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 ....

COMPETENCIES FOR ANALYSIS

AND APPLICATIONS
TWELFTH
EDITION

differences in research designs and to understand
more fully how the nature of the research ques-
tion influences the selection of a research design.
Part II, Research Designs, includes description
and discussion of different quantitative research
designs, qualitative research designs, mixed meth-
ods research designs, and action research designs.
Part III, Working with Quantitative and Qualitative
Data, includes two chapters devoted to the statisti-
cal approaches and the analysis and interpretation
of quantitative data, and two chapters describ-
ing the collection, analysis, and interpretation of
qualitative data. Part IV, Reporting and Critiquing
Research, focuses on helping the student prepare
a research report, either for the completion of a
degree requ irement or for publication in a refer-
eed journal, and an opportunity for the student to
apply the skills and knowledge acqu ired in Parts I
through III to critique a research report.
Strategy
This text represents more than just a textbook to
be incorporated into a course; it is a total instruc-
tional system that includes stated learning out-
comes, instruction, and procedures for evaluating
each outcome. The instructional strategy of the
system emphasizes the demonstration of skills and
individualization \vithin this structure. Each chap-
ter begins with a list of learning outcomes that
describes the knowledge and skills that the student
should gain from the chapter. In many instances,
learning outcomes may be assessed either as writ-
ten exercises submitted by students or by tests,
whichever the instructor prefers. In most chapters,
a task to be performed is described next. Tasks
require students to demonstrate that they can per-
form particular research skills. Because each stu-
dent works with a different research problem, each
student demonstrates the competency requ ired by
a task as it applies to h is or her o,vn problem. \Vith
the exception of Chapter 1, an individual chapter
is directed toward the atta inment of only one task
(occasionally, students have a choice be~veen a
quantitative and qualitative task).
Text discussion is intended to be as simple and
straightfor,vard as possible. Whenever feasible, pro-
cedures are presented as a series of steps, and con-
cepts are explained in terms of illustrative examples.
In a number of cases, relatively complex topics or
PREFACE VII
topics beyond the scope of the text are presented at
a very elementary level, and students are directed
to other sources for additional, in-depth discussion.
There is also a degree of intentional repetition; a
number of concepts are discussed in different con-
texts and from different perspectives. Also, at the
risk of eliciting more than a few groans, an attempt
has been made to sprinkle the text with touches
of humor-a hallmark of this text spanning four
decades-and perhaps best captured by the pic-
tures and quotes that open each chapter. Each chap-
ter includes a detailed, often lengthy summary \vith
headings and subheadings directly parallel to those
in the chapter. The summaries are designed to facili-
tate both the review and location of related text dis-
cussion. Finally, each chapter (or part) concludes
with suggested criteria for evaluating the associated
task and with an example of the task produced by
a former introductory educational research student.
Full-length articles, reprinted from the educational
research literature, appear at the ends of all chapters
presenting research designs and serve as illustrations
of "real-life" research using that design. For the 12th
edition all of these articles have been annotated \vith
descriptive and evaluative annotations.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
The following resources are available for instruc-
tors to download from W\"'v.p earsonhig h e red
.co m/educato r. Enter the author, title of the text,
or the ISBN number, then select this text, and click
on the "Resources" tab. Download the supplement
you need. If you require assistance in downloading
any resources, contact your Pearson representative.
Instructor's Resource Man ual
With Test Bank
The Instructor's Resource Manual with Test Bank
is divided into two parts. The Instructor:~ Resource
Manual contains, for each chapter, suggested
activities that have been effectively used in Edu-
cational Research courses, strategies for teaching,
and selected resources to supplement the textbook
content. The test bank contains multiple-choice
items covering the content of each chapter, newly
updated for this edition, and can be printed and
edited or used \vith TestGen®.
VII I PREFACE
TestGen®
TestGen is a powerful test generator available
exclusively from Pearson Education publishers.
You install TestGen on your personal computer
(Windows or Macintosh) and create your own tests
for classroom testing and for other specialized
delivery options, such as over a local area net\vork
or on the \Xleb. A test bank, which is also called a
Test Item File (TIP), typically contains a large set
of test items, organized by chapter, and ready for
your use in creating a test based on the associated
textbook material. Assessments may be created for
both print and testing online.
The tests can be do\vnloaded in the following
formats:
TestGen Testbank file-PC
TestGen Testbank file-MAC
TestGen Testbank-Blackboard 9 TIP
TestGen Testbank-Blackboard CE/Vista
(\XlebCT) TIP
Angel Test Bank (zip)
D2L Test Bank (zip)
Moodie Test Bank
Sakai Test Bank (zip)
PowerPoint® Slides
The PowerPoint® slides highlight key concepts and
summarize text content to help students under-
stand, organize, and remember core concepts and
ideas. They are organized around chapter learn-
ing outcomes to help instructors structure class
presentations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I sincerely thank everyone who provided input for
the development of this edition. The following indi-
viduals made thoughtful and detailed suggestions
and comments for improving the 12th edition: Jac-
queline S\vank, University of Florida; Raymond \Xi'.
Francis, Central Michigan University; Robin Lund,
University of Northern lo\va; Alane Starko, Eastern
Mich igan University; Vivian Ikpa, Temple Univer-
sity; Christian Kimm, California State University,
Los Angeles. These reviewers contributed greatly
to the 12th edition and their efforts are very much
appreciated.
I would also like to ackno\vledge the staff at
Pearson, without whose guidance (and patience!)
this text would not have become a reality. In particu-
lar, I thank Kevin Davis, Director & Portfolio Man-
ager, for \vorking \vith me on the 12th edition of
the text so as to build on what \Ve achieved with
the previous editions. Kevin has been my friend and
mentor since he offered my first textbook contract
in 1997, and I am indebted to him for his encour-
agement and support of my writing. Kevin \vorked
diligently to ensure a quality, user-friendly, academi-
cally coherent text and patiently kept me on track in
order to meet publication deadlines. His feedback
on chapter drafts \vas insightful and important to the
development of this 12th edition. Kevin has taught
me a great deal about writing, and I \viii al,vays be
indebted to him for trusting me with ste\vardship of
this wonderful text. The publication of this 12th edi-
tion also coincides \vith the end of my tenure at my
academic home for the past 29 years: Southern Ore-
gon University. I am now officially an Emeritus Pro-
fessor and looking forward to dedicating more time
to \vriting without the time commitment of teaching
full time. At the risk of embarrassing Kevin, I can
state with confidence that the past 20 years of my
professorial career exceeded all of my expectations
because of the opportunities Kevin has given me.
Thank you.
This edition benefited from the efforts of my
Developmental Editor Carolyn Schweitzer. This is
my first collaboration with Carolyn and I am look-
ing forward to working with her on future editions
of Educational Research and Action Research.
While we have never met face-to-face, I trust and
respect all the contributions she has made to
my work and benefit greatly from Carolyn's cre-
ative thinking about ho\v to make an educational
research textbook meaningful and fun. Also at
Pearson, Janelle Rogers ably shepherded the man-
uscript through development and production. An
author does not take on the task of a major revi-
sion of a text of this magnitude without the com-
mitment and support of excellent editors. Kevin
and Carolyn \Vere instrumental in the development
of this edition and I sincerely thank them for their
professionalism, patience, caring, and sense of
humor.
I believe that I have made a positive contribu-
tion to this text, now my fifth edition, and added to
the \visdom of earlier editions by L. R. Gay and Peter
Airasian. Long-time users of the text \viii still "hear"

Lorrie Gay's voice throughout the text, but increas-
ingly there is an Aussie accent and sense of humor
creeping its way into the pages!
I \vish to thank my friend and colleague
Dr. Adam Jordan (Associate Professor, University of
North Georgia) for his thoughtful work on revis-
ing the descriptive and inferential statistics chapters
and feedback and contributions on other quanti-
tative chapters in the text. Similarly, my friend and
colleague at Southern Oregon University, Dr. Dale
Vidmar, was instrumental in the revision of the
reviewing the literature chapter.
PREFACE 1x
Finally, I \vant to thank my best friend and wife,
Dr. Donna Mills (Emeritus Professor, Southern Ore-
gon University), and my son, Jonathan, for their love,
support, and patience. Their commitment to my work
is always appreciated and never taken for granted.
The completion of this edition signals another new
era in my life as my son Jonathan has now graduated
from college, and Donna and I prepare for retire-
ment after long university careers.
Geoff Mills
Etneritus Professor
Southern Oregon University
This page intentionally left blank
Brief Contents

Part I FOUNDATIONAL CONCEPTS AND CHAPTER 13 NARRATIVE RESEARCH 350

PROCESSES CHAPTER 14 ET HNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH 376
CHAPTE R 1 INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER 15 CASE STUDY RESEARCH 402
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 2 CHAPTER 16 MIXED METHODS RESEARCH:
CHAPTE R 2 ETHICS IN EDUCATIONAL INTEGRATING QUALITATIVE AND
RESEARCH 60 QUANTITATIVE METHODS 428
CHAPTE R 3 SELECTING AND DEFINING CHAPTER 17 ACTION RESEARCH 450
A RESEARCH PROBLEM 76
Part Ill WORKING WITH QUANTITATIVE
CHAPTE R 4 REVIEWING THE LITERATURE 94
AND QUALITATIVE DATA
CHAPTE R 5 PREPARING AND EVALUATING
A RESEARCH PLAN 128 CHAPTER 18 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 474
CHAPTE R 6 SELECTING A SAMPLE 146 CHAPTER 19 INFERENTIAL STA TISTICS 500
CHAPTE R 7 SELECTING MEASURING CHAPTER 20 QUALITATIVE DATA
INSTRUMENTS 166 COLLECTION 548
CHAPTER 21 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:
Part II RESEARCH DESIGNS DATA ANALYS IS AND INTERPRETATION 566
CHAPTE R 8 SURVEY RESEARCH 200
Part IV REPORTING AND CRITIQUING
CHAPTE R 9 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH 222 RESEARCH
CHAPTE R 10 CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE
CHAPTER 22 PREPARING A RESEARCH
RESEARCH 248
REPORT 582
CHAPTE R 11 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 272
CHAPTER 23 EVALUATING A RESEARCH
CHAPTE R 12 SINGLE-SUBJECT REPORT 608
EXPERIMENTA L RESEARCH 320

XI
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

PART I FOUNDATIONAL CONCEPTS Gaining Entry to a Research Site 69

AND PROCESSES Summary 73
Performance Criteria Task 1D 75

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 2 CHAPTER 3 SELECTING AND DEFINING
Tasks 1A, 1 B 3 A RESEARCH PROBLEM 76
Task 1C 3 Task 2 77
Welcome! 3 The Research Problem 77
The Scientific Method 4 Identifying a Research Problem 77
Limitations of the Scientific Method 4 Sources of Research Prob/ems 78
Application of the Scientific Method in Education 5 Narrowing the Problem 81
Different Approaches to Educational Research 6 Characteristics of Good Prob/ems 82
The Continuum of Research Philosophies 6 Stating the Research Prob/em 82
Quantitative Research 6 Developing Research Questions 83
Qualitative Research 7 Formulating and Stating a Hypothesis 85
Mixed Methods Research 8 Definition and Purpose of Hypotheses in
Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative Quantitative Studies 86
Research Approaches 8 Types of Hypotheses 87
Classification of Research by Design 10 Stating the Hypothesis 88
Quantitative Approaches 10 Testing the Hypothesis 89
Qualitative Approaches 13 Definition and Purpose of Hypotheses in
Classification of Research by Purpose 16 Qualitative Studies 89
Basic and Applied Research 16 Summary 91
Evaluation Research 17 Performance Criteria Task 2 93
Research and Development (R&D) 17
Action Research 17 CHAPTER 4 REVIEWING THE LITERATURE 94
Summary 20 Task 3A 95
Performance Criteria Task 1 23 Task 38 95
Tasks 1Aand 18 23 Review of Related Literature: Purpose and Scope 95
Task 1C 23 Qualitative Research and the Review of
Task 1A Quantitative Example 24 Related Literature 97
Task 1B Qualitative Example 48 Identifying Keywords and Identifying, Evaluating, and
Annotating Sources 97
Identifying Keywords 97
CHAPTER 2 ETHICS IN EDUCATIONAL
Identifying Your Sources 98
RSEARCH 60 Evaluating Your Sources 109
Task 1 D 61 Annotating Your Sources 111
Ethical Codes 61 Analyzing, Organizing, and Reporting the Literature 114
Informed Consent and Protection from Harm 62 Make an Outline 114
Deception 63 Analyze Each Reference in Terms of Your Outline 115
Ethical Issues Unique to Qua litative Research 64 Analyze the References Under Each Subheading
Navigating Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research 65 for Similarities and Differences 116
Action Research and /RBs 67 Give a Meaningful Overview of Past Research 116

xiii
XIV CONTENTS

Discuss the References Least Related to Your Problem CHAPTER 7 SELECTING MEASURING
First and Those Most Related to Your Problem Just INSTRUMENTS 166
Before the Statement of the Hypothesis 116
Task 6 167
Conclude the Review with a Brief Summary of the
Literature and Its Implications 116 Vignette: Big Pine School District 167
Meta-Analysis 119 Constructs 167
Summary 121 Variables 168
Performance Criteria Tasks 3A and 38 124 Measurement Scales and Variables 168
Tasks 3A and 38 124 Quantitative and Qualitative Variables 170
Task 3 Example 125 Dependent and Independent Variables 170
Characteristics of Measuring Instruments 171
Instrument Terminology 171
CHAPTER 5 PREPARING AND EVALUATING Quantitative and Qualitative Data Collection Methods 172
A RESEARCH PLAN 128 Interpreting Instrument Data 172
Types of Measuring Instruments 173
Task 4A 129
Cognitive Tests 173
Task 48 129
Affective Tests 174
Definition and Purpose of a Research Plan 129
Projective Tests 177
Components of the Quantitative Research Plan 130
Criteria for Good Measuring Instruments 178
Introduction Section 130
Validity of Measuring Instruments 178
Method Section 131
Reliability of Measuring Instruments 182
Data Analysis 133
Test Selection, Construction, and Admin istration 187
Time Schedule 133
Selecting a Test 187
Budget 133
Sources of Test Information 188
Components of the Qualitative Research Plan 134
Selecting from Alternatives 190
Prior Fieldwork 134
Constructing Tests 191
Title 134
Test Administration 192
Introduction Section 134
Summary 194
Research Procedures Section 135
Performance Criteria Task 6 197
Appendixes 139
Task 6 Example 198
Revising and Improving the Research Plan 139
Summary 140
Performance Criteria Task 4 142
PART II RESEARCH DESIGNS
Task 4 Example 143
CHAPTER 8 SURVEY RESEARCH 200
Task 7A 201
CHAPTER 6 SELECTING A SAMPLE 146 Survey Research: Definition and Purpose 202
Task SA 147 Survey Research Designs 202
Task 58 147 Cross-Sectional Surveys 202
Sampling in Quantitative Research 147 Longitudinal Surveys 203
Defining a Population 148 Conducting Survey Research 203
Selecting a Random Sample 148 Conducting a Questionnaire Study 204
Determining Sample Size 155 Administering the Questionnaire 208
Avoiding Sampling Error and Bias 157 Summary 214
Selecting a Nonrandom Sample 158 Example: Survey Study 216
Sampling in Qua Iitative Research 159
Selecting Research Participants: Purposive
Sampling Approaches 160 CHAPTER 9 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH 222
Determining Sample Size 161 Task 78 223
Summary 162 Correlational Research: Definition and Purpose 224
Performance Criteria Task 5 164 The Correlational Research Process 225
Task SA Example 165 Problem Selection 225
 CONTENTS xv

Participant and Instrument Selection 225 Internal Validity 329

Design and Procedure 225 Replication 330
Data Analysis and Interpretation 225 Single-Subject Experimental Research Design in Action 330
Relationship Studies 229 Summary 333
Data Collection 229 Performance Criteria Task 7 335
Data Analysis and Interpretation 230 Task 7 Example 336
Prediction Studies 232 Example: Single-Subject Study 338
Data Collection 233
Data Analysis and Interpretation 233 CHAPTER 13 NARRATIVE RESEARCH 350
Other Correlation-Based Analyses 234 Task 8A 351
Problems to Consider in Interpreting Correlation Narrative Research: Definition and Purpose 352
Coefficients 235 Types of Narrative Research 353
Summary 236 Narrative Analysis and the Analysis of Narrative 354
Example: Correlational Study 239 The Narrative Research Process 354
Key Characteristics of Narrative Research 356
CHAPTER 10 CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE Narrative Research Techniques 356
RESEARCH 248 Restorying 357
Oral History 358
Task 7C 249
Causal-Comparative Research: Definition and Purpose 250 Examining Photographs, Memory Boxes,
and Other Artifacts 358
The Causal-Comparative Research Process 253
Storytelling 358
Design and Procedure 253
Letter Writing 358
Control Procedures 254
Autobiographical and Biographical Writing 359
Data Analysis and Interpretation 255
Other Narrative Data Sources 359
Summary 257
Writing the Narrative 359
Example: Causal- Comparative Study 258
Summary 361

CHAPTER 11 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 272 CHAPTER 14 ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH 376

Task 70 273 Task 88 377
Experimental Research: Definition and Purpose 274 Ethnographic Research: Definition and Purpose 378
The Experimental Process 275 The Ethnographic Research Process 379
Manipulation and Control 276 Key Characteristics of Ethnographic Research 381
Threats to Experimental Validity 277 Types of Ethnographic Research 382
Threats to Internal Validity 278 Ethnographic Research Techniques 383
Threats to External Validity 281 Participant Observation 383
Control of Extraneous Variables 286 Field Notes 385
Group Experimental Designs 288 Observing and Recording Everything
Single-Variable Designs 289 You Possibly Can 387
Factorial Designs 297 Looking for Nothing in Particular; Looking for
Bumps and Paradoxes 388
Summary 300
Summary 390

CHAPTER 12 SINGLE-SUBJECT CHAPTER 15 CASE STUDY RESEARCH 402

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 320 Task BC 403
Task 7E 321 Case Study Research: Definition and Purpose 404
Single-Subject Experimental Designs 322 When to Use Case Study Research 405
Single-Subject versus Group Designs 322 Characteristics of Case Study Research 405
The Single-Variable Rule 322 Case Study Research Design 406
Types of Single-Subject Designs 322 Sample Selection in Case Study Research 408
Data Analysis and Interpretation 328 Data Collection Techniques 408
Threats to Val id ity 328 Conducting and Analyzing Multip ie Case Studies 409
External Validity 328 Summary 412
XVI CONTENTS

CHAPTER 16 MIXED METHODS RESEARCH: PART Ill WORKING WITH QUANTITATIVE

INTEGRATING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DATA
AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
DESIGNS 428
CHAPTER 18 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 474
Task 80 429
The Word Is Statistics, Not Sadistics 475
Mixed Methods Research: Defin ition and Pu rpose 430
The Language of Statistics 475
Types of Basic Mixed Methods Research Designs 431
Preparing Data for Analysis 476
The Explanatory Sequential (QUAN --+ qua/)
Design 431
Scoring Procedures 476
The Explanatory Sequential (QUAL --+ quan)
Tabulation and Coding Procedures 476
Deisgn 432 Types of Descriptive Statistics 477
The Convergent Para/le/ (QUAN + QUAL) Design 433 Frequencies 477
Conducting Mixed Methods Research 433 Measures of Central Tendency 478
Identifying Studies Using Mixed Method Designs 435 Measures of Variability 480
Evaluating a Mixed Methods Study 435 The Normal Curve 482
Summary 437 Skewed Distributions 484
Performance Criteria Task 8 438 Measures of Relative Position 485
Task 8 Example 439 Measures of Relationship 488
Graph ing Data 491
"R" You Ready? 492
CHAPTER 17 ACTION RESEARCH 450 Step 1: Installing Ron Your Computer 493
Task 9 451 Step 2: Getting Your Data Into R 493
Action Research: Definition and Pu rpose 452 Step 3: Calculating Some Descriptive Statistics 495
Key Characteristics of Action Research 452 Postscript 496
Action Research Is Persuasive and Authoritative 452 Summary 497
Action Research Is Relevant 453
Action Research Is Accessible 453 CHAPTER 19 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 500
Action Research Challenges the Intractability Task 10 501
of Reform of the Educational System 453
Concepts Underlying Inferential Statistics 501
Action Research Is Not a Fad 453
Standard Error 501
Types of Action Research 454
Hypothesis Testing 504
Critical Action Research 454
Tests of Significance 504
Practical Action Research 455
Two-Tailed and One-Tailed Tests SOS
Levels of Action Research 455
Type I and Type II Errors 507
The Action Research Process 456
Degrees of Freedom 510
Identifying an Area of Focus 457
Selecting Among Tests of Significance 510
Data Collection, Analysis, and Interpretation 458
The t Test 511
Action Planning 458
Analysis of Variance 518
Summary 460
Multiple Regression 521
Performance Criteria and Examples Task 9 461
Chi Square 525
Write an Area-of-Focus Statement 461
Other Investigative Techniques: Data Mining,
Define the Variables 461 Factor Analysis, and Structural Equation Modeling 528
Develop Research Questions 461 Types of Parametric and Nonparametric
Describe the Intervention or Innovation 461 Statistical Tests 529
Describe the Membership of the Action Calculating Inferential Statistics Using R 530
Research Group 461 Calculating the t Test for Independent Samples Using R 531
Describe Negotiations That Need to Be Undertaken 462 Calculating the t Test for Nonindependent
Develop a Time Line 462 Samples Using R 533
Develop a Statement of Resources 462 Calculating ANOVA with Post Hoc Multiple
Develop Data Collection Ideas 462 Comparison Tests Using R 533
Example: Action Research 463 Calculating Multiple Regression Using R 535
 CONTENTS XVII

Calculating Chi Square Using R 535 Format and Style 585

If You "R" Still Onboard 536 Formatting Theses and Dissertations 586
Summary 538 Preliminary Pages 586
Performance Criteria Task 10 542 The Main Body 589
Task 10 Example 543 References 590
Appendixes 591
CHAPTER 20 QUALITATIVE DATA Writing for Journal Publication 591
COLLECTION 548 Summary 593
Data Collection Sources and Techniques 549 Performance Criteria Task 11 595
Observing 549 Task 17 Example 596
Interviewing 554
Questionnaires 556 CHAPTER 23 EVALUATING A RESEARCH
Examining Records 557 REPORT 608
Validity and Rel iability in Qualitative Research 558
Task 12 609
Validity in Qualitative Research 558
General Evaluation Criteria 609
Reliability in Qualitative Research 562
Introduction 610
Getting Started 563
Method 610
Summary 564
Results 611
Discussion (Conclusions and Recommendations) 611
CHAPTER 21 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:
Abstract or Summary 611
DATA ANALYSIS AND
Design-Specific Evaluation Criteria 612
INTERPRETATION 566
Survey Research 612
Data Analysis and Interpretation: Definition Correlational Research 612
and Purpose 567 Causal- Comparative Research 612
Data Analysis During Data Collection 567
Experimental Research 612
Data Analysis After Data Collection 568 Single-Subject Research 613
Steps in Analyzing Qual itative Research Data 568 Qualitative Research (in General) 613
Reading/Memoing 569 Evaluating Validity and Reliability in
Describing 570 Qualitative Studies 613
Classifying 570 Narrative Research 614
Data Analysis Strategies 570 Ethnographic Research 614
Identifying Themes 570 Case Study Research 614
Coding Surveys, Interviews, and Questionnaires 571 Mixed Methods Research 614
Asking Key Questions 573 Action Research 614
Doing an Organizational Review 574 Summary 615
Developing a Concept Map 574 Performance Crite ria Task 12 616
Analyzing Antecedents and Consequences 574 Task 12 Example 617
Displaying findings 575
Stating What Is Missing 575 Appendix A Statistical References 631
Qualitative Data Analysis: An Example 575
Data Interpretation Strategies 578 Appendix B Suggested Responses 657
Ensuring Credibility in Your Study 579
Summary 580 Glossary 663

Name Index 673

PART IV REPORTI NG AND CRITIQUING RESEARCH
Subject Index 681
CHAPTER 22 PREPARING A RESEARCH
REPORT 582
Task 11 583
Guidelines for Writing a Research Report 583
This page intentionally left blank
Research Articles

CHAPTER 1
Can Instructional and Emotional Support in the First-Grade Classroom Make a Difference for Children
at Risk of School Failure? 24

Developing Teacher Ep istemological Sophistication About M ulticultural Curriculum:

A Case Study? 48

CHAPTER 8
To What Extent A re Literacy Initiatives Being Supp orted: Important Questions
for Administrators? 216

CHAPTER 9
Parental Involvement and Its Influence on the Reading Achievement of 6th Grade Students? 239

CHAPTER 10
Comp aring Longitudinal Academic Ach ievement of Full -Day and Half-Day
Kindergarten Students? 258

CHAPTER 11
Effects o f Mathematical Word Problem-Solving Instruction on M iddle School Students with
Learning Problems? 304

CHAPTER 12
Effects o f Functional Mobility Skills Train ing for Young Students with Physical Disabilities? 338

CHAPTER 13
For Whom the School Bell Tolls: Conflicting Voices Inside an A lternative High School? 362

CHAPTER 14
Preparing Preservice Teachers in a Diverse World? 392

CHAPTER 15
Using Community as a Resou rce for Teacher Education: A Case Study? 414

CHAPTER 16
How Should Middle-School Students with LD Approach On line Note Taking? A M ixed
M ethods Study? 442

CHAPTER 17
"Let's Talk": Discussions in a Biology Classroom: An Action Research Project? 463

CHAPTER 23
Gend er and Race as Variables in Psychosocial Adjustment to Mid dle and High School? 61 7

xix
This page intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER ONE

Introduction to
Educational Research

Little Heroes 3, 2002

"Despite a popular stereotype that depicts researchers as

spectacled, stoop-shouldered, e lderly gentlemen ...who endlessly
add chemicals to test tubes, every day thousands of men and
women of all ages and postures conduct educationa l research in a
wide variety of settings." (p. 3)
 CHAPTER 1 • INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading Chapter 1, you should be able to do
the follo\ving:
1 . 1 Briefly describe the reasoning involved in the
scientific method.
1 .2 Explain why researchers \vould use
quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods, or
action research designs to address a specific
research problem.
l .~ Briefly define and state the major
characteristics of these research designs:
survey, correlational, causal-comparative,
experimental, single-subject, narrative,
ethnographic, case study, mixed methods,
and action research.
1.4 Explain the purposes of basic research,
applied research, evaluation research,
research and development (R&D), and
action research.
WELCOME!
If you are taking a research course because it is
required in your program of studies, raise your right
hand. If you are taking a research course because it
seems like it \vill be a really fun elective, raise your
left hand. \~e thought you may not be here of your
o\vn free will. Although you may be required to
take this course, you are not the innocent victim of
one or more sadists. Your professors have several
legitimate reasons for believing this research course
is an essential component of your education.
First, educational research findings contribute
significantly to both educational theory and educa-
tional practice. As a professional, you need to kno\v
how to find, understand, and evaluate these find-
ings. And when you encounter research findings
in professional publications or in the media, you
have a responsibility, as a professional, to distin-
guish between legitimate and ill-founded research
claims. Second, although many of you \viii be pri-
marily critical consumers of research, some of you
will decide to become educational researchers. A
career in research opens the door to a variety of
employment opportunities in universities, research
centers, and business and industry.
3
Completing Chapter 1 should enable you to per-
form the follo\ving tasks:
TASKS 1A, 1 B
Identify and briefly state the follo\ving for both
research studies at the end of this chapter:
1 . The research design
2 . The rationale for the choice of the research
design
~ - The major characteristics of the research
design, including research procedures, method
of analysis, and major conclusions (See
Performance Criteria, p. 23.)
TASK 1C
Classify given research studies based on their
characteristics and purposes. (See Performance
Criteria, p. 23.)
Despite a popular stereotype that depicts
researchers as spectacled, stoo~shouldered, elderly
gentlemen (a stereotype I am rapidly approaching!)
who endlessly add chemicals to test tubes, every day
thousands of men and \vomen of all ages and pos-
tures conduct educational research in a \vide variety
of settings. Every year many millions of dollars are
spent in the quest for knowledge related to teach-
ing and learning. For example, in 2017 the U.S.
Department of Education budget was $69.4 bil-
lion, \vhich included an allocation of $180 million
for "[e)ducation innovation and research" (\VW\v2.
ed.gov/ about/ overview/budget/ budgetl 7/budget-
factsheet.pdf). Educational research has contributed
many findings concerning principles of behavior,
learning, and retention of kno\vledge-many of
which can also be applied to curriculum, instruc-
tion, instructional materials, and assessment tech-
niques. Both the quantity and the quality of research
are increasing, partly because researchers are better
trained. Educational research classes have become
core components of preservice teacher education
programs, as well as the cornerstone of advanced
degree programs.
We recognize that educational research is a rel-
atively unfamiliar discipline for many of you. Our
4 CHAPTER 1 • INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
first goals, then, are to help you acquire a general
understanding of research processes and to help
you develop the perspective of a researcher. \Y/e
begin by examining the scientific method.
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
\Y/hat is knowledge? And ho\v do we come to
"know" something? Experience is certainly one of
the fundamental \vays we come to know about and
understand our world. For example, a child who
touches something hot learns that high heat hurts.
\Y/e know other things because a trusted authority,
such as a parent or a teacher, told us about them.
1\1ost likely, much of your knowledge of current
world events comes secondhand, from things you
have read o r heard from a source you trust.
Another way we come to kno\v something is
through thinking, through reasoning. Reasoning
refers to the process of using logical thought to
reach a conclusion. We can reason inductively or
deductively. Ind uctive reasoning involves develop-
ing generalizations based on observation of a limited
nLunber of related events or experiences. Consider
the follo\ving example of ind uctive reasoning:
Observation: An instructor examines five research
textbooks. Each contains a chapter about
sampling.
Generalization: The instructor concludes that all
research textbooks contain a chapter about
sampling.
Ded uctive reasonin g involves essentially the
reverse process-arriving at specific conclusions
based on general principles, observations, or expe-
riences (i.e., generalizations)-as shown in the
next example.
Observations: All research textbooks contain a
chapter on sampling. The book you are reading
is a research text.
Generalization: This book must contain a chapter
on sampling. (Does it?)
Although people commonly use experience,
authority, inductive reasoning, and deductive reason-
ing to learn new things and dra\v new conclusions
from that kno\vledge, each of these approaches to
understanding has limitations when used in isola-
tion. Some problems associated \vith experience and
authority as sources of knowledge are graphically
illustrated in a story told about Aristotle. According to
the story, one day Aristotle caught a fly and carefully
counted and recounted the legs. He then announced
that flies have five legs. No one questioned the word
of Aristotle. For years his finding was accepted uncrit-
ically. Unfortunately, the fly that Aristotle caught just
happened to be missing a leg! Whether or not you
believe the story, it illustrates the limitations of rely-
ing on personal experience and authority as sources
of knowledge.
The story also points out a potential problem
with inductive reasoning: Generalizing from a small
sample, especially one that is atypical, can lead to
errors. Deductive reasoning, too, is limited by the evi-
dence in the original observations. If every research
text really does have a chapter on sampling, and if
this book really is a research text, then it follo\vs that
this book must have a chapter on sampling. How-
ever, if one or more of the premises is false (perhaps
some research texts do not have a chapter on sam-
pling), your conclusion may also be \vrong.
When we rely exclusively on these common
approaches to kno\ving, the resulting knowledge is
susceptible to error and may be of limited value to
understanding the world beyond our immediate expe-
rience. Ho\vever, experience, authority, and induc-
tive and deductive reasoning are very effective \vhen
used together as integral components of the scientific
method. The scie ntific method is an orderly process
entailing a nLunber of steps: recognition and definition
of a problem, formulation of hypotheses, collection of
data, analysis of data, and statement of conclusions
regarding confirmation or disconfirmation of the
hypotheses (i.e., a researcher forms a hypothesis-an
explanation for the occurrence of certain behaviors,
phenomena, or events-as a way of predicting the
results of a research study and then collects data to
test that prediction). These steps can be applied infor-
mally to solve everyday problems such as the most
efficient route to take from home to work or school,
the best time to go to the bank, or the best kind of
computer to purchase. The more formal application
of the scientific method is standard in research; it is
more efficient and more reliable than relying solely
on ex-perience, authority, inductive reasoning, and
deductive reasoning as sources of kno\vledge.
Limitations of the Scientific Method
The steps in the scientific method guide researchers
in planning, conducting, and interpreting research
studies. However, it is important to recognize some
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Rhode Island was the first to strike the name of king from the charter
of her liberties, thus becoming the first sovereign independent State
in all the New World.
Rhode Island was the first to recommend the permanent
establishment of a Continental Congress, in town meeting
assembled, May 17, 1774, and in General Assembly, June 15, 1774,
she appointed Samuel Ward and Ezek Hopkins her first delegates
thereto.
Rhode Island was also the first, by overt act, to renounce allegiance
to George III of England. She was first to instruct her officers to
disregard the Stamp Act and to ensure them indemnity for so doing.
In 1765, she explicitly declared that in herself alone was vested the
right of local taxation.
Rhode Island was first to fire a gun against the dominion of England.
The first blood of the Revolutionary war was spilt in Narragansett
Bay. Lexington was fought April 19, 1775; the Boston Tea Party was
on December 16, 1773; Providence men, after perfecting their plans
at the Sabin Tavern, Planet and South Main Streets, rowed down the
river, and on June 10, 1772, sent up the Gaspee in flames.
On July 19, 1769, the men of Newport sunk His Majesty’s sloop,
Liberty. Rhode Island was the first to establish an American navy.
She gave the command to Abraham Whipple, who forthwith captured
the first war prize (the tender of the frigate Rose, then off Newport).
After the war of independence was under way, Rhode Island was the
first to recommend and urge upon Congress the establishment of a
Continental navy. Congress chose a Rhode Islander to work out the
plans. Ezek Hopkins, a Providence man, was appointed
commander-in-chief. Three-fourths of all the officers were from
Rhode Island. These men were the vikings of the American
Revolution. Ezek Hopkins’ home is still preserved on Admiral Street.
There is a monument to him at his grave in Hopkins Square, corner
Branch Avenue and Charles Street.
In proportion to her size none of the other States can compare with
Rhode Island in the amount given to the Continental loan. Her
citizens, unlocking their purses, freely furnished the sinews of war.
She contributed seven times as much as South Carolina, whose
population was three times as large; one and a half times as much
as Maryland, whose population was four times as great; twice as
much as Virginia, with a population eight times larger.
Rhode Island contributed proportionately her share of men to the
great struggle. Rhode Island men were in every great battle under
Washington. Rhode Island has been greatly criticized for not quickly
adopting the Constitution. She was the last to adopt it. Her
conception of religious and civic liberty in combination was such that
she was not willing to lose easily the liberty which she had obtained
for herself and which she freely advocated for others. Her part in the
great struggle was so great that her motive for delay in adopting the
Constitution should never be questioned. Her ideal of liberty, unique
to Rhode Island then, is the generally accepted one now throughout
America and back of every great politicial reform in lands beyond our
borders.
Ex-Governor Russell Brown, on Rhode Island Day at the World’s
Columbian Exposition, said:
The history of our State is a birthright which neither lands nor gold can
buy, for full as it is of stirring and passionate events, there is not an
incident in our annals that can bring the scarlet of shame to the cheek
of civilized man. Roger Williams the first settler, the thrice-exiled friend
of the weak and oppressed, by his revolt against Puritan intolerance
and his sacrifice for soul liberty, baptized Rhode Island’s early days
with glory sufficient for any State.
 VI
THE TORCH-BEARERS OF THE IDEAL
OF ROGER WILLIAMS UNTIL LIBERTY
ENLIGHTENED THE WORLD
I believe all our Baptist ministers in town, except two, and most of our
brethren in the country were on the side of the Americans in the late
dispute.... To this hour we believe that the independence of America
will, for a while, secure the liberty of this country, but if that continent
had been reduced, Britain would not have long been free.—Doctor
Rippon, of London, England, to President Manning, of Rhode Island
College, written in 1784.
Nor need any one dream that Jefferson and Madison could have
carried this measure by their genius and influence. They were
opposed by many men whose transcendent services, or unequalled
oratory, or wealth, position, financial interests, or intense prejudices
would have enabled them easily to resist their unsupported assaults.
Like a couple of first-class engineers on a tender with a train attached,
but no locomotive, would Jefferson and Madison have appeared
without the Baptists. They furnished the locomotive for these skilled
engineers which drew the train of religious liberty through every
persecuting enactment in the penal code of Virginia.—Wm. Cathcart,
D. D., in “The Baptists and the American Revolution.”
The Baptists were the first and only religious denomination that struck
for independence from Great Britain, and the first and only one that
made a move for religious liberty before independence was
declared.... Of those who took part in the struggle for religious liberty,
the Baptists were the only denomination that maintained a consistent
record and held out without wavering until the end—until every vestige
of the old establishment had been obliterated by the sale of the
glebes.—Dr. Charles James, in “Documentary History of the Struggle
for Religious Liberty in Virginia.”

W
E have seen the early struggles of Roger Williams. We have
seen the halo of glory which clusters about the State he
founded. We have seen his place in the plans of a Divine
providence. We have also seen his place in the procession of heroes
who held aloft the torch of religious and soul-liberty throughout the
ages. When by death, he was compelled to drop that torch, others
took it up and continued the procession until the first amendment to
our National Constitution became a fact of history. The Baptists led
the historic movement in all the colonies which stood for this
principle of “Religious Liberty.” Oscar S. Straus says:
The Baptists ... had a much more enlightened and advanced view:
they held that Christianity should propagate itself by its own spiritual
force; that the civil government was entirely apart and distinct and
should have no control over conscience, or power to inflict punishment
for spiritual censures.
Professor Gervinus, professor at Heidelberg, Germany, about the
year 1850, published a work, in which he referred to Williams and his
ideal:
Roger Williams urged an entire liberty of conscience in
Massachusetts. He was obliged to fly from the country, and in 1636 he
founded a small new society in Rhode Island upon the principles of
entire liberty of conscience. It was prophesied that the democratic
attempts to obtain a general elective franchise and entire religious
liberty would be of short duration. But these institutions have spread
from that petty state over the whole union. They superseded the
aristocratic commencements of Carolina and New York, the High-
church part of Virginia, the theocracy in Massachusetts, and the
monarchy throughout America; they have given laws to one quarter of
the globe; and, dreaded for their moral influence, they stand in the
background of every democratic struggle in Europe.
For the publication of such sentiments, Professor Gervinus was tried
at Mannheim and sentenced to four months’ imprisonment and to
have his books publicly burned.
Back of political progress there must be spiritual strength. Back of
the final victory of religious liberty in America there was not only the
glorious example of Rhode Island as a political demonstration but
the persistent propagation of the ideals in all the States. This was
chiefly the task of the Baptists, many of whose churches could trace
their origin to settlers from Rhode Island.
During the Colonial period, the laws of Massachusetts and Virginia
relating to soul-liberty were most severe; those in Maryland and
Pennsylvania, the most lenient, outside of Rhode Island.

Order banishing the Founders of the First Baptist Church in Boston.

1644. Whereas Thomas Gold (and others) obstinate and

Nov. 13. turbulent Annabaptists, have some time since combined
themselves wh others in a pretended church estate xxxxx
to the great griefe and offence of the godly orthodox xxxxxxxx and
about two years since were enjoyned by this Court to desist from said
practise and to returne to our allowed Church Assemblies, xxxxxx this
Court doe judge it necessary that they be removed to some other part
of this country or elsewhere: and accordingly doeth order that (they)
doe before the twentieth of July next remove themselves out of this
jurisdiccon.

In Massachusetts the Baptist sentiment did not die out with the
banishment of Roger Williams. In 1640, Rev. Mr. Chauncey
advocated the immersion of believers and also of infants. Later
President Dunster, of Cambridge College, went further and
denounced the whole system of infant baptism. About the same
time, Lady Moody, of Lynn, denied infant baptism. In 1644, a poor
man by the name of Painter, reaching the same conclusion, refused
to have his child baptized. The court interfered and the man was tied
up and whipped. On November 13, 1644, two months after Williams
arrived in Boston, en route to Providence, with the charter, the
Massachusetts Bay Colony passed a law against the Baptists, in
which they were described as “The incendiaries of commonwealths,
the troublers of churches.” They ordered that all who “openly
condemn or oppose the baptizing of infants shall be sentenced to
banishment.” The General Court issued an order in 1644 banishing
the founders of the Boston Baptist Church. In 1651, Obadiah
Holmes, John Clarke, and John Crandall came to Lynn,
Massachusetts, from Newport, Rhode Island. They were holding a
service in Mr. Witter’s house, about two miles out from Lynn. Mr.
Clarke was preaching from Revelation 3:10. The service was broken
up by the arrival of two constables, who, with clamorous tongues,
interrupted the discourse and arrested the preachers. The prisoners
were held in Lynn until the morning, when they were taken to the
Boston prison. Two weeks later, they were sentenced to pay heavy
fines. The fines of Clarke and Crandall were paid by friends. Holmes
refused any assistance in paying his fine of thirty pounds and was
publicly whipped with thirty lashes from a three-corded whip.
Thirteen others, who sympathized with these brethren, were arrested
and were ordered to pay a fine of forty shillings each or take ten
lashes. John Hazel, an old man from Rehoboth, was whipped and
died a few days afterward. Clarke published the story of this incident
in “Ill Newes from New-England”—an original copy is in the John
Carter Brown Library, Providence, R. I. Cotton was the religious
leader in Boston, back of this persecution. In 1680 the doors of the
Baptist meeting-house in Boston were nailed up by the authorities.
Finally the Baptists in Boston won some freedom, which, however,
was denied to other Baptist churches throughout the State. Isaac
Backus was the leader among the Massachusetts Baptists for soul-
liberty. With President Manning, he appealed to the Massachusetts
delegates at the Continental Congress to provide in the Constitution
for separation of Church and State. John Adams replied to them:
“They might as well turn the heavenly bodies out of their annual and
diurnal courses as to expect they would give up their establishment.”
This spirit of opposition was continued until 1833, in which year the
last vestige of oppressive religious intolerance was removed from
the statute-books of Massachusetts.
 ILL

NEWES
 FROM

NEW-ENGLAND

OR

A Narative of New-Englands

PERSECUTION.

Wherein is declared

That while old England is becoming new,

New-England is become Old.

Also four Proposals to the Honoured Parliament and Councel of State,

touching the way to Propagate the Gospel of Christ (with small
charge and great safety) both in Old England and New.

Also four conclusions touching the faith and order of the Gospel of
Christ out of his last Will and Testament, confirmed and justified

By John Clark Physician of Rode Island in America.

Revel. 2. 25. Hold fast till I come.

3. 11. Behold I come quickly.
22. 20. Amen, even so come Lord Jesus.

LONDON,

Printed by Henry Hills living in Fleet-Yard next door to the Rose

and Crown, in the year 1652.

In Virginia, the opposition to the Baptist movement was bitter and

unrelenting. The early settlers of Virginia left England, when their
church, the Established Church of England, had won a complete
victory over all other persuasions. The Virginians sought to duplicate
in the new land the spirit of the victors across the sea and make
religion uniform in their colony. Laws were passed against popish
recusants as early as 1643. Other laws were passed by their
assembly between the years 1659 and 1663 against those who
failed to have their children baptized. The Quakers especially found
these laws most severe. The early Baptists of Virginia were of the
common people; their ministers were illiterate; and for a while they
escaped notice. The first imprisonment of Baptists was in the county
of Spottsylvania, Va., June 4, 1768. Three Baptists, John Waller,
Lewis Craig, and James Childs, with others, were arrested for
disturbing the peace. (There was no law against preaching.) The
opposing lawyer in the court-room made this charge:
May it please your worships, these men are great disturbers of the
peace; they cannot meet a man on the road, but they ram a text of
Scripture down his throat.
Mr. Waller so defended himself and his brethren that their enemies
were somewhat puzzled to know how to proceed against them. They
offered to release them on promise to refrain from preaching in the
county for a year and a day. The defendants refused the offer and
were sent to prison. Other Baptist ministers were arrested, and soon
thirty were under arrest. The prisons became Baptist pulpits, and
multitudes gathered around them to hear the preachers. Their
opponents engaged drummers to drown the preaching; high
enclosures were in some cases erected before prison windows, and
suffocating materials were burned near the prisons. Baptists from the
beginning were unremitting in their struggle to secure religious
liberty. They secured the support of Patrick Henry, a member of the
Established Church, but a firm friend of all who stood for liberty, civil
and religious. He helped the Baptists to win the complete victory.
The Baptist cause was destined to have a more congenial
atmosphere in Pennsylvania when we remember that William Penn,
its illustrious founder, had an English Baptist father and a Dutch
mother, undoubtedly of Anabaptist descent. He received his charter
in 1681, forty-five years after Roger Williams’ banishment from
Massachusetts. Penn possessed broad and liberal ideas and was
opposed to any church establishment. He provided
that all persons who confess and acknowledge the Almighty and
Eternal God to be the Creator, Upholder, and Ruler of the world, ...
should in no ways be molested, nor compelled to frequent or maintain
any religious worship.
Yet only those confessing faith in Jesus Christ could become
freemen in Penn’s domain. The separate Quakers in the colony of
Pennsylvania were arrested, fined, and imprisoned for dissent.

John Clarke Memorial

First Baptist Church of Newport, R. I.
 Grave of John Clarke

The first company of Baptists in this colony came from Rhode Island.
William Dugan came there in 1684, three years after Penn received
his charter. He settled at Cold Spring, in Bucks County. The first
church in Philadelphia was founded by John Holmes in 1686. The
first meeting-place was at the corner of Second and Chestnut
Streets.
Two AND if any County or Part of this Province shall refuse or
Thirds neglect to choose their respective Representatives as
of the aforesaid, or if chosen, do not meet to serve in Assembly,
Member
s have
those who are so chosen and met shall have the full Power
the of an Assembly in as ample Manner as if all the
Power Representatives had been chosen and met; Provided, they
of a full are not less than two Thirds of the Whole that ought to
House. meet.
No
Member AND BE IT FURTHER ENACTED by the Authority
to vote aforesaid, That no Person who shall be hereafter a
&c. in Member of the Assembly, or House of Representatives of
the
this Province, shall be capable to vote in the said House, or
House
till sit there during any Debate, after their Speaker is chosen,
qualified until he shall make and subscribe the following
. The Declarations and Profession his Belief, viz.,
Qualific
 ation of I A. B. do sincerely promise, and solemnly declare before
every GOD and the World, That I will be faithful and bear true
Member Allegiance to Queen Anne. And I do solemnly profess and
of
Assemb declare. That I do, from my Heart, abbor, detest and
ly. renounce as impious and heretical, that damnable Doctrine
Altered and Position, That Princes excommunicated or deprived by
by an the Pope, or any Authority of the See of Rome, may be
Act deposed or murdered by their Subjects, or any other
pass’d
whatsoever.
in the II
Geo. I, AND I do declare, That no foreign Prince, Person, Prelate,
entitled State or Potentate hath, or ought to have, any Power,
An Act
Jurisdiction, Superiority, Preeminence or Authority
—
prescribi ecclesiastical or spiritual, within the Realm of England, or
ng the the Dominions thereunto belonging.
Forms
of
AND I A. B. do solemnly and sincerely, in the Presence of
Declarat GOD, profess, testify and declare, That I do believe that in
ion of the Sacrament of the LORD’s Supper there is not any
Fidelity. Transubstantiation of the Elements of Bread and Wine into
&c. the Body and Blood of CHRIST, at or after the
Consecration thereof, by any Person whatsoever; and that
the Invocation or Adoration of the Virgin Mary, or any other Saint, and
the Sacrifice of the Mass, as they are now used in the Church of
Rome, are superstitions and Idolatrous.
AND I do solemnly, in the Presence of GOD, profess, testify and
declare. That I do make this Declaration and every Part thereof, in the
plain and ordinary Sense of the Words read unto me, as they are
commonly understood by English Protestants, without any Evasion,
Equivocation or mental Reservation whatsoever and without any
Dispensation already granted me for this Purpose by the Pope, or any
other Authority or Person whatsoever, or without any Hope of any
such Dispensation from any Person or Authority whatsoever, or
without thinking I am or may be acquitted before GOD, or Man, or
absolved of this Declaration, or any Part thereof, although the Pope,
or any other Person or Persons, or Power whatsoever, should
dispense with or annull the same, or declare that it was null or void
from the Beginning.
AND I A. B. profess Faith in GOD the Father, and in JESUS CHRIST,
his eternal Son, the true GOD, and in the HOLY SPIRIT, one GOD,
blessed for evermore; and do acknowledge the Holy Scriptures of the
Old and New-Testament, to be given by divine Inspiration.
 The Law in William Penn’s Colony.
No Absolute Soul-liberty in Pennsylvania in Those Days.

Lord Baltimore, the Roman Catholic proprietor of Maryland, was far

in advance of his Church. He came to the New World to secure
religious liberty for himself and his friends. The Maryland Act of
Toleration, issued in 1649, provided that
Blasphemy against God, and a denial of the Trinity should be
punished with death and confiscation of lands and goods, and
blasphemy against the Virgin Mary should first be punished by a fine
of five pounds, and if persisted in, by a forfeiture of all possessions
and banishment from the colony.

Acts and Orders of ASSEMBLY, assented to, enacted and 1649.

made, at a General Session of the said Assembly, begun
and held at St. Mary’s on the 2d Day of April 1649, and ended the
21st Day of the same Month.
 William Stone, Esq; Governor.
CHAP. I.
An Act concerning Religion. Lib. C and WH. fol. 106. Lib. Passe
WH. fol. 111. and Lib. WH and L. fol. 1. d 21st
of April
Confirmed among the perpetual Laws 1676, ch. 2. 1649.
N. B. By this Law, (1.) Blasphemy against GOD, denying our
Saviour JESUS CHRIST to be the Son of GOD, or denying the Holy
TRINITY, or the Godhead of any of the Three Persons, &c. was to be
Punished with Death, and Confiscation of Lands and Goods to the
Lord Proprietary. (2.) Persons using any reproachful Words or
Speeches concerning the Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of our Saviour,
or the Holy Apostles or Evangelists, or any of them, for the 1st
Offence to forfeit 5l. Sterling to the Lord Proprietary; or, in default of
Payment, to be publicly Whipped, and Imprisoned at the Pleasure of
his Lordship, or his Lieut. General. For the 2d Offence to forfeit 10l.
Sterling, or in default of Payment to be publicly and severely Whipped,
and Imprisoned as before directed. And for the 3d Offence to forfeit
Lands and Goods, and be for ever Banished out of the Province. (3.)
Persons reproaching any other within the Province by the Name or
Denomination of Heretic, Schismatic, Idolater, Puritan, Independent,
Presbyterian, Popish Priest, Jesuit, Jesuited Papist, Lutheran,
Calvinist, Anabaptist, Brownist, Antinomian, Barrowist, Round-Head,
Separatist, or any other Name or Term in a reproach-
The Law Concerning Religious Toleration in Maryland Colony.
It is not Religious Liberty.

The Baptist church at Chestnut Ridge was formed in 1742 by Henry

Sator, a layman of the General Baptist order, who had recently come
from England. He invited Baptist ministers to preach in his house.
They soon gathered a congregation; proselytes were gained, and a
church organized. This church appealed to the governor and was
taken under the protection of the toleration laws.
94. Capitall Laws.
1.
Dut. 13. If any man after legall conviction shall have or P. 14.
6, 10. worship any other god, but the lord god, he shall S. 1.
Dut. 17. be put to death.
2, 6
Ex. 22. 2.
20.
If any man or woeman be a witch, (that is hath or
Ex. 22. consulteth with a familiar spirit,) They shall be put S. 2.
18.
to death.
Lev. 20.
27. 3.
Dut. 18.
10. If any man shall Blaspheme the name of god, the father,
Sonne or Holie ghost, with direct, expresse,
Lev. 24. S. 3.
15, 16. presumptuous or high handed blasphemie, or
shall curse god in the like manner, he shall be put to death.
 Puritan-Religious-Liberty!
Facsimile of original laws. From “Body of Liberties.” First legal code for the
government of the Bay Colony. Drawn up by Rev. Nathaniel Ward, Lawyer-
divine of Ipswich.

The Final Victory in the Long Struggle

Two Baptist organizations in close sympathy with each other
contributed much toward the final victory. They made appeals to their
immediate constituency and also to the larger following of all Baptists
and other lovers of religious liberty. These were the Warren
Association in New England, and the General Committee in Virginia.
Each had a committee of grievances. The Baptists were nobly
assisted by Presbyterians and Quakers in the final stages of the
great conflict. Isaac Backus wrote his immortal work on “A History of
New England, with Especial Reference to the Baptists.” He drafted
appeals for the Association and for the committee on grievances to
the General Assembly, published addresses on religious liberty, and
inserted advertisements in leading papers. He believed that partial
history and false statements regarding Baptist history and doctrines
should be removed by scattering impartial and true knowledge. He
was a Baptist giant and had his share in forming sentiment, which
eventually made religious intoleration impossible in America.
Isaac Backus, with President Manning, of Brown University, then
Rhode Island College, went to Philadelphia and with Quakers and
others appealed to John Adams and other Massachusetts delegates
in Carpenter Hall, Philadelphia. These advocates of soul-liberty took
the position that to pay taxes to support a church clergy in which
they did not believe was as much a wrong as to pay taxes for a
government in which they had no representation. It was not the
paltry tax of fourpence a man that the colonists in Massachusetts
rebelled against. It was the principle that was back of paying the
pence which they opposed. They were greatly amazed when John
Adams told them that their own colony, Massachusetts, had “the
most mild and equitable establishment of religion that was known in
the world.”
William Rogers James Manning Isaac Backus
These men were all connected with the opening of the first Baptist college in
America. James Manning was the first president; Isaac Backus, a member of
the original board of trustees; William Rogers, the first student.
The Virginia Baptists, through their General Convention, organized in
1784, united the efforts of the Baptists there and in New England for
the final phases of the war against religious tyranny. For four years
they had worked for liberty in their State laws and had won a
complete victory. Then, in 1788, they turned to the national issue.
The Federal Constitution had provided in Article VI, “No religious
Test shall ever be required as a qualification to any Office or public
Trust under the United States.” This did not satisfy the Baptists,
because religious tests might be imposed for other purposes than
those specified. In a noble letter, drafted by John Leland, a Baptist
minister, they appealed to Washington. They paid a high compliment
to his achievements and then stated their grievance, closing with
these words:
If religious liberty is rather insecure in the Constitution the
administration will certainly prevent all oppression, for a Washington
will preside. Should the horrid evils that have been so pestiferous in
Asia and Europe, faction, ambition, war, perfidy, fraud, and
persecution for conscience sake, ever approach the borders of our
happy nation, may the name and administration of our beloved
President, like the radiant source of day, scatter all the dark clouds
from the American hemisphere.
Washington replied that his ideals were the same, assuring them of
this, in the following words:
No one would be more zealous than myself to establish effectual
barriers against the horrors of spiritual tyranny and every species of
religious persecution.
He complimented the Baptists and said that they
have been, throughout America, uniformly and almost unanimously,
the firm friends to civil liberty, and the persevering promoters of our
glorious revolution.
His assurance was not empty words. In a short time James Madison,
with the President’s approval, submitted certain amendments. Article
VI was superseded by the First Amendment to the Constitution,
which specified:
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion,
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging freedom of
speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to
assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
Thus the long fight was won in America, and now people generally
appreciate the importance of the victory gained. Rhode Island may
have hesitated to accept the imperfect Constitution, with its lack of
assurance for complete religious liberty. In this connection we should
not forget that Massachusetts and Connecticut were the last to ratify
the First Amendment.
 VII
THE WORLD-WIDE INFLUENCE OF
ROGER WILLIAMS’ IDEAL
“The world must be made safe for democracy. Its peace must be
planted upon trusted foundations of political liberty.”—President
Wilson’s War Message to Congress, 1917.

Till the war-drum throbb’d no longer, and the battle-flags were furl’d
In the Parliament of man, the Federation of the world.
There the common sense of most shall hold a fretful realm in awe,
And the kindly earth shall slumber, lapt in universal law.
—Alfred Tennyson.

A day will come when bullets and bombs shall be replaced by ballots,
by the universal suffrages of the people, by the sacred arbitrament of
a great Sovereign Senate.... A day will come when we shall face those
two immense groups, the United States of America and the United
States of Europe, in face of each other, extending hand to hand over
the ocean, exchanging their products, their commerce, their industry,
their art, their genius clearing the earth, colonizing deserts, and
ameliorating creation under the eye of the Creator. To you, I appeal,
French, English, Germans, Russians, Slavs, Europeans, Americans,
what have we to do to hasten the coming of the great day? Love one
another.—Victor Hugo.
I asked him (Premier Lloyd George) what message he would send to
American Baptists. Quick as a flash, he turned and said: “Tell them
that it is Baptist principles that we are fighting for in this great struggle.
All that Baptists count dear is at stake in this issue.”—Lloyd George to
George Coleman, President, Northern Baptist Convention. From the
latter’s speech at Atlantic City, N. J., May, 1918.

R
OGER Williams, as a man of vision, was experimenting with a
new idealism. His ideas, now generally accepted, have made
absolute religious liberty, with its complete separation of Church
and State, an idea almost synonymous with the name of the United