabs.

It covers a range of applications including industrial

hardstandings, concrete roads and highways, parking lots
and urban areas.

The OptiPave System™ predicts reduced individual panel

sizes using 1.8m typical joint spacing. This means that only
one set of wheels traffics each panel at any given time.

This enables reduced slab thickness and increased fatigue

life compared with classical design theory. It also mitigates
the risk of damage from curling.

The Optipave System™ specifies either plain concrete

or macro synthetic fibre reinforced concrete. The small
joint spacings ensure that joint opening due to concrete
shrinkage is minimal, keeping joints tight and able to
effectively transfer load through aggregate interlock alone
without the need for joint sealing.

The Optipave System™ designs for industrial concrete

hardstandings typically range in thickness from 100mm to
150mm depending on the number and type of vehicles,
concrete strength, and whether fibres are being used.

Being a proprietary, licensed technology and solution,

designs must be authorised by TCPavements® and a royalty
paid to them as detailed on their website. For further
information see www.tcpavements.cl. Although there is
widespread project experience in South America and the
United States currently only a few projects have been
constructed in Southern Europe and none in the UK.

40

Surface characteristics
10.1 GENERAL
Concrete is most often specified for industrial hardstandings
because of its resilient surface characteristics. Industrial
hardstandings have very different requirements from public
highways in that the nature of the traffic and loading can
be more onerous.
Trafficking of concrete hardstandings is rarely linear and
most commonly involves frequent tightly turning and
manoeuvring vehicles, imposing a surface stress on the
concrete surface texture. Hardstandings also have to
accommodate mechanical handling equipment (MHE)
such as forklifts which may have small, hard wheels, which
in turn may be more abrasive than the pneumatic tyres of
heavy goods vehicles.
It is also important that the finished hardstanding surface
is free from irregularities and set at the correct gradients to
ensure the safe operation of MHE.
Essentially, a concrete hardstanding must have a surface
that is regular, at a suitable gradient, possesses good
abrasion and impact resistance, and affords a good level of
skid resistance.
10.2 REGULARITY
The finished surface should be free from excessive high spots
or depressions, which may endanger the manoeuvrability
of vehicles and MHE or give rise to surface water ponding.
The constructed pavement levels should not deviate by
more than +/– 6 mm from the design levels. Stepping in
excess of 3mm across concrete joints should be avoided,
and no depression under a 3 m straight edge should be
greater than 10 mm, subject to the requirement to avoid
ponding.
Where containers or other goods are to be stacked, the
maximum deviation in the surface should be such that there
is no risk of the item breaking its back, or sitting in water.
Tighter tolerances may be required in specific areas such
as where drivers and others walk, where surface ponding
must be avoided. Additional consideration must be given
at drainage inlets, which must be set slightly lower than
the adjacent pavement to encourage the efficient capture
of surface water.
Surface characteristics
10.3 GRADIENT
10
The gradients adopted for hardstandings are likely to be
a compromise between achieving good surface drainage,
ensuring safe manoeuvrability of vehicles and plant and
avoiding the potential for uncontrolled speeding down
the slope.
The Freight Transport Association publication ‘Designing
for Deliveries’ provides useful guidance in this respect, and
much of its advice is repeated below.
Industrial hardstandings should be as level as possible
subject to the important requirement of maintaining
good drainage for which a gradient of at least 1 in 60 is
recommended. However, it is particularly important to
minimise gradients at points where vehicles are stationed for
loading and in their immediate vicinity. Here the gradient
should be less than 1 in 40. On steeper gradients wheeled
containers are difficult to push uphill and more importantly,
tend to roll downhill, presenting a safety hazard to those in
the vicinity. Adjacent to loading docks it is ideal to design
the pavement to fall away from the face of the building
at a fall of approximately 1 in 60, to ensure that as the
trailer doors are opened, product does not roll or fall on
operatives.
In addition, some types of stacked goods can slide and
topple. Others supported by the strengthened curtains of
curtain sided vehicles can fall out when the curtains are
undone. Forklifts can become dangerous to operate on
steep gradients. A number of operators, having experienced
some of these problems in service, have imposed a gradient
limit of 1:60. At such shallow gradients better quality control
during construction might be required to ensure that any
tolerances on levels do not inadvertently result in ponding
on the hardstanding, particularly at joints in the pavement.
Gradients can be steeper where vehicles manoeuvre and
park. In such places gradients steeper than 1:20 can
be tolerated. However, drivers of articulated vehicles
can experience considerable difficulty in performing
manoeuvres whilst traversing side slopes, particularly when
attempting to reverse trailers at an angle up gradients.
Traversing side slopes requires greater care and wider
turning angles. Gradients up to 1:20 can increase the
space requirements by up to 10%. Gradients from 1:20 to
1:10 are not recommended other than on straight ramps
(see below) as they can increase the space required for a
manoeuvre by up to 20% and sometimes the manoeuvre
will not be possible at all.
41
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

Significant gradients may be unavoidable on ramps
connecting parts of premises that are on different levels.
Gradients of ramps should not exceed 1:10 when straight
and should be less when there is significant horizontal
curvature. Where ramps meet the horizontal many
designers prefer to see thee smoothest and longest possible
vertical curves because these provide a safer layout and
avoid abrupt changes in the vehicle’s attitude at critical
points when the driver is often required to brake or give
way to other traffic.
Where steel fibres are incorporated, the process of brushing
the slab surface to provide texture will ‘lift’ some of the fibres
that are closest to the surface. These fibres may require
removal before trafficking. It should also be expected that
some corrosion staining would become evident from those
fibres that remain close to the finished surface.

Where hardstandings connect onto the public highway, it is

recommended that as vehicles will be required to stop and
wait for passing traffic, this waiting area should be at least
as long as the vehicle and not have a longitudinal slope of
any greater than 1 in 40, preferably less.

10.4 SKID RESISTANCE

To reduce the risk of skidding in wet or icy weather, a
suitable surface texture must be provided.

Surface texture is divided into two main texture components,

micro-texture and macro-texture: Figure 10.1 Applying brushed texture

• Micro-texture – At lower speeds skid resistance is

predominantly provided by the micro-texture. By
definition, micro-texture has a wavelength of less than 0.5
mm and typically a texture depth of less than 0.2 mm. This
is in effect the roughness of the concrete mortar.
Macro-texture – At higher speeds (generally in excess
• 
of 50 km/h) in wet weather, macro-texture becomes
increasingly influential in providing skid resistance.
Macro-texture is provided most commonly by applying
a brushed finish to the concrete. The brushing forms
small channels, within which surface water can disperse,
reducing the risk of tyres aquaplaning on a thin film
of water. The surface water is effectively squeezed into
these small channels allowing rubber to micro-texture
contact, thereby providing some skid resistance.
With most concrete surfaces, after a number of years of
trafficking it may be expected that the brushed texture may
have worn away (see Abrasion resistance below), exposing
the coarse aggregate. At that time the micro-texture of
the coarse aggregate will become highly influential on
the overall skid resistance of the pavement. It is therefore
important to ensure that the coarse aggregates will not
have a propensity to either polish or abrade too readily.
Old concrete hardstandings exhibiting exposed and highly
polished aggregates, resulting in a slippery surface, can be
retextured by scoring techniques or application of resin
bonded fine aggregates.

42
 Surface characteristics

10.5 ABRASION RESISTANCE
To maintain safe surface integrity, the concrete must have
a satisfactory level of abrasion resistance. In comparison
with other hardstanding materials, correctly specified and
constructed concrete inherently possesses good abrasion
resistance qualities.
The macro-texture described in Section 10.4 is most usually
provided by the brushed texture, itself composed of only
the sand/fine aggregate and cement mortar. If this texture
is allowed to abrade under traffic, the coarser aggregates
below will become exposed and the resistance to skidding
will then be reliant upon the micro-texture properties of the
coarse aggregate, as outlined above.
It is always therefore preferable to ensure that concretes are
correctly specified and constructed such that the brushed
texture remains for as long as possible. This can be achieved
by:
• Using an appropriate concrete class – refer to Table 7.2.
• Using suitable fine aggregate – sand with a high
quartz (silica) content is an exceptionally hard-wearing
material, with crushed quartz sands exhibiting excellent
durability and angularity. Experience shows that fine
aggregate containing predominantly limestone material
is liable to lead to concrete surface polishing relatively
quickly under traffic and should therefore be avoided.
• Compliance with aggregate grading targets – when
using crushed fines avoidance of an excessive amount of
dust is important as this may otherwise necessitate the
use of a higher water content to achieve the required
consistence, which in turn can lead to low durability
concrete surfaces.
• Compliance with the intended maximum water/
cement ratio – ensuring that construction practices do
not allow excessive water cement ratios to occur in the
surface concrete.
• Appropriate curing – adopting correct curing
procedures will allow satisfactory hydration of the
surface concrete.
In many locations, highly abrasive activities are also
associated with high impact activities, and measures to
combat the destructive nature of impact forces are outlined
below.
10.6 IMPACT RESISTANCE
Many concrete hardstandings will be subject to operational
activities that result in impact from falling loads. One of the
reasons that concrete is adopted as the material solution
for hardstandings is because of its relatively high resistance
to impact.
However, in concrete hardstandings two modes of failure
due to impact loads can occasionally exhibit themselves:
• Structural failure through punching stresses
• Local failure resulting in spalling.
Where routine impact loads are anticipated, such as the
dropping of trailers onto their landing gear, the concrete
thickness design should account for this to ensure that
punching stresses are accommodated and structural failure
will not occur. It is not uncommon, for example, to provide
slab thickening outside loading docks at locations where
trailers will routinely be dropped onto their telescopic
landing gear.
The risk of localised spalling and chipping due to impact
loads will depend on the nature of the load, its shape,
duration of contact and also the specific properties of the
concrete at its surface. Whilst plain concrete provides a
good level of resistance to surface spalling and chipping,
this resistance can be enhanced significantly by introducing
polyproplene, silica fume or steel fibres. The fibres effectively
increase the energy absorption of the concrete, by holding
the concrete elements tightly together as they attempt
to crack and spall away from one another under impact.
This concrete characteristic is often referred to as ‘surface
toughness’.

Where the surface texture has been lost through abrasion,

the coarse aggregate will become subject to abrasive
action. In general, most coarse aggregates that are suitable
for hardstanding concrete will give a good level of abrasion
resistance. However, where very high levels of abrasion are
anticipated, such as beneath rubbish compactor units, then
it is likely that the coarse aggregate will quickly become the
first line of defence against abrasion, and for this reason
it may be preferable to use a coarse granite or flint gravel
aggregate instead of coarse limestone.

In such instances, the addition of polypropylene or steel

fibres can also greatly enhance the abrasion resistance of
the concrete matrix by improving its overall integrity under
abrasive forces.

43
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
11
11.1 GENERAL
Integrated design
Many hardstandings have their long-term performance
compromised by a lack of forethought in design when it
comes to integrating the pavement with aspects such
as drainage and services, see Figure 11.1. Slabs must be
installed on a straight grade between joints but this is not
always recognised by drainage designers.
Thus far this document has concentrated on how to
design the pavement structure to best accommodate the
anticipated traffic and retain a satisfactory surface under the
traffic and the environment.
However, the benefit of all this good work is so easily lost
if the pavement structure is punctured with unnecessary,
and poorly detailed, inclusions. Typical inclusions include
manholes, gulleys, structural columns and linear drainage
systems.
Such inclusions form a point of weakness within the pavement
structure. Commonly concrete surrounds to manholes and
gulleys are either poorly detailed or constructed incorrectly.
It is also very common to see such features incorrectly
located on site. As any sub-surface features such as drainage
are installed before the hardstanding is constructed, the
final hardstanding layout becomes compromised by this
error and consequently less preferable solutions to jointing
arrangements have to be found, or alternatively simply
made up on site as the side forms are erected.
Figure 11.1 There is no substitute for pre-planning and
common sense…
11.2 DRAINAGE
As many sites will comprise a building surrounded by
hardstanding, there will be a need to take both surface and
foul water from the building beneath the hardstanding to
the point of discharge at or beyond the site perimeter. In
addition to this the hardstanding will collect surface water,
which will also need to be collected and discharged.
44
Manhole covers and gulley gratings and their concrete
surrounds are always vulnerable to traffic damage. However,
it is still very common to see hardstanding designs where
such features are placed directly in the wheel path of heavy
goods vehicles.
As a guiding principle, the designer should always try to
avoid having any such inclusions within the hardstanding
area by putting these features in verges, landscaped areas,
car parking areas, etc.
However, it will not always be possible to eliminate
inclusions entirely from the hardstanding areas, and where
they are still necessary they should be placed within non-
critical areas of the hardstanding.
It is often surprising how certain areas of hardstanding
are trafficked only infrequently, or not at all. For example,
it is difficult for heavy goods vehicles to traffic close up to
buildings or boundary fences and these areas are often free
from the damaging effects of their wheels.
One of the main purposes for incorporating covers and
gratings within drainage systems is to allow for future
maintenance. This alone is a good reason to try to eliminate
such features from heavily trafficked areas, see Figure 11.2.
Petrol interceptors commonly have multiple access shafts
and the designer should consider their alignment within the
drainage network design to attempt to align their multiple
covers with the concrete pavement joint layout. Ideally such
maintenance intensive features should not be located within
the operational areas at all.
Surface water can also be collected in a number of ways. A
very common system is to use multiple gulleys, each feeding
to a carrier drain. This system, however, nearly always
entails difficult pavement gradients (to shape surface falls
towards individual gulleys) and also many inclusions. It is
often found to be beneficial to use linear drainage systems,
which incorporate long robust concrete surrounds.
Many such systems exist and most allow large quantities
of water to be conveyed over large distances, negating
the need for carrier drains beneath the hardstanding and
associated manholes. These systems also drain successfully
with minimal invert gradients, allowing the hardstanding
to have more regular surface levels. Ideally the linear
drain should be located downstream at the hardstanding
perimeters, but this may not always be feasible.
Such decisions on the drainage design, particularly in
integration with the hardstanding design, should be considered
at the stage at which the site levels are being fixed.
 Integrated design

11.3 SERVICES • Minimising the stiffness of compressible filler in the

The other common sources of inclusions into the
hardstanding are services such as electricity, gas and
telecoms. For the same reasons identified above for the
drainage, it is always best to try to attempt to locate these in
non-critical areas.
Again, this requires consideration at an early stage within
the development of the scheme.
Figure 11.2 Access chambers located in a highly trafficked
and vulnerable location
isolation joint,
• Maximising the joint width,
• Minimising the slab-subbase friction coefficient.
Of these, gradient is the least significant parameter. The
others are all highly significant.
Clearly different drainage units will be able to withstand
different loads so absolute rules are impossible. Furthermore,
the interaction of different effects is complex. For example,
an increase in upslope extent L from 10m to 20m might
typically lead to a 75% increase in the maximum kerb force,
and this could in theory be countered by introducing a low-
friction double polythene layer beneath the concrete, by
replacing traditional filler board with compressible rubber
foam or by increasing joint width. General advice is as
follows:
• Avoid significant distance between the drainage units
and the first isolation joint.
• Use as soft a joint filler as is practical [but note that
excessive movement of the filler material during
concreting can result in concrete bridging the joint].
• Use a membrane beneath the concrete, likely to result in
a low friction coefficient.
These measures become increasingly needed as the upslope
extent of the pavement increases.

11.4 DESIGNING FOR EDGE DRAIN UNITS

The problem addressed in this section is the possibility that
repeated expansion-contraction cycles due to temperature
changes lead to a tendency for the pavement to migrate
down-slope and overload adjacent edge or internal drainage
units. It is a tendency that cannot be prevented and so has
to be managed by appropriate joint design. Figure 11.3
illustrates the situation.

L Isolation joint Drainage

D kerb

Figure 11.3 Pavement section adjacent to edge drain

As the concrete expands during daytime heat it pushes

both up and down the slope; however, gravity induces a
slightly increased tendency to move downslope, and this
will be counteracted by a force at the lower slab edge. This
is the force that has the potential to overload the drainage
units. This force can be reduced by:
• Minimising the upslope extent of the pavement,
• Minimising the gradient,

45
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

12
12.1 GENERAL
Hardstandings and Embodied Carbon
Carbon capture is being researched but technically
viable solutions at industrial scale are some way off. New
To address climate change, in 2019 the UK Government
technologies include alternative cements, supplementary
committed to achieving ‘net zero’ by 2050. It is not
cementitious materials (SCMs) to replace fly ash and ggbs
practical to achieve zero emissions, hence the concept of
and reinforcement materials to replace steel. These are
net zero. This is defined as atmospheric emissions equalling
emerging and others are planned but available technologies
greenhouse gas emissions, which is firstly achieved by
have yet to reach significant market penetration. Because
means of natural carbon sinks. Carbon capture may in time
of the high barriers to market entry, costs are usually high
contribute to net zero but the technologies are still being
compared with existing technology.
researched.
Making the best use of existing technology is currently
After water, concrete is the most used material on the
aimed at minimising cement content. This requires some
planet. In terms of embodied carbon dioxide (eCO2), the
appreciation of concrete mix design. At the heart of mix
primary impact of concrete is the cement, as shown in Table
design is water cement ratio (WCR) – lower WCR means
12.1 below:
more cement relative to water that gives stronger concrete.
Table 12.1 In British Standard notation, concrete strength class is
denoted by CX/Y where X and Y are the cylinder and cube
MATERIAL / ACTIVITY eCO2 characteristic compressive strengths (in MPa) respectively.
(kg/tonne)
It is possible to partly replace cement using SCMs, termed
Cement* 913 cement additions in BS 8500-1. Traditionally the most
common SCMs have been fly ash and ground granulated
Reinforcement* 430
blast furnace slag (ggbs). The UK is now a net importer of
Limestone* 75 fly ash and ggbs as a result of energy decarbonisation and
steel industry contraction respectively. In the UK fly ash is
ggbs* 67 increasingly hard to obtain and ggbs supply is predicted
Transport† 24 to contract in the next few years. The future for SCMs in
the UK is that ggbs and limestone are expected to remain
Placing on site† 22 the most common in the short term but will eventually be
overtaken by new technologies.
Batching† 8

Aggregates* 4 Fly ash and ggbs are waste products from coal-fired power
Fly ash* 4 key in a low carbon future. Their scarcity therefore may only
Sources: * Georgopoulos and Minson (2014, pp 136), † estimated from
Flower and Sanjayan (2017, pp 9)
Cement manufacture represents roughly 85% of the carbon
impact of concrete. Briefly, cement manufacture involves
heating a blend of calcium carbonate rock (usually limestone
or chalk) and clay to roughly 1500°C in a kiln. Chemical
reactions from calcium carbonate breakdown release a large
amount of CO2. Heating the kiln also emits CO2 although
cement manufacturers continue to make reductions using
alternative fuels.
Decarbonising concrete between now and 2050 is predicted
to require a staged approach, roughly as follows:
• Now (2022) – making the best use of current
technology,
• 5 to 15 years – improved concrete technology,
• 15 to 30 years – carbon capture.
and steelmaking respectively, arguably neither of which are
increase. Nevertheless, they give useful improvements to
concrete, for example:
• Fly ash improves cohesion in pumpable and precasting
mixes and can be effective in mitigating the risk of alkali-
silica reaction,
• Ggbs reduces hardened concrete permeability and
therefore is beneficial in applications requiring high
resistance to sulfate and chloride attack,
• SCMs also lower heat of hydration and thereby assist in
early age crack control.
As such, fly ash and ggbs will remain important until
alternative SCMs become commercially available. Their
special properties mean that they need to be used judiciously
beyond simply reducing CO2. Globally, there is insufficient
supply to allow all countries to reduce carbon using high
ggbs additions. High use of SCMs in, for example, temporary
works or kerb haunching is thereforearguably unsustainable

The concrete industry is set to enter a period of rapid

change and continuous improvement. It is therefore not
considered helpful to try and define low carbon concrete.

46
 Hardstandings and Embodied Carbon

12.2 ESTIMATING THE CARBON IMPACT OF Table 12.2 Indicative cement contents for pavement concrete

CONCRETE HARDSTANDINGS Concrete Cement content (kg/m3) based on

strength
Mainstream published guidance on concrete mix design, class
20mm maximum coarse aggregate
for example BRE331, is considered to result in mix designs CEM CEM CEM
with higher than necessary cement content. In practice, CEM I
IIA-L IIB-S III/A
concrete producers have developed their own mix designs
Portland
internally, supported by laboratory testing. Moreover, Portland Blastfurnace
limestone
Portland slag cement cement
pavement concrete requirements differ from structural cement
cement
concrete, including the following: 6-20% 21-35% 36-65%
limestone ggbs ggbs
• Pavement mixes are subject to a minimum cement
content for durability. For example, MCHW1 Table 10.2 C28/32 345 350 350 360
requires 320 and 340 kg/m3 minimum cement using C32/40 390 395 390 410
CEM I and cement additions respectively for strength
C40/50 370 370 375 390
class C32/40 pavement concrete.
These values are a rough guide and should not be used for mix
• Pavement concrete with a strength class below
specifications.
C40/50 requires air entrainment to provide freeze-
thaw protection. Air entrainment is achieved using an Setting 0.45 maximum WCR increases the cement content in
admixture and has the effect of refining the concrete PAV1 concrete well above the equivalent structural mix. The
pore structure. However, it also increases the cement need for air entrainment also increases the cement content in
demand for a given strength. Typically, each additional PAV1 and PAV2 mixes whereas it is not possible to air entrain
1% air content reduces compressive strength by 5%. C40/50. This is why C40/50 concrete appears more carbon
• For pavement concrete a practical WCR is between 0.38 efficient. Fly ash is seldom specified for concrete pavement
and 0.48. Above 0.48 WCR, concrete pavements can be work because it can affect air content. More notably, supply
sensitive to drying shrinkage. Very low WCR may require chains now seldom offer fly ash because it can be difficult to
special precautions against autogenous shrinkage. source in the UK. So, whilst fly ash is permitted in MCHW1
for pavement concrete, it is not included in Table 2.
It is also now common practice to use water-reducing or
superplasticising admixtures. These admixtures enable The cement contents from Table 12.2 have been used to
a given consistence class to be met with less water. For a estimate eCO2 for different strength classes and cements,
constant WCR then this provides increased strength and as shown in Table12.3 overleaf:
durability for a given cement content. This is common
practice to reduce the cost of cement but clearly also assists
with reducing eCO2.

A high range superplasticiser can reduce cement content

by up to 30% although they are not always best suited
for pavement mixes. Traditional normal or medium range
water reducers can lower water content by roughly 10%
and are more likely to be used in pavement mixes.

When using carbon calculation tools it is important to

check that the above features are included or else to build-
up custom materials. A rough guide to commercial cement
contents in structural concrete using different SCMs is given
in CIRIA Report C766 Table 4.2. Taking the CIRIA C766
data and adjusting for the above requirements gives the
indicative cement contents in Table 12.2 below:

47
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

Table 12.3 Indicative eCO2 contents for pavement concrete, Cc The eCO2 for mesh reinforcement is given in Table 12.4
using the ICE carbon mix calculator
below:
Concrete eCO2 (kg/m3) based on 20mm
strength Table 12.4 Indicative eCO2 contents for mesh reinforcement, CR
class
maximum coarse aggregate
CEM CEM CEM MESH DESIGNATION eCO2 kg/m2
CEM I
IIA-L IIB-S III/A
A142 1.0
Portland
Portland Blastfurnace
limestone A193 1.4
Portland slag cement cement
cement
cement
6-20% 21-35% 36-65% A252 1.8
limestone ggbs ggbs
A393 2.8
C28/32 349 272 202 125
C32/40 390 304 223 140 B385 2.1

C40/50 374 288 215 135 B503 2.7

Notes
1. Coarse and fine aggregate contents have been estimated from
BRE 331 assuming 7 MPa margin, crushed coarse aggregate,
uncrushed fine aggregate and Class S2 consistence. Cement
contents predicted by BRE 311 have been substituted by those
in Table 12.2. To obtain eCO2 values, these results were used as
inputs to the Inventory of Carbon and Energy (ICE) by Circular
Ecology Database – Embodied Carbon Model for Cement,
Mortar and Concrete.
2. Strength classes C28/32 and C32/40 are air-entrained but not
C40/50. 5% target air content has been used.
3. A water reducer giving 10% lower water content has been
assumed.
4. 20mm maximum coarse aggregate size. Increasing this to 40mm
can reduce eCO2 by a further 10% and improve interlock at
induced joints. However, this is unlikely to be a practical option
except for projects large enough to justify site batching.
5. For CEM IIA-L cement, 15% limestone has been assumed. This is
considered consistent with that provided by supply chains at the
time of writing.
For CEM IIB-S, 30% ggbs content has been assumed.
For CEM III/A, 55% maximum ggbs content has been assumed.
Refer to Section 7.3.
6. 11km delivery distance from batching plant to job site has been
assumed.
B785 3.7
The impacts in Table 12.4 include an allowance for transport,
as given in Table 1 above. The eCO2 per square metre for
a concrete slab can then be estimated from the following
equation:
eCO2 = t(CC + 58 + 72) + CR
Where t is the slab thickness from Table 8.3 and CC and CR
are obtained from Tables 12.3 and 12.4 above respectively.
Unbound foundations have relatively low eCO2, as shown
in Table 12.1 above. An approximate unit eCO2 value
for unbound aggregates comes from using the value
in Table 12.1 add adding 0.1kg eCO2/m3 for each 1 km
transportation distance.
Cement bound granular mixture (CBGM) contains typically
100 to 120 kg/m3 of cement depending on whether the
compressive strength is below or above 10 MPa respectively.
Using the parameters in Table 7.1 and assuming 2150 kg/
m3 maximum dry density and 8% water gives 121 to 139
eCO2 kg/m3 including transport and placement.
The carbon impact of soil stabilisation compares poorly
against unbound foundations. The eCO2 value for lime
is close to 1000 kg/m3 – even higher than cement. The
value of soil stabilisation is in developing sites that would
be otherwise uneconomic or require considerable HGV
movements to transport materials.

48
 APPENDIX A
Vehicle damage factors

Vehicle damage factors A

The following tables provide two simplified methods for Table A1 Axle conversion to number of equivalent standard axles
determining the total cumulative vehicle damage factor
Axle load (kg) Number of equivalent
(VDF), measured in million standard axles (msa).
standard axles (ne)
The first method can be adopted if the designer has 750 0.00007
knowledge of individual axle weights that are likely to 1000 0.00023
be applied to the hardstanding. If this information is not
2000 0.004
available then the designer may use the more approximate
second method, which provides an estimated VDF for 3000 0.02
typical vehicle types. 4000 0.06

The first method gives the designer the opportunity to 5000 0.14
consider varying vehicle payloads, such as allowing for 6000 0.30
empty vehicles, which may result in savings on construction 7000 0.55
thickness in hardstanding areas where such an approach
8000 0.93
can be justified. However, this must be carefully reviewed
against possible changes in operational practice during the 9000 1.48
lifetime of the hardstanding. The second method assumes 10,000 2.26
that all vehicles are operating at maximum payload, and as
10,500 2.75
such provides a conservative design route.
11,000 3.30
11,500 3.95
A1. METHOD 1 12,000 4.68
The axle weight method
A relationship exists between axle weight and the damage For each axle type from each anticipated vehicle type, the
that the axle does to pavements. This damage is evaluated designer can then obtain the cumulative vehicle damage
against the numbers of equivalent ‘standard’ axles that a factor from the following:
specific axle weight represents. The standard axle adopted

{ nea1 × na1 × t
}
in the UK is 8,160 kg and the relationship most commonly
adopted in highway design techniques between the
VDFa1 =
number of equivalent standard axles that a specific axle
1 × 10 6
represents, and the standard axle is the fourth power rule:

Where:

ne =
{ }Ws
8,160
4 VDFa1 = The vehicle damage factor represented by the
total cumulative number of this specific axle
type (msa)

Where:
nea1 = Number of equivalent standard axles
represented by one specific axle (no.)
ne = Number of equivalent standard axles
represented by one specific axle (no.)
na1 = The number of this specific axle type
anticipated each year of operation (no.)
Ws = The specific axle weight being considered (kg) t = The design life of the hardstanding (years)

Table A1 provides the number of standard axles for some
typical axle weights. These can be used and then multiplied
for each specific axle being considered by the number of
axles of this type anticipated throughout the lifespan of the
hardstanding.
This process is then completed for all axle types on all
vehicle types such that the summation of VDFa1 + VDFa2
+ VDFa3 +…. for example, provides the total cumulative
number of standard axles for use in Table 8.1 to determine
the traffic class.

49
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

A2. METHOD 2
The vehicle type method
This more simplified method of obtaining the cumulative
VDF can be used where information on individual axle
These factors are applied to the static axle loads. Where
more than one condition exists then cumulative factors
should be applied.
Table A2 Equivalent standard axles for typical vehicle types

weights is not known. Equivalent

Gross standard
Table A2 provides the number of equivalent standard axles Vehicle vehicle axles
that each vehicle type would typically represent at full description weight for this
(tonnes) vehicle
payload. type (no.)

For each vehicle type the designer can then obtain the 6-axle articulated 44 5.15

cumulative vehicle damage factor from the following: 5-axle articulated 38 4.70

}
4-axle articulated 35 7.35

VDFv1 =
{ nev1 × na1 ×
1 × 10 6
3-axle articulated

Draw-bar
26

35
5.65

5.40

4-axle rigid 32 5.35

Where:
3-axle rigid 26 4.80
VDFa1 = The vehicle damage factor represented by the
total cumulative number of this specific axle 2-axle rigid 17 3.15
type (msa)
Van 5 0.02
nea1 = Number of equivalent standard axles
Car 2 0.0005
represented by one specific axle (no.)
na1 = The number of this specific axle type anticipated 5-tonne forklift 11 0.40
each year of operation (no.) 3-tonne forklift 7 0.07
t = The design life of the hardstanding (years)

This process is then completed for all axle types on all vehicle
A4. SHUNTING TRACTORS
types such that the summation of VDFv1 + VDFv2 + VDFv3 +…
for example, provides the total cumulative number of standard
axles for use in Table 8.1 to determine the traffic class.
A3. DYNAMIC FACTORS (UNUSUAL)
In some design methodologies a dynamic factor is applied
as a matter of course to the static axle weights in order
to account for the effects of accelerating, braking, surface
unevenness and sharp cornering. Such effects are more
common on hardstandings than on the public highway.
It is not uncommon for trailer units to be moved across
hardstandings using a dedicated vehicle called a ‘shunting
tractor’ (see Figure A1). These vehicles usually have only
two axles and for this reason the weight beneath the ‘fifth
wheel’, where the trailer connects to the shunter, will be
predominantly distributed to the hardstanding pavement
through only one axle. This differs from the situation that
otherwise occurs when the HGV tractor unit is coupled
to the trailer with potentially two axles beneath the fifth
wheel, thus sharing the load.

In general, it is considered that where trafficking is

unrestricted (i.e. un-channelled) the effective dispersion of
traffic such that any single area of the hardstanding only
receives a proportion of the total VDF, serves to counteract
the additional dynamic effects described above. This is
particularly so as such dynamic effects are unlikely to
coincide at the same hardstanding location every time.

One exception to this may be around gatehouse areas

where traffic tends to be channelled and subject to braking
and acceleration. If the designer considers that dynamic
factors should be applied in any specific areas then the
following factors are recommended:

• Braking +10% Figure A1 Typical shunting tractor (courtesy of Douglas Equipment)

• Acceleration +10%
Consequently, the loads on the rear axle of the shunting
• Cornering +30%
tractor could amount to 22 tonnes and should be accounted
• Uneven surface +20% for in the hardstanding design.

50
 APPENDIX B
Parameters adopted in thickness design

Parameters adopted in thickness design

In developing the simplified design Table 8.3 the following Table B2 Cross-sectional area of steel reinforcement
B
design parameters have been adopted.
Reinforcement class Cross sectional area of
steel reinforcement per
Foundation Surface Modulus metre width (mm2/m)
The Foundation Surface Modulus (FSM) assumed for
R0 0
each foundation class replicates the work carried out by
the Transport Research Laboratory in the development of R1 252
Report 630(12) for the UK Highways Agency. The values for R2 385
FSM are shown below in Table B1.
R3 503
Table B1 Surface Modulus R4 785

Foundation class FSM (MPa)

Fmin = Specified characteristic compressive strength
F2 100
above which 95% of test results will occur
F3 200
k = Probability factor taken as 1.64 [20]

Mean concrete compressive strength
The mean 28-day concrete compressive strengths assumed
for each concrete class as defined in RR87 [17] are shown
Table B3. These strengths are those to be achieved within
laboratory prepared site specimens as opposed to those within
the slab, and are based upon an assumed relationship:
Fm = Fmin + ks
Where:
Fm = Mean compressive strength
s = Standard deviation taken as 4 MPa for ‘fair to
good’ concrete control – refer ACI 214-77
(Re-approved 1989)
This relationship is often modified to account for the
strength loss through the addition of entrained air, but
conservatively no adjustment has been made which would
otherwise raise the target mean strength, given the specified
characteristic strength. Additionally strength gain beyond
28 days has been ignored, and effective increases in the
flexural to compressive strength ratio through the use of
crushed rock aggregates have not been taken into account.
Table B3 Mean concrete compressive strength

Minimum desirable thickness Concrete class Mean compressive

From experience and for reasons of practicality, the thicknesses
in Table 8.3 have been restricted to a minimum of 175 mm for
foundation class F2, and 150 mm for foundation class F3.
Cross-sectional area of steel reinforcement
The cross-sectional area of wire mesh reinforcement per
metre width, as defined in RR87, is shown in Table B2.
An anomaly of RR87 [17] is that when the equation for
reinforced pavements is used in conjunction with small
cross sectional areas of reinforcement then the analysis can
indicate the need for a thicker concrete slab than for an
equivalent unreinforced concrete slab. In order to address
this anomaly, where calculated thicknesses for class R1
exceed those for class R0, then the thickness proposed in
Table 8.3 is set at that required for class R0.
strength (MPa)
PAV1 42
PAV2 47
RC40/50XF 57
Designers should note that the strength of cores retrieved
from the pavement is generally lower than that of laboratory
cured cubes and cylinders. Even under excellent conditions
of placing and curing, the strength of cores taken from
the slab is unlikely to exceed 70 to 85% of the strength of
standard test specimens. Therefore, this factor should be
taken into account when comparing cores retrieved from
the slab against specified strengths.

51
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

C Design example 1
A new distribution development requires a hardstanding of
20,000m2 to accommodate an average of 300 fully laden
heavy goods vehicles per day (150 in and 150 out).
The operator will be using two types of HGV:
• 70% 5-axle articulated vehicles
• 30% 6-axle articulated vehicles
The individual axle weights for each vehicle are not known.
The developer requires a minimum design life of 20 years.
The facility will operate 6 days per week, 52 weeks per
year. Ground conditions are known to be silty clay with a
plasticity index averaging at 30. Table 4.2 indicates that the
worst-case equilibrium CBR can be taken as 3%.
From Table A2 the daily traffic can be equated to a total
number of equivalent standard axles:
Main circulation area including loading/unloading
area
5-axle articulated vehicles
300 x 70% x 4.70 = 987 esa/day
6-axle articulated vehicles
300 x 30% x 5.15 = 464 esa/day
Total daily equivalent standard axles in the main circulation
areas is therefore –
987 + 464 = 1451 esa/day
Total Design Traffic
1451 esa/d x 6d x 52w x 20yrs = 9.05 msa
From Table 8.1 this level of trafficking will equate to
Traffic Class T2 in all areas. In order to provide a suitable
construction platform, it is elected to use an unbound
foundation, comprising only granular subbase material. This
represents a Foundation Class F2 (option 1). The design
subgrade surface modulus is estimated from CBR using the
following equation: E = 17.6 (CBR) 0.64 MPa = 35MPa. It is
elected to adopt a C32/40 (PAV2) concrete class, reinforced
with A393 mesh reinforcement (Reinforcement Class R2).
Final design is therefore:
200 mm C32/40 (PAV2) slab (A393 reinforcement)
370 mm unbound Type 1 subbase
Assuming the use of gravel aggregates, the maximum joint
spacing based on A393 mesh providing 3.08 kg/m2 steel
in the longitudinal direction is 4.5 m (Table 9.1) x 17 m
(Figure 9.1).
Embodied Carbon Calculation for the Hardstanding
area:
Following the guidance in section 12 of this document,
an estimation for total embodied carbon of the new
hardstanding can be carried out. It is important to note
that this is a simplified approach and does not accurately
consider the impact of joint spacing or joint type (including
size and spacing of dowels or tie bars) within the calculation,
but rather the two main elements that contribute to
total embodied carbon – the concrete and steel mesh
reinforcement.
Using the equation below we can calculate the embodied
carbon:
eCO2 = t (CC + 58 + 72) + CR
Where t is the slab thickness from Table 8.3 and CC and CR
are obtained from Tables 3 and 4 in section 12 respectively.
The factors 58 and 72 kg/m2 are allowance for transport,
batching and placing based on the inputs given in Table 1
of section 12 and using 2400 kg/m3 for concrete density.
eCO2 = 0.2 (266 + 58 + 72) + 2.8
eCO2 = 82 kg/m2
Total eCO2 for the new 20,000m2 concrete hardstanding is
1,640,000 kg/m2

Special measures to reduce edge stresses will not be

introduced. The pavement thickness can therefore be
taken from Table 8.3. This indicates that the concrete slab
thickness must be at least 200mm.

Remember, if the design slab thickness is less than 200mm,

a separate calculation should be carried out to determine
the level of punching shear within the slab and the need for
any localised slab thickening, or additional reinforcement,
to accommodate these increased shear stresses. Refer to
section 8.7 for more details.

52
 APPENDIX C
Design Examples

Design example 2 -
Alternative Design Method
The example below was derived using PavementDesigner.
org as the software to calculate the concrete slab thickness.
It is to be known that this design method of construction is
unreinforced (no mid-panel reinforcement required).
A new distribution development requires a hardstanding of
20,000m2 to accommodate an average of 300 fully laden
heavy goods vehicles per day (150 in and 150 out).
The operator will be using two types of HGV:
• 70% 5-axle articulated vehicles
• 30% 6-axle articulated vehicles
The individual axle weights for each vehicle are not known.
The developer requires a minimum design life of 20 years.
The facility will operate 6 days per week, 52 weeks per
year. Ground conditions are known to be silty clay with a
plasticity index averaging at 30. Table 4.2 indicates that the
worst-case equilibrium CBR can be taken as 3%.
From Table A2 the daily traffic can be equated to a total
number of equivalent standard axles:
Special measures to reduce edge stresses will not be
C
introduced. The pavement thickness can therefore be
taken from Table 8.3. This indicates that the concrete
slab thickness must be at least 200mm. Remember, if
the design slab thickness is less than 200mm, a separate
calculation should be carried out to determine the level
of punching shear within the slab and the need for any
localised slab thickening or additional reinforcement in
order to accommodate these increased shear stresses. Refer
to Section 8.7 for more details.
Project Information:
• Project Level:
Traffic (Custom Traffic Spectrum):
Assumed Axle Configuration and Loads:
5-axle Vehicle:
Single Axle:
– 80kN
– 105kN

Main circulation area including loading/unloading Tridem Axle:

area – 240kN
5-axle articulated vehicles 6-axle Vehicle
300 x 70% x 4.70 = 987 esa/day
Single Axle:
6-axle articulated vehicles
– 80kN
300 x 30% x 5.15 = 464 esa/day
Tandem Axle:
Total daily equivalent standard axles in the main circulation
– 185kN
areas is therefore –

987 + 464 = 1451 esa/day Tridem Axle:

– 240kN
Total Design Traffic
1451 esa/d x 6d x 52w x 20yrs = 9.05 msa

From Table 8.1 this level of trafficking will equate to Traffic

Class T2 in all areas.

In order to provide a suitable construction platform, it is

elected to use an unbound foundation comprising only Design Life – 20 years
granular subbase material. This represents a Foundation Trucks/Day: 300 Trucks (70% 5 axle & 30% 6-axle)
Class F2 (option 1). Traffic Growth Rate: 0%
Directional Distribution: 100%
The design subgrade surface modulus is estimated from Design Lane Distribution: 100%
CBR using the following equation:
Global:
E = 17.6 (CBR) 0.64 MPa =35MPa
Reliability: 85%
From Figure 6.1 the recommended thickness, given a 35MPa % of slabs cracked at the end of design life: 10%
subgrade surface modulus is 370mm unbound granular
material type 1. It is elected to adopt a C32/40 (PAV2) • Pavement Structure:
concrete class reinforced with A393 mesh reinforcement Subgrade:
(Reinforcement Class R2). CBR – 3%

53
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

Concrete:
Compressive Strength
Pav 2 C32/40

Structure:
Subbase Layers: 1

Granular Base Resilient Modulus: 150MPa

Thickness: 370mm

Calculated Composite K-Value of Sub-Structure:

83.2 MPa/m

Final design is therefore:

– *180 mm C32/40 (PAV2) slab

– 370 mm unbound Type 1 subbase
– Joint Spacing: (24 x Slab thickness 180) = 4.3m x 4.3m
– Unreinforced Concrete Slab

Assuming all joints are reinforced with dowels for mechanical

load transfer. Joint capacity should be checked based on the
type of dowel used. See TR34 section 6.5.

Embodied Carbon
Embodied Carbon Calculation for the Hardstanding area:

Following the guidance in section 12 of this document,

an estimation for total embodied carbon of the new
hardstanding can be carried out. It is important to note
that this is a simplified approach and does not accurately
consider the impact of joint spacing or joint type (including
size and spacing of dowels or tie bars) within the calculation,
but rather the two main elements that contribute to
total embodied carbon – the concrete and steel mesh
reinforcement.

Using the equation below we can calculate the embodied

carbon:

eCO2 = t (CC + 58 + 72) + CR

Where t is the slab thickness from Table 8.3 and CC and CR

are obtained from Tables 3 and 4 in section 12 respectively.
The factors 58 and 72 kg/m2 are allowance for transport,
batching and placing based on the inputs given in Table 1
of section 12 and using 2400 kg/m3 for concrete density.

eCO2 = 0.2 (266 + 58 +72) +2.8

eCo2 82 kg/m2

Total eCO2 for the new 20,000m2 concrete hardstanding

is 1,640,000 kg/m2

54
 APPENDIX D
Parameters adopted in thickness design

Calculating joint spacing for plain

concrete pavements on bound subbase
Rigid pavements supported on bound subbase are subject
D
to higher warping and curling stresses than those supported
on unbound foundations.

When designing a rigid pavement supported on a bound

subbase the following procedure taken from reference 25
is recommended to determine joint spacing. Joint spacing
should be a function of the radius of relative stiffness of
the slab. The joint spacing should be selected such that the
ratio of the joint spacing to the radius of relative stiffness is
between 4 and 6. The radius of relative stiffness is defined by
Westergaard as the stiffness of the slab relative to the stiffness
of the foundation. It is determined by the following formula:

{ E×h3
}
0.25
l=
12 × (1 – u 2) × k

Where:
l = the radius of relative stiffness (in.)
E = mean modulus of elasticity of the concrete, usually
4 million psi (psi)
h = slab thickness (in.)
u = Poisson’s ratio for concrete, usually 0.15
k = modulus of subgrade reaction (pci)

The radius of relative stiffness has the dimension of length

and when calculated in accordance with the above, the units
of l are inches.

The above procedure produces suggested bay lengths that

can reasonably be increased by 20% where it is known that
only limestone coarse aggregates will be used within the
concrete mix.

55
 Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K

13 1.
Further reading
AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI). ACI 214-77 (re-approved 1989) – ACI manual of concrete practice, Part 2: Construction
practices and inspection pavements. ACI, 1998.
2. AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE. Guide to design of slab on-ground – PRC-360-10. ACI, 2010.
3. AMERICAN CONCRETE PAVEMENT ASSOCIATION. Concrete paving technology – Design and construction of joints for concrete
streets. ACPA, 1991.
4. AMERICAN CONCRETE PAVEMENT ASSOCIATION. Subgrades and sub-bases for concrete pavements, Engineering Bulletin
EB2049, 2007
5. BAMFORD, P. Control of cracking cause by restrained deformation in concrete. Report C766. CIRIA, 2018
6. BRITISH CEMENT ASSOCIATION. Fast track concrete paving. BCA, 1995.
7. BRITPAVE. Cement and other hydraulically bound mixtures – The European Standard BS EN 14227, Parts 1 – 5. Britpave, 2005.
8. BRITPAVE. Soil improvement and soil stabilisation: definitive industry guidance. Britpave, 2019.
9. BRITPAVE. Concreting pavements in winter. Britpave, 2003.
10. BRITPAVE. Guide to roller compacted concrete. Britpave, 2022.
11. BRITPAVE and HIGHWAYS ENGLAND. Concrete pavements maintenance manual. Highways England, 2021.
12. BS 8500-1:2006 Concrete - Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1. Method of specifying and guidance for the specifier
(+A1:2012) (incorporating corrigendum No. 1) (No longer current but cited in Building Regulations guidance).
13. CEMENT AND CONCRETE ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA. Guide to residential streets and paths. C&CAA, 2004.
14. CONCRETE SOCIETY. Technical Report 24, Design of paved areas for industrial usage. Slough, Berkshire, C&CA, 1983.
15. CONCRETE SOCIETY. Technical Report 66, External in-situ concrete paving. Concrete Society, 2009.
16. DEPARTMENT FOR TRANSPORT. Manual of contract documents for highway works, Volume 1 – Specification for Highway Works.
HMSO, 2021.
17. DEPARTMENT FOR TRANSPORT. Design manual for roads and bridges, CD 225 Design for new pavement foundations, 2020,
(formerly IAN 73/06 revision 1 (2009), HD 25/94).
18. FLOWER, D. and SANJAYAN, J. Greenhouse gas emissions due to concrete manufacture. Chapter 1 of Nazari, A. and Sanjayan,
J. (eds) Handbook of low carbon concrete. Elsevier, 2017.
19. FREIGHT TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION. Designing for deliveries. FTA, 2016.
20. GEORGOPOULOS, C. and MINSON, A. Sustainable concrete solutions. Wiley, 2014
21. HARRINGTON, D., ABDO, F., ADASKA, W, HAZAREE, C and CEYLAN, H. Guide for roller-compacted concrete pavements. Institute
for Transportation, 2010.
22. HASSAN, K.E., CHANDLER, J.W.E., HARDING, H.M. and DUDGEON, R.P. TRL 630 – New continuously reinforced concrete
pavement designs. TRL, 2005.
23. INTERPAVE. The structural design of heavy duty pavements for ports and other industries. Interpave, 2008.
24. KNAPTON, J, In-situ concrete industrial hardstandings. Thomas Telford Ltd, 1999.
25. KNAPTON, J. and MELETIOU, M. The structural design of heavy duty pavements for ports and other industries. British Ports
Association, 2008.
26. MAYHEW, H.C. and HARDING, H. M. Thickness design of concrete roads. Technical Report 87, TRL, 1987.
27. NEVILLE, A.M and BROOKS, J.J. Concrete technology. Pearson Educational Ltd, 2002.
28. NUNN, M. Development of a more versatile approach to flexible and flexible-composite pavement design, TRL report 615. TRL,
2004.
29. ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY. Road Note 29 – A guide to the structural design of pavements for new roads. HMSO, 1970.
30. US DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT – FEDERAL AVIATION AUTHORITY. Airport pavement design and evaluation – Advisory Circular
(150/5320-6D). FAA, 2021.
56
Notes

57
Concrete Hardstanding
DE S I G N H AND B OOK

The British Cementitious Paving Association

Britpave
Easthampstead Park, Off Peacock Lane,
Wokingham, Berkshire RG40 3DF

Tel +44 (0)118 4028915

www.britpave.org.uk