FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING AND SURVEYING

DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING SCIENCES AND GEOMATICS

DEGREE IN GEOMATIC SCIENCE (AP220)

GLS 558 - ADVANCED ENGINEERING SURVEY

ASSIGNMENT 2

GROUP CLASS :

RAP2204A

PREPARED FOR :

SR. ZAKI BIN AHMAD DAHLAN

PREPARED BY :

NUR ALYA NASUHA BINTI AZIZAN

2019416416

SUBMISSION DATE :

7TH JULY 2021

QUESTION 1

With relevant illustration discuss the influencing factors in choosing the

maximum superelevation during the road design phase.

The maximum superelevation rate suitable for curve design should be that rate
necessary to ensure that the side friction demand of the majority of drivers is not
excessively small. The intent of this control is to minimize the portion of drivers that
would have a side friction demand less than zero because of a combination of slow
speed, large superelevation rate, or both. The problem associated with a negative side
friction demand is that it requires drivers to steer in the opposite direction of of the curve
which is logically unsafe.

There are several factors which are :

1) Fill widening

Fill widening is one of the factors factor which modifies the subgrade or template width
independent of traveled road width or ballast depth. Fill widening should be considered
in cases where fills cannot be compacted with proper equipment and where no
compaction control is performed. Cut slopes are inherently more stable than fill slopes.
The road designer should try to minimize fill slope length by "pushing the alignment into
the hill side in order to minimize erosion. Typically this will result in longer cut slopes and
add slight to moderate cuts at the center line. The result will be a moderate fill slope with
no additional fill widening required.

Figure 5.1 : Fill widening added to standard subgrade width where fill height at centerline
or shoulder exceeds a critical height. Especially important if sidecast construction
instead of layer construction is used
2) Vertical alignment

Vertical Alignment is often the limiting factor in road design for most forest roads.
Frequently grades or tag lines are run at or near the maximum permissible grade.
Maximum grades are determined by either vehicle configuration or erosive conditions
such as soil or precipitation patterns. Vertical curves or grade changes, like horizontal
curves, require proper consideration to minimize earthwork, cost, and erosion damage.
Proper evaluation requires an analysis of vertical curve requirements based on traffic
characteristics (flow and safety), vehicle geometry, and algebraic difference of intersecting
grades. Vertical curves provide the transition between an incoming grade and an outgoing
grade. For convenience in design, a parabolic curve is used because the grade change is
proportional to the horizontal distance. The grade change is the difference between
incoming grade and outgoing grade. The shorter the vertical curve can be kept, the
smaller the earthwork required.

Figure 3.1 : Vertical curve elements

3) Road Prism Stability (Safety)

Stability considerations as applied to natural slopes are also valid for stability analysis of
road cuts and fills. Points to consider includes :

- Critical height of cut slope or fill slope

- Critical piezometric level in a slope or road fill

- Critical cut slope and fill slope angle.

The most common road fill or side cast failure mode is a translational slope failure.
Translational slope failure is characterized by a planar failure surface parallel to the
ground or slope. Depth to length ratio of slides are typically very small.

Fill slope failure can occur in two typical modes :

- Shallow sloughing at the outside margins of a fill is an example of limited slope

failure which contributes significantly to erosion and sedimentation

- Sliding of the entire fill along a contact plane which can be the original slope
surface or may include some additional soil layers. It results from lack of proper fill
compaction and/or building on too steep a side slope.

Slope or fill failure is caused when forces causing or promoting failure exceed forces
resisting failure (cohesion, friction, etc.). The risk of failure is expressed through the factor
of safety. Road fills are usually built under dry conditions. The fill slope, hence, has a
factor of safety of one or just slightly larger than one. Any change in conditions, such as
added weight on the fill or moisture increase, will lower the factor of safety, and the fill
slope will fail. It is clear that the factor of safety must be calculated from "worst case"
conditions and not from conditions present at the time of construction.

Figure 3.1 : Translational fill failure

4) Road Prism Selection

In the planning, basic questions such as road uses, traffic volume requirements and road
standards have been decided. The road standard selected in the planning stage defines
the required travel width of the road surface. The road design process uses the travel
width as a departure point from which the necessary subgrade width is derived. The road
design process which deals with fitting a road template into the topography uses the
subgrade width for cut and fill calculations. Therefore, ditch and ballast requirements need
to be defined for a given road segment in order to arrive at the proper subgrade width or
template to be used.

Figure 4.1 : Interaction of subgrade dimension, roadwidth, ballast depth, ditch width and fill
widening.
5) Lane Width

Lane width has an influence on the safety and comfort of the driver. The width of the travel
lanes is influenced by the physical dimensions of cars and trucks speeds, type of highway,
and type of vehicle. Studies have shown that drivers tend to be more comfortable traveling
at higher speeds on roads with wider lanes. The normal range of design lane width is
between 9 rt (2.7 m) and 12 ft (3.6 m).

Wider lane widths are typically associated with higher speed roadways such as freeways,
arterials in suburban areas and two-lane rural arterial and collector highways. As speed
and volumes increase, additional lane width is desirable to accommodate the variations in
lateral placement of the vehicle within the lane. Greater lane widths also better
accommodate wider vehicles in the traffic stream, such as trucks, buses, and recreational
vehicles. Wider lane widths also margjnally increase the capacity of the roadway.

In urban areas and along rural routes that pass through urban settings, narrower lane
widths may be appropriate. For such locations , space is limited and lower speeds may be
desired. Narrower lane widths for urban streets lessen pedestrian crossing distances,
enable the provision for on- street parking and transit stops, and enable the development
of left-turn lanes for safety. Lesser widths also tend to encourage lower speeds, an
outcome that may be desirable 10 urban areas. In considering the use of narrower lanes,
however. designers should recognize that narrow travel lanes reduce vehicle separation
from other vehicles and from bicyclists.

6) Transition Areas

This happens where a highway is transitioning from a predominantly rural environment to

an urban environment, travel speeds in the transition area within the urban environment
may be higher than the urban design speed.

7) Downgrades

This happens where a horizontal curve is located at the bottom of a downgrade, travel
speeds at the curve may be higher than the overall project design speed. As suggested
adjustments, the design speed used for the horizontal curve may be 10 km/h (3% - 5%
downgrades) or 20 km/h (>5% downgrades) higher than the project design speed. This
adjustment may be more appropriate for divided facilities than for 2-lane, 2-way highway.
QUESTION 2

With the aid of a diagrams explain the following phrases.

1) The maximum depth penetration and the smallest target detectable relating to
wavelength transmit by a GPR.

The figure above illustrates data from an investigation to determine the position, depth
and, if possible size, of rebars within concrete slabs forming the floors and ceilings of
a modular built block of flats. This is to determine the original reinforcement plan for
each flat so that structural engineers could determine whether the building could
withstand the force of a gas explosion or not. All four sides of each slab were
surveyed in both normal polarisation and cross-polarisation. These data were used to
plot the depth and location information.

The ratio of peak signal amplitude measured in cross polarisation divided by the peak
signal amplitude measured in normal polarisation was used as an estimated measure
of bar diameter and the results test checked by excavation. There were a number of
complications in the diameter measurement notably the influence of adjacent rebars
including those lying orthogonally to the ones being measured; the inconsistency of
rebar spacing; an unusually wide variety of rebar construction which included twists
and flanges and also the position of ties. Some of these issues could be compensated
for, for example, by positioning the survey line equidistantly between the orthogonal
rebars or by using raw data rather than processed to measure the signal amplitudes.
2) The minimum target separation between two object is required for them to be
displayed as two separate objects.

Figure above shows an internal wave is extremely clear with the fine lower resolution
of 25 m as compared to 30-m and 100-m resolution. Spatial resolution is the keystone
to determining a physical object’s characteristics imaged in radar sensors. In this
context, it is known as the potential of radar sensor to identify the close range
between two objects as separate points. For instance, if a certain radar system is
capable of discriminating two closely spaced internal wave crests as separate objects,
a lower resolution system may only show one internal wave crest.

The spatial resolution of optical instruments is mainly controlled by distance to target

and the Instantaneous Field of View (IFOV), the smallest area on the ground that can
be imaged. The spatial resolution of a SAR system is far more complex. In a simplistic
form, the resolution across-track is mainly controlled by the effective pulse duration,
whereas the resolution along-track is generated using a clever engineering trick.

Using the forward motion of the sensor, a simulated antenna is calculated as targets
that are illuminated several times and will return a signal at different frequencies due
to the Doppler effect. It suffices to say that SAR spatial resolutions are non-trivial and
a potential user should get additional information prior to use. The radiometric or
spectral resolution is the ability of a sensor to detect subtle energy variations at a
given wavelength or spectral band. This resolution is also affected by the quantization
of data on the storage device. The temporal resolution is usually just the revisit period,
but some platforms allow sensors to be oriented, which may increase acquisition rates
over a particular area.
3) The cause of reflection for GPR waves in contact with subsurface material or
objects to receiver and slight change of direction after reflection.

The seismic reflection method and ground-penetrating radar (GPR) are important
geophysical reconnaissance tools for the shallow subsurface. Both techniques are
based on wave propagation and reflection, but wave length ranges, and consequently
resolution and penetration depths, differ significantly. Seismic refraction is a reliable
method for shallow subsurface analysis because seismic waves offer excellent
penetration depth and resolution.

Geologic materials with low dielectric constants allow GPR to pass through
unimpeded, and those with high dielectric constants can attenuate or block the signal
entirely. Large contrast in this property creates strong reflections. While this is the
primary way of identifying subsurface features, it also serves to reduce signal
strength. Objects with dimensions similar to the signal’s wavelength provide no
common planar surface against which the wave can reflect, and cause attenuation
known as Mei scattering, sending reflections in multiple directions resulting in a noisy
radar image. The wavelength is the product of the pulse period of the antennas and
the velocity of the medium. The electric properties of a material also influence wave
attenuation. Materials with high conductivity such as clay absorb wave energy and
increase signal attenuation, prohibiting further penetration.