The Mathematical Constant e: Its

Discovery, Properties, and Applications

Abstract
The mathematical constant e, approximately equal to 2.71828, is fundamental in various fields of
mathematics and science. This paper explores the discovery, properties, and broad applications of e
. We examine its critical role in exponential functions, natural logarithms, and their use in solving
practical problems such as compound interest, population growth, and radioactive decay. Through
historical context and mathematical examples, we illustrate how e simplifies complex calculations,
making it an indispensable tool in both theoretical and applied mathematics.

Introduction
The number e is one of the most important constants in mathematics, known for its unique
properties and widespread applications. Discovered through the study of logarithms and
compound interest, e serves as the base of natural logarithms and underpins exponential functions.
Its applications span various domains, including calculus, finance, biology, and physics. This paper
delves into the history of e, its mathematical properties, and practical uses, highlighting how it
simplifies complex mathematical problems.

Historical Context and Discovery

The journey to the discovery of e began in the 17th century with the work of John Napier on
logarithms and Jacob Bernoulli's study of compound interest. Napier's logarithms aimed to simplify
n
calculations, while Bernoulli discovered the expression (1 + 1n ) as n approaches infinity, which led
​

to the concept of continuous compounding. Leonhard Euler later formalized e, defining it through
an infinite series and exploring its properties extensively.

Properties of e
The number e can be defined in several ways, each highlighting its unique characteristics:

1. Limit Definition:
n
1
e = lim (1 +
​ ) ​

n→∞ n

2. Series Expansion:
∞
1
e= ∑ ​ ​

n=0
n!

3. Exponential Function:
 ∞
xn
ex = ∑ ​ ​

n!
n=0

This function is unique as it is its own derivative:

d x
e = ex
​

dx
4. Natural Logarithm:
The natural logarithm, ln(x), is the inverse function of ex :

ln(x) = y if and only if ey = x

Computation of e for Approximations

To show the computation that leads to the approximation of e ≈ 2.71828, we can use the
definition of e and compute it for increasingly large values of n:

Limit Definition Leading to e

n
e = limn→∞ (1 + 1n ) ​ ​

n
Let's compute (1 + 1n ) for several values of n to see how it approaches e:
​

Example Table: Limit Definition Leading to e

n
n (1 + 1n ) ​ Approximation of e

1 2 2
2
2 (1.5) = 2.25 2.25
5
5 (1.2) = 2.48832 2.48832

10 (1.1)10 ≈ 2.59374 2.59374

1 ​ 100
100 (1 + 100
) ≈ 2.70481 2.70481
1 ​ 1000
1000 (1 + 1000
) ≈ 2.71692 2.71692
1 ​ 10000
10000 (1 + 10000 ) ≈ 2.71815 2.71815
1 ​ 100000
100000 (1 + 100000
) ≈ 2.71827 2.71827
1 1000000
1000000 (1 + ​) ≈ 2.71828 2.71828
1000000

n
As n increases, the value of (1 + 1n ) gets closer to e. ​

In summary:
n
(1 + 1n ) approaches 2.71828 as n approaches infinity
​

This shows the computation and how it leads to the well-known value of e ≈ 2.71828.

Series Expansion Leading to e

The series expansion for e is given by:
∞ 1​
e = ∑n=0 ​
n!
Computing the first few terms:

Term Value
1​
0! 1
1​
1! 1
1​
2! 0.5
1​
3! 0.1667
1​
4! 0.0417
1​
5! 0.0083

Summing these terms:

e ≈ 1 + 1 + 0.5 + 0.1667 + 0.0417 + 0.0083 = 2.7187

Exponential Function Leading to e

The exponential function ex is given by:

xn ​
ex = ∑∞n=0 ​
n!

Computing for x = 1:

Term Value
10 ​
0!
1
11 ​
1!
1
12 ​
2!
0.5
3
1 ​
3!
0.1667
14 ​
4!
0.0417
15 ​
5!
0.0083

Summing these terms:

e ≈ 1 + 1 + 0.5 + 0.1667 + 0.0417 + 0.0083 = 2.7187

Practical Applications
Exponential Growth and Decay
In scenarios involving continuous growth or decay, the exponential function ex simplifies the
modeling process. For instance:

1. Compound Interest:

A = P ert

where A is the amount, P is the principal, r is the interest rate, and t is time. Without e,
modeling compound interest requires complex calculations and limits as the number of
compounding periods approaches infinity:
 r nt
A = P (1 + ​)
n
Using e, this simplifies directly to A = P ert , making it easier to calculate continuous compound
interest.

2. Population Growth:

P (t) = P0 ert ​

describes a population growing at a constant rate r . Without e, discrete growth models require
solving for population at each time step, which can be cumbersome:

r nt
P (t) = P0 (1 +
​
) ​

n
Using e, continuous growth is straightforwardly modeled, providing a clear and direct formula.

3. Radioactive Decay:

N (t) = N0 e−λt​

where N (t) is the remaining quantity of a substance after time t with a decay constant λ.
Without e, modeling decay requires complex algebraic manipulation and limit processes:

nt
λ
N (t) = N0 (1 −
​ ​)
n

Using e, the decay model becomes much simpler and more intuitive.

Logarithms and Their Applications

The natural logarithm ln(x) is the inverse of the exponential function, playing a crucial role in
various calculations. It transforms multiplicative processes into additive ones, simplifying problem-
solving.

Example Table: Logarithmic Properties

Property Equation Description

Logarithm of a Product ln(ab) = ln(a) + ln(b) Logarithm of a product is the sum of logarithms

Logarithm of a Quotient ln ( ab ) = ln(a) − ln(b)

​
Logarithm of a quotient is the difference of logarithms

Logarithm of a Power ln(ab ) = b ln(a) Logarithm of a power is the exponent times the logarithm

Calculus and Differential Equations

The properties of e are essential in solving differential equations and performing calculus
operations. The function ex simplifies integration and differentiation processes, making it a
powerful tool in mathematical analysis.

Example Table: Exponential Growth and Decay Models

Application Equation Description
rt
Compound Interest A = Pe Amount A after time t at rate r
rt
Population Growth P (t) = P0 e Population P after time t at rate r
−λt
Radioactive Decay N (t) = N0 e ​
Remaining quantity N after time t at decay constant λ

Applications of e in Medicine and Biology

The mathematical constant e is widely used in various fields, including medicine and biology. It
simplifies complex models and calculations involving growth rates, decay processes, and
probabilistic events. Here is a table summarizing the applications of e in these fields:

Application Equation Description

Pharmacokinetics C(t) = Describes the concentration C(t) of a drug in the bloodstream

C0 e−λt
​
over time, where C0 ​ is the initial concentration and λ is the
elimination rate constant.

Bacterial Growth N (t) = N0 ert ​

Models the exponential growth of bacterial populations, where N0 ​
is the initial population size and r is the growth rate.

Radioactive Decay in N (t) = Describes the decay of radioactive tracers used in imaging
Medical Imaging N0 e−λt
​
techniques such as PET scans, where N0 ​ is the initial quantity and λ
is the decay constant.

Survival Analysis S(t) = e−λt Represents the survival function in survival analysis, indicating the
probability of survival beyond time t, with λ being the hazard rate.
rt
Epidemiology I(t) = I0 e ​
Models the spread of infectious diseases, where I0 ​ is the initial
number of infections and r is the transmission rate.
Vmax ​⋅[S]
Enzyme Kinetics v= Km ​+[S]
​ While not explicitly using e, the behavior of enzyme kinetics often
(Michaelis-Menten) involves exponential terms in reaction rates.

Oxygen Saturation in O2 (t) =

​
Describes the dissociation of oxygen from hemoglobin over time,
Hemoglobin O2 (0)e−λt
​
where O2 ​(0) is the initial oxygen concentration and λ is the
dissociation rate constant.

Cell Growth and N (t) = Models cell populations considering both growth (rate ra ​) and
N0 e(ra −rd )t
​ ​

Apoptosis ​
death (rate rd ​).

Drug Absorption and C(t) = Describes the concentration C(t) of a drug in the body, where D
D −λt
Distribution Vd
e ​
is the dose, V d is the volume of distribution, and λ is the
elimination rate constant.

Blood Flow and F (t) = Models blood flow changes over time, where F0 ​ is the initial flow
Cardiovascular Models F0 e−αt
​
rate and α is a rate constant.

Time Constants in Medicine and Biology

The time constant is a crucial concept in medicine and biology, often used to describe the rate at
which a system responds to changes. It is defined as the time it takes for a system to reach
approximately 63% of its final value after a change. The time constant (τ ) is used in various
applications, many of which involve the exponential function e.
Application Equation Description

Drug Elimination C(t) = Describes how quickly a drug is eliminated from the body, where τ is
t
C0 e− τ
​
​

the elimination time constant.

Neural Response V (t) = Models the membrane potential decay in neurons, where τ is the
t
V0 e− τ
​
​

membrane time constant.

Muscle Fatigue F (t) = Describes the recovery of muscle force after fatigue, where τ is the
t
Recovery F0 e− τ
​
​

recovery time constant.

Ventilation and P (t) = Models the decay of pressure in the lungs, where τ is the lung time
t
Respiratory Mechanics P0 e− τ
​
​

constant.

Glucose-Insulin G(t) = Describes the rate at which glucose levels change in response to
t
Dynamics G0 e − τ
​
​

insulin, where τ is the time constant for glucose-insulin interaction.

Simplifying Complex Calculations with e

Context
The mathematical constant e plays a crucial role in simplifying the computation of various growth
and decay processes. This section provides proofs and examples demonstrating how e simplifies
the transition from discrete to continuous models and the solutions of differential equations. By
understanding these proofs and computations, we can appreciate the elegance and efficiency that
e brings to mathematical problem-solving.
nt
Proof that A = P (1 + nr ) Approaches A = P ert as n Approaches Infinity
​

r ​ nt
To show that (1 + n ) approaches ert as n approaches infinity, we can use the definition of the
exponential function and some properties of limits. Here's a step-by-step outline of the proof:

1. Rewrite the expression using properties of exponents:

r nt
(1 + ) ​

n
2. Recall the definition of e:

k
1
e = lim (1 +
​ ) ​

k→∞ k

3. Set k = nr :​

n
If we set k = , then n = kr, and we can rewrite the original expression:
​

k⋅rt kt
r nt 1 1
(1 + ​) = (1 + ) ​ = (1 + ​)
n k k

4. Apply the limit:

Since k → ∞ as n → ∞, we use the definition of e :

 k
1
lim (1 +
​ ) =e​

k→∞ k

5. Combine the results:

k t
r nt 1
lim (1 +
​ ) = ( lim (1 + ) ) = ert
​ ​ ​

n→∞ n k→∞ k

Therefore, we have shown that:

r nt
(1 + ) → ert as n → ∞
​

n
r ​ nt
This completes the proof that (1 + n ) approaches ert as n approaches infinity.

Additional Proofs and Computations

1. Exponential Series Expansion:

The series expansion for ex is given by:

∞
xn
ex = ∑ ​ ​

n=0
n!

For example, to compute e2 using the series expansion:

22 23 24
e2 = 1 + 2 + ​+ + +⋯ ​ ​

2! 3! 4!
Approximating up to the first five terms:

8 16
e2 ≈ 1 + 2 + 2 + +
​ = 1 + 2 + 2 + 1.333 + 0.667 = 7
​

6 24
2. Natural Logarithm Calculation:
To compute the natural logarithm of a number, say ln(7), we use the inverse relationship with
the exponential function:

ln(7) = y if and only if ey = 7

Using iterative methods or numerical approximation, we find:

ln(7) ≈ 1.945910

3. Solving Differential Equations:

dy
Consider the differential equation dt ​ = 3y . The solution without e involves:

1
∫ dy = ∫ 3 dt
​

This yields:
 ln ∣y∣ = 3t + C

Exponentiating both sides:

∣y∣ = e3t+C = eC e3t

Letting eC = y0 , we have:
​

y(t) = y0 e3t
​

Using e directly simplifies this process.

Other Examples

1. Radioactive Decay:
Consider the decay of a radioactive substance. Without e, the discrete model is:

nt
λ
N (t) = N0 (1 −
​ ​)
n

As n approaches infinity, this simplifies using e to:

N (t) = N0 e−λt ​

2. Population Growth:
For a population growing at a rate r , the discrete growth model is:

r nt
P (t) = P0 (1 +
​ ​)
n
As n approaches infinity, this simplifies using e to:

P (t) = P0 ert ​

Conclusion
The mathematical constant e is integral to various mathematical and scientific disciplines. Its unique
properties simplify the modeling and solving of complex problems, particularly in exponential
growth, decay, and calculus. The discovery and formalization of e have profoundly impacted
mathematical theory and applications, making it a fundamental constant in both pure and applied
mathematics.

References
1. Maor, Eli. "e: The Story of a Number." Princeton University Press, 1994.
2. Euler, Leonhard. "Introduction to Analysis of the Infinite." Springer, 1988 (originally published in
1748).
3. Stewart, James. "Calculus: Early Transcendentals." Cengage Learning, 2015.
4. Napier, John. "Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio." 1614.
5. Bernoulli, Jacob. "Ars Conjectandi." 1713.