MARY-GUEN-SABLAYAN_LESW-REVIEW-NOTES-FOR-CASEWORK-1

FOR REVIEW (CASEWORK)
Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

TOP 8 in the Licensure Examination for Social Workers, September 2022
HISTORICAL BEGINNINGS
WESTERN BEGINNINGS
- The use of social casework as a method of social work was introduced in the
Philippines by early Americans.
- Americans were responsible for the development of casework as social work method:
first as charity workers, later as friendly visitors and last as social workers.
- However, the evolution of casework may be traced for back to some of the early
reformers of Christian charities. One was Spanish Philosopher, the other was a
Scottish Protestant Minister.
INDIVIDUALIZATION (Proponent: JUAN LUIS DE VIVES)

- The idea of helping the poor on an individual basis
- Brought up by Juan Luis de Vives, who is a Spanish Philosopher.
- Juan Luis de Vives advanced the idea that the fate of the individual poor deserved
attention, that the donors or alms givers should be concerned with what happened
afterwards to each and every recipient.
- He also advocated that an investigation of the social conditions of every pauper
family should be conducted to determine specific need or problem.
- He recommended that besides the distribution of alms, vocational training, and other
rehabilitative services should be provided.
PERSONAL NEIGHBORLY AID (Proponent: THOMAS CHALMERS)

- It was not until the 19th century that a similar idea to individualization would surface
in Scotland.
- Thomas Chalmers introduced the Personal Parochial Relief who is a Scottish
Parish Minister.
- He began by initiating in his parish, a program of private charity based on neighborly
aid.
- He advocated that each case of destitution should be handled in an individual basis.
Instead of simply doling out relief or alms, each case should be investigated, so as to
determine the cause of distress. Only then, should a solution to the problem should
be attempted.
- Among others, he also stressed that a personal interest in the fate of the individual
was necessary to ensure the rehabilitation and/or upliftment of the individual poor.

CHARITY ORGANIZATIONS SOCITIES OF ENGLAND
- London Charity Organization Society (1869) renamed to Charity Organizations
Society
- Fifty years after Chalmers pioneered the personal neighborly aid in Scotland, his idea
was picked up by the charity workers in England.
- Incorporated the two ideas: INDIVIDUALIZATION+PERSONAL NEIGHBORLY AID
approach that they used in dealing with the poor.
▪ The LONDON CHARITY ORGANIZATION SOCIETY was organized
in 1869 to operate a program of relief based on Chalmer’s idea—thus,
laying the groundwork for the development of casework as a method
in helping the poor. They established the policy that help would be
extended on a case-to-case basis depending on each individual
circumstances. Soon, a number of Charity Organization Societies
sprouted in England.
- The COS encouraged the the growth of private charities and giving donations and
bequests on their behalf. Volunteers were recruited to bring aid to the poor families
and they were encouraged to be resourceful. These volunteers were well-to-do.
- Strengthen the concept of rehabilitation through moral influence.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF COS IN ENGLAND
o Introduction of Friendly Visitors—who conducted the investigations of each
poor individual or family.
▪ Friendly visitors layered the groundwork for
casework
o Achieved the coordination of services among the different relief organizations,
of poor relief and private charities, thus paying the way for community
organization as a social work method.
o Succeeded in eliminating fraudulent set-ups, prevented the duplication of
support, and strengthened the concept of rehabilitation of the poor.
CONCEPT OF POVERTY
- The charity organization workers of 1900s century believed that the individual was
mainly responsible for his condition. Therefore, poverty was a sign of week moral
character.
- The charity workers are also concerned about the fact that the acceptance of public
relief could destroy the self-respect of the pauper and make him perpetually
dependent to alms. The volunteers were therefore directed to see to it that the
pauper exerted all his abilities in maintaining himself.
- The volunteers were directed to exert a moral influence on the pauper in such a way
that he would change his attitude and behavior due to the fact that they believed that
poverty was due to personal failure or lack of a firm moral character on the part of the
individual, hence he must be counselled to change for the better.
- Later, this would be conceptualized by social workers as one of the Objectives of
Casework:
• To change the client’s attitude and behavior within a given
situation.

CHARITY ORGANIZATION SOCIETIES OF THE UNITED STATES
- Counter part of COS England
- Purpose of COS in the US: To Introduce reforms in the administration of public relief.
- To organize relief giving work and to establish some kind of coordination among all
relief—giving sources.
- Followed the example in COS in England, staring in 1877 which were established in
cities and towns in the U.S.
- They had a firm belief that the states should leave the field of relief giving assistance
to private and religious organizations. Later, they drew financial support from
voluntary contributions and donations from philanthropic sources.
- Apart from relief giving, the American COS also established a separate function: The
helping Process:
▪ HELPING PROCESS
• Registration
• Investigation
• Cooperation
• Friendly Visiting
▪ ELEMENTS IN TODAY’S CASEWORK PRACTICE
• Intake
• Data-gathering
• Identification of the problem
• Establishment of the client-worker relationship
• Home visit
- The American COS also introduced the friendly visitors

▪ FRIENDLY VISITORS
• The American Forerunner of the casework
• They visit individuals and families applying for assistance to
determine whether or not there was a need for relief. Only
upon actual verification was relief given.
• Emphasized Friendship not Alms. Since then, friendship has
evolved into a more professional approach. Which is now
referred to as the CLIENT WORKERS OR HELPING
RELATIONSHIP.
▪ CLIENT-WORKER OR HELPING RELATIONSHIP

• Based on mutual trust and rapport.
- Aim of COS: To foster self-reliance among the poor.
FAMILY CENTERED CASEWORK

- Although the concept of relief had change from impersonal relief giving to the
individualized approach, it was in no way individualized in the strictest sense of the
word. The individual usually was a member of a family and they were included in the
approach. This development took place in the early 1900s.

- The objectives of the investigation aspect of family-centered casework were defined
as follows:
o To learn the nature of the diseases as the family was considered to be
socially ailing.
o To discover strengths within the family to be used for their recovery towards
self-reliance.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF COS
By the first two decades of this, the 20 th century social casework as a social work
method of intervention would emerge clearly, with the COS playing a major role in its
development. Specificallly the organization would be credited with three major
contributions:
1. Its emphasis on thorough investigation of each case held
the ground work for the social case study function;
2. It gave rise to the family agency which became the
traditional home of casework
3. It generated the first professional training for caseworkers,
and therefore, for social work.
SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO CASEWORK
MARY RICHMOND
- Executive head of a large family agency for many years in the United States.
- She joined Russel Sage foundation in 1911.
▪ Russel Sage Foundation is a family welfare agency
- All the while, she was taking notes on the development and practice of casework for
15 years.
- Author of the book SOCIAL DIAGNOSIS in 1917—which was an attempt to draw
together basic knowledge on casework up to that time.
- Richmond pioneered the steps of casework also known as CASEWORK TRILOGY:
• Gathering of social evidence
• Social diagnosis
• Treatment
- Richmond also pioneered in Social work education. In 1897, she formulated a plan
for a school; in 1898 this school was materialized into the Training school for
Applied Philanthropy and was set up in New York.
• Training school for Applied Philanthropy
o Materialized through richmond’s efforts
o Prototype of schools of social work.

PYSCHIATRIC AND MEDICAL SOCIAL WORK
- Case work had evolved from charity work.
- There was a rose during this period the need for continued follow-up and after care of
medical patients necessitating the need for a new breed of social workers: the
medical social worker.
ORGANISMIC APPROACH: Gordon Hamilton

- Gordon Hamilton is an American Social Worker
- This approach is based on the theory that the total organization of an organism,
rather that the functioning of its individual parts.
- It is the principal or exclusive determinant of every life process.
- Its implications for casework is that not but several interrelated factors enter into the
social functioning of the individual.
- In her exposition of this approach, she drew attention to the person-in-situation
configuration. A consideration of multiple causality in human events, and an
emphasis on growth, development, and change.
- She also advocated that apart from understanding the client’s feeling, he too must be
actively engaged in bringing about the change which he and the caseworker planned
together.
- These concepts more or less underlie the present practice of social casework.
CASEWORK IN THE PHILIPPINES

INTRODUCTION OF CASEWORK TO PHILIPPINES
- CASEWORK is a scientific method used in dealing with needy individuals and their
families was introduced to the Philippines around the 1920s.
- There are no historical records to show when the beginnings of social casework first
appeared on the Philippine Scene.
JOSEFA JARA MARTINEZ

- The introduction of social casework to the Philippines is attributed to her.
- A pioneering social worker in the Philippines
- She obtained her diploma in social work from the New York School of Social Work.
- First Filipino executive director of the Associated Charities of Manila, which is an
agency founded by American residents in 1917.

- One of Josefa’s functions was to supervise volunteer home visitors. She initiated
them in the scientific procedures of casework then being advocated by Mary
Richmond.
CHILD CARE INSTITUTIONS AND PUBLIC ASSISTANCE SETTINGS

- There are no historical records to show when the beginnings of social casework first
appeared on the Philippine Scene. However, there are indications that it was being
practiced in Child care institutions and in public assistance and medical
settings. The presence of American officials and missionaries would have made it
so. Officially, it may have made its appearance in 1915.
Medical and psychiatric Social work

- the first social service unit was organized at the Philippine General Hospital in 1915.
The workers of the service were said to have been assigned to conduct “social
service” work in the hospital.
- National Psychiatric Hospital: first psychiatric social worker in 1926
- San Lazaro Hospital: First medical social service in 1949, patterned after Almoner
Service in England
- RA 747 in 1962: A major breakthrough in medical social work that stated that
eligibility for medical assistance would be based on the fluctuations in the standard of
living.
CASEWORK LITERATURE
- To date, only two books have been published with UNICEF/DSW assistance to the
authors:
• Social Work Practice by Virginia Hobbert, Emma Paraas and
Esther Viloria
• The Filipino Family in Crisis: Ten Case Studies by Eugenia
Jamias, Felicisima C. Serafica and Rodolfo varias.
DEFINITION
SOCIAL CASEWORK
- The Philippine Encyclopedia of Social work simply defines social casework as: an
individualized form of helping people with personal problems usually involving an
impairment or breakdown of adequate social functioning.
- Kazuko Kay’s definition: “a method of social work which intervenes in the psycho-
social aspects of a person’s life to restore, improve and develop hid social functioning

or prevent its malfunctioning by enhancing his role performance as a constructive
and productive individual. It is a problem-solving, as well as a helping process.
- Esther Viloria: ”it is a helping process which consists of a variety of activities that may
include the giving of material assistance, referrals to other community, facilities,
rendering emotional and psychological support through sensitive listening,
expressions of acceptance and reassurances, making suggestions, appropriately
advising and setting limits, encouraging the individual to express his feelings,
likewise encouraging him to effect his plans, assisting the individual to narrate and
examine his situation and/or working out within a consideration and better
understanding of the casual connections between his present attitudes and mode of
adjustment with past experiences. All these may be used in combination to respond
to the person under stress, so as to enable him to meet his needs more fully and to
function more adequately in his social relationships.
- These three definitions are more or less agreed on the following concepts: that
social casework is a social work method used in working with individuals, who have
problems in social functioning; that is a helping as well as a problem-solving process;
that the goal is to improve the individual’s role performance; and that it is attended by
a variety or social work activities that may include the giving of material assistance as
well as emotional and psychological support. The are the basic components of social
work—every practice must contain these.
COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL WORK

1. the nature of the person
2. the nature of the problem
3. the nature of the resources
4. the helping or problem-solving process
Within the concept of man and his social environment, social casework is concerned
with the interaction of the first three components: a person in his social problem
situation which affects the person’s social functioning to cope with his tasks, and the
person who needs helping resources.
The helping process is to facilitate linkages of the three components; the person, the
problem and the resources which are essential means in the helping process. It is
important to understand what kind of person has what kind of problem and therefore
what kind of resources needed.
Social Casework is a client-centered and humane operation rather than problem-

centered, as seen separately from the person. It draws for support and guidance
from a scientific body of knowledge and social work philosophy and its values. It
operates in consideration of all social, economic, psychological, physical, cultural and
spiritual factors existing in the nature of the person and the nature of the problem.
These factors affect the client’s ability to cope with his situation.

COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL CASEWORK
These components are essential for the scientific method of helping, leading
1. Person
toward identification of problems, analysis and intervention. The significance of
2. Problem
this is that the worker should know whether a person can be helped and how he
3. Place
can be helped, and also to how what he wants for himself
4. Process
1. Person
- a person is dynamic
- in casework, a person is viewed as a bio-psycho-social being—which means that the
interaction between the person and his social, cultural, and economic forces in the
environment influence his behavior of thinking, feeling, talking and acting. They are
interacting and influencing upon the personality development of the person, as one
area of the problem may cause chain reactions on the other areas.
- Once a person, becomes a person with a problem (client), he must be understood,
both in terms of his psychological strength and weakness, motivation and capacities
in relation to his problem situation. It is essential that the worker understands the
nature of the person pertinent to the person’s problem.
- In order to understand the dynamics of the person, the worker must have a
knowledge of the structure and function of personality, personality development,
mechanism of defence, concept of stress, and conscious and unconscious behavior.
It is recognized that the client brings with him not only his external facts but also his
internal unseen facts and circumstances.
- Client: a person who is unable to make an adjustment between himself and his
social situation. He is a person with a problem who seeks for a professional help.
▪ Social Functioning is the product of the person’s activities when he
interacts with his social environment. It relates to the activities which
the person perceives, identifies and performs in the various roles in
relation to his involvement with others
o Problems and difficulties in social functioning can be
caused by: (1) person’s lack of motivation and
emotional capacity to cope with his environment
demands; (2) person’s inability to link himself with the
resources and (3) combination of both personal and
environmental factors.
▪ Social Reality affects a person’s total social functioning. One area of

problem whether social, economical, psychological, physical or
cultural has always chain-reactions. And they influence various ways
and degrees of self-expression and life satisfaction of a person. The
person who has his adaptive capacity in relation to his situation, tries
to cope with the situation (his reality) in order to achieve a state of
equilibrium for effective social functioning. This type of person has a
perception of reality and is ready to cope with his social reality. He
knows what his situation is and knows what has to be done.
Therefore, he is willing and motivated to cope with the situation.

o There are FOUR LEVELS OF PERCEPTION OF
REALITY, namely, (1) no recognition of reality; a
person who does not see nor recognize that he has a
problem, in spite of the presence of a serious problem,
has the “I don’t care” and “its not my problem” attitude
(2) some recognition of reality but not quite ready to
cope with it; a person who knows he has a problem, yet
does not know what to do because of being
overwhelmed with the issue, thus, being confused.
Next, the (3) Acceptance of reality as it is; a person
who has motivation and willingness to cope with his
problem situation; this person has an inner strength but
needs external resources for his situation. Lastly, the
(4) coping capacities to deal with the reality; a person
who has both internal and external capacities to cope
with the situation. This type of person does not need
any help from the worker. he has both effective and
satisfying social functioning.
▪ Social Role is the sum total of the cultural patterns associated with
the specific behavior and attitudes which a person assumes in a
specific situation in his relationship with others. Every role has a
reciprocal role (to be a mother, one must have a child). An effective
performance of such role depends upon the capacities and motivation
of the person with a given role and those in roles reciprocal to his.
o There are THREE IMPORTANT ELEMENTS which are
interrelated in role performance. These are: (1)
prescribed role which is expected by the norm and
expectation of the society; (2) subjective role which is
perceived through self-conception, and (3) enacted role
which is ultimately revealed in behavior through a
balance between expectation and subjective
assessment
2. Problem
- Basically, these are difficulties of social functioning for which a person experiences
discomfort and needs professional help in order for him to cope.
- For a difficulty in social functioning to be considered as a problem within the context
of social casework, the person with the problem, any member of his family or of his
neighborhood, should manifest either disguised or expressed dissatisfaction or
ambivalence over his situation. The difficulty should be one which the family or the
neighborhood to which the client belongs cannot help him with.
- Further, the difficulty should be such that the client can participate in the action and
can use help consciously. A person who is not in touch with his reality should be
referred for psychotherapy.

3. Place (agencies and other resources)
- Preventing and remedying the problem of social functioning require resources other
than those of the client’s and his family and significant others. These refer to the
physical set up, finances, policies, services and manpower of the social casework
agency—which could have either a primary or secondary purpose.
o Types of agencies
▪ Primary Agency- is one that has full authority and responsibility for its
casework function. Example DSWD
▪ Secondary Agency- derives it social welfare purpose from the host
agency. Example social workers in medical settings. In secondary
setting, the social work unit or the lone social worker is a resource for
clients who manifest psychosocial problems which have caused the
primary complaint of illness or problem. Similarly, the social
caseworker is called upon when the client is unable to use the primary
services of these agencies as in the case of a patient for whom
surgery is required but resists the same or the child who is
intellectually capable but cannot learn, or a tenant in a BLISS housing
who cannot relate with her neighbor.
▪
- The physical set up and atmosphere of an agency may be or may not be a resource
for a client, especially one who manifests the difficulty of being a client. The attractive
homelike arrangement of the room where the client’s child would stay while on
residence in a child caring agency had motivated the mother who had maltreated the
child to leave her child temporarily. As such, the agency served as a resource for the
abused child and the mother.
- Material resource- where the basic need for food, clothing, shelter and education is
often superimposed on problems of interpersonal conflicts and other psychosocial
difficulties, the extension of tangible resources takes precedence. Material provision
or money may be used as a tool in convincing the client that he has the potential to
deal with his other problems besides meeting his need for income.
- Services- other than the material resources of the agency are the services which are
developed to fulfill its function. As medicines are to the physician, so are the services
of the agency to the social caseworkers. A service is a composite of strategies or
approaches, activities and procedures which aim at the prevention or solution of a
social dysfunction. Example: Family Counseling Service
- Manpower- the most decisive resource of an agency is its manpower. The
effectiveness of the physical set up, of the use of funding, the carrying out of policies
and the delivery of the corresponding services depends on the manpower that
handles these other resources. The social caseworker does not only use the
facilities and the funds but delivers the services according to policies to remedy the
adverse situation of the client. In order for the client to consider the caseworker as
helpful and therefore serve as a resource in the solution of the problem, some
conditions have to be presented including:
▪ Attitude of attentiveness, warmth and receptivity to start the client
feeling his self-esteem and encourage him to reveal himself and his
problem
▪ Ability to maintain a relationship that enables the client to continue
coming for help
▪ Knowledge of skill in the application of the dynamics of human
behavior and personality, role and communications theory.

▪ Knowledge of and skill in using the strengths of the family, the spiritual
and cultural dimensions
▪ Knowledge of and skill in generating and using resources of his
agency and other agencies
▪ Security as to his identity and competence and to the clarity of his
function and ability to work with other professionals and
paraprofessionals needed in the solution of the different facets of the
client’s problem;
▪ Ability to use authority purposefully and avoid dependence, especially
with the Filipino client who is reared in an authoritarian family or one
who is not verbal or introspective and expects direction or even action
to be initiated on his behalf.
- Paraprofessionals- far more manpower resource than the social work profession
can provide is that from the host of paraprofessionals in social welfare agencies. For
example, in child caring agencies, we have houseparents, institutional workers and
nursing attendants. Other examples are MSSD employed assistants, youth
development workers, project evaluation officers, daycare workers and non-social
work graduates who assist the social workers in working for and with the client.
- Client’s Own Resources- Besides the client’s physical and mental health, the
client’s own resources have been discussed in the preceding section.
4. Process
- Helping process (TO BE DISCUSSED IN THE NEXT PAGES)
THE HELPING RELATIONSHIP

1. CLIENT WORKER RELATIONSHIP
o The client worker relationship is a professional relationship established for the
purpose of attainting objectives of helping. The relationship involves dynamic
interaction and emotional interplay between the worker and the client.
o The interaction involves their particular feelings and attitudes in relation to
particular situations. The relationship must be guided toward positive and
constructive directions within the context of objectivity and professional values
in order to promote the client’s inner security, self-dignity and sense of trust.
o The establishment of such relationship is a joint effort which encourages the
client’s active participation. The positive and objective relationships ultimately
enhance the promotion of the client’s inner growth and development and
enables him to accomplish better social functioning. The relationship operates
with the purpose of attaining a problem-solving objective within the
constructive and professional limitations.
o It is essential to assert efforts to establish a positive client-worker relationship,
particularly in the beginning phase.
o The initial relationship must be started from where the client is. This is the
recognition and assessment of the client’s readiness, pace, motivation and
capacities.
o The relationship is client’s centered rather than problem-centered, realizing
that the client’s stress has various reactions to himself and to situations.
Whatever his reactions are, his behavior has purpose and meaning in relation
to his adaptation to the problems. Under the stressful situation, the client’s
usual reaction is manifested in the form of increase in his tensions, fears,
frustrations and dependency attitudes. The worker relates to the client in such
a way to lower his anxiety and to promote his sense of trust and emotional
security; help him express himself and motivate him to become involved in
the helping process.
o Since the relationship is established with a professional purpose, the worker
recognizes the importance and dynamic involvement of SELF and of
PROFESSIONAAL USE OF SELF. In order to use SELF as a professional
person, the worker must develop self-awareness.
o Self-Awareness is the person’s ability to perceive realistically his response to
other persons in particular situations and to understand others reactions and
views on him. It conveys the person’s capacity to stand on one’s feelings
objectively and to use professional knowledge effectively, and to distinguish
and to control the effectiveness of each of these elements in various
situations. Self-awareness enables the worker the sensitive to his own needs,
anxieties, subjectivities, prejudice, judgmental attitudes and biases. The
worker uses the Recognition of SELF in order to improve the conscious and
purposeful use of self and to achieve greater objectivity and control.
o COMPONENTS OF RELATIONSHIP
1. Reality- this is the realistic and objective perception of existing
conditions or situations. A person who has a perception of reality is
the one who recognizes his problem situation and accepts this
situation, then does something about this. The person who is able
to see his situation realistically is usually the type of person who is
motivated and willing to cope with his problem situation for
problem solving.
2. Transference- transference reactions are the client’s displacement
on the worker of particular feelings and attitudes he originally
experienced toward his family members or people he is close to, in
most cases the mother or father, in his early childhood stage of
development, and then he responds and relates to the worker as if
he were the person. This is unconscious and not reality-based. It is
an unrealistic attitude and response to a particular person.
Transeference usually operates in the unconscious level. The
worker should recognize and understand its dynamic mechanism
and operation in terms of identifying negative and positive aspects
of the client’s manifestation for its assessment and intervention.
Negative manifestation must be helped and positive manifestation
must be maintained and encouraged.
3. Counter-Transference- it is the carrying-over of the worker’s
particular feelings and reactions to a person in the worker’s past
and projecting the on the client. This is also unconscious and not
reality-based. The nature of feelings and attitudes are emotionally
based and prejudiced which affect seriously the client-worker
relationship unless it is obtained and controlled. It is a professional
responsibility to recognize and control transference and counter-
transference appropriately emphasizing the reality aspect of the
relationship.

2. Guiding Principles (according to Felix P. Biestek)
a. Individualization- refers to the recognition and understanding of an
individual person’s unique characteristics and quality in relation to his
current problem situation. Individualization has significance both in
recognizing the person’s inherent worth and dignity and integrity, and in
analyzing the person in relevance to his perception of realty, problems,
motivation, capacities and his readiness for casework help.
Individualization is for the purpose of identification of problems, needs and
difficulties through securing significant facts for assessment of the nature
of the person and the nature of the problem which serve as the bases for
the formulation of intervention plans.
• the effective means for individualizing are the worker’s
sincerity, sensitivity and concern for the client which are
manifested through thoughtfulness, keeping appointments, art
of communicating, language, expression, preparation for
interviews, supportive attitude and flexibility.
b. Purposeful Expression of Feelings- the recognition of the client’s needs to

express his feelings freely, especially his negative feelings. The
caseworker listens purposely, neither discouraging or condemning the
expression of these feelings, sometimes even actively stimulating and
encouraging them when they are therapeutically useful as a part of the
casework service.
• This serves as important facts in the helping process. It has
therapeutic values of relieving pressures and tensions, hence,
heling the client feel better and see his situation more
realistically and objectively. The worker, through understanding
of the inner expression, is able to identify the client’s positive
and negative aspects of feelings, thus, accordingly directs him
into positive and constructive helping process of study,
analysis and intervention.
• Both encouraging and listening to the client’s feelings in
relation to his problem are forms of emotional support for
client. The client is able to perceive support as acceptance and
care from the worker, hence, develops a sense of trust and
security upon the worker. this strengthens the client and
worker relationship.
c. Controlled Emotional Involvement- this is the worker’s sensitivity to the

client’s feelings, and understanding of their meaning and a purposeful,
appropriate response to client’s feeling.
• this is the worker’s objectivity and control of his own emotions
and attitude. Every communication has a two-way process.
The content of communication often is a combination of
thought and feelings. The worker needs to communicate on
both thinking and feeling levels. The worker needs to respond
skillfully according to the client’s feelings and thoughts.

• Felix Biestek states that there are three components in the
worker’s controlled emotional involvement:
▪ Sensitivity- observing and gathering the
necessary information and facts for the
identification of the problems. It has analytic and
therapeutic importance. Each behavior has
significance and meaning and its manifestation
has verbal and nonverbal, external and internal,
communications, such as his way and content
of talking, hesitance, shyness, what he is
saying, crying, his movement of his hands,
facial expression, etc. therefore, the worker
must develop his sensitivity to understand the
client’s particular manifestations to his problem.
▪ Understanding- the worker needs to know the
significance and meaning of the client’s feelings
and thinking. The worker needs to understand
what he is, what his situation is, why it is, and
how it can be helped through the client’s active
participation.
▪ Response- is the worker’s attitude and feelings,
guided by his knowledge and helping
objectives. Therefore, the response is not
necessarily verbal but also non-verbal.
Sensitivity and understanding are essential and
prerequisite to response. Response without
sensitivity is blind; response without
understanding is empty.
▪
d. Acceptance- a principle of action where the caseworker perceives and
deals with the client as he really is, including his strengths and
weaknesses, his congenial and uncongenial qualities, his positive and
negative feelings, his constructive and destructive attitudes and behavior,
maintaining all the while a sense of the client’s innate dignity and personal
worth.
o Acceptance does not mean approval of deviant attitude
or behavior. The object of acceptance is not “the good”
but “the real”. The object of acceptance is pertinent
reality.
e. The Non-judgmental Attitude- in relation to the principle of

individualization, acceptance and controlled emotional involvement, the
nonjudgemental attitude is an integral part of the principles of social work.
The non-judgemental attitude refers to the objectivity and quality of the
worker’s relationship toward the client. In order to establish a positive and
constructive relationship, the worker should be free from his own needs,
biases, prejudices, interests and values. He should be able to control his
own personal feelings, attitudes, certain standards and values. He is able
to manage them in control and objectivity for the professional relationship.

f. Client Self-determination – is the practical recognition of the right and
need of clients to freedom in making their own choices and decisions in
the casework process. Caseworkers have a corresponding duty to respect
that right, recognize that need, stimulate and help to activate that potential
for self-direction by helping the client to see and use the available and
appropriate resources of the community and of his own personality. The
client’s right to self-determination, however, is limited by the client’s
capacity for positive and constructive decision-making, by the framework
of civil and moral law, and by the function of the agency.
o This principle is based on the democrative and social

work professional values and firm belief in the (1) The
client’s integrity, dignity and right as human being (2)
every individual’s potentiality for coping with and
capacity for solving his problems. (3) active
participation of the client for problem-solving (4) the
client’s responsibility for his own decision-making. This
is an essential principle in social work philosophy. The
worker motivates and encourages him to be self-
determining, thus he works with his efforts to become
self-reliant and self -productive. Help the client help
himself to be self-sufficient is the goal of social work
practice.
g. Confidentiality- confidentiality is to preserve the client’s information and

facts in a professional manner, respecting the individual person’s right,
dignity, and integrity. This is the most important ethical consideration in
working with the client. The client must be respected and protected in
such a way as to enhance the quality of relationship. The client’s trust,
respect and security upon the professional worker and agency must be
maintained or encouraged through the principle of confidentiality.
o this requires the worker and agency to protect and
safeguard the confidential aspects of the client.
Sometimes, the worker shares his emotional
involvement and personal attitude toward the client to
co-workers and friends in order to relieve his own
anxiety and to meet his own needs. Sharing client’s
information and materials should be done only with
professional purposes and for reasons which should
benefit the client.
THE HELPING PROCESS
GOAL OF SOCIAL CASEWORK

o Social welfare provisions are never going to be adequate for meeting needs
of individuals and families all over the country who are encountering multiple
survival problems. However, it is possible to use these limited resources for
helping clients mobilize their resources for solving their current problems
more effectively. There will be those who cannot be uplifted and who may
continue to need social welfare provisions, however it is possible to uplift
many individuals and families, as can be seen in the increasing number of
rehabilitated clients under the existing socio-economic assistance programs
and services of social agencies.
o The goal of problem-solving, as Helen Perlman described it, is to help a
person to cope as effectively as possible with such problems as
carrying social tasks and relationships which he now perceives as
stressful and finds insuperable without outside help.
STEPS OF THE HELPING PROCESS

1. Identification of the problem
o The first task of the caseworker is to appraise applicant’s presenting
complaint or request and to arrive at a clear definition of the problem to be
worked on. If it shows that the problem does not fall within the agency’s
function, the worker’s activity will focus on the applicants need for a referral to
an appropriate resource or for interventions which can be made available to
him at this stage. If it shows that the problem fell within the agency’s service,
the interview proceeds to further exploration of various aspects of the
identified problem. Simultaneous with this is the task of identifying which pat
of the problem will need immediate intervention, which part will need further
assessment or intervention planning.
o The applicant’s trouble as perceived by him may not necessarily be what the
worker sees as the problem to be worked. If the applicant cannot agree with
the caseworker, what becomes the immediate problem is that of helping the
applicant to understand the latter’s interpretation more clearly through
discussions and clarifications of the different facets of his own story from
which the interpretation is based. Before problem-solving work can begin,
there needs to be a joint agreement between the worker and the client on
what problem they are to work on together. Some authorities call this as the
target problem.
o The task of exploring, discussing and clarifying various aspect of the
presenting problem is part of the casework process. It must be continuous
and must be repeated at every phase of the helping process.
2. Data Gathering
o The sources of data for problem solving are: the applicant and members of
his family and significant others in his life, task report, letters and document.
Data gathering as a primary task of the interview is accomplished to serve the
purpose of study, assessment and intervention. It goes on through the
duration of the interview situation or incident of contact, as the caseworker
makes a study, assessment makes some direct interventions, and as she

develops and maintains the helping relationship. Data-collection continues
throughout the life of the case.
o Methods of Data-gathering
▪ The methods of data collection are the methods of interviewing which
Annette Garrett has identified as: Observation, listening as a form of
observation, beginning where the client is; interpretation; and
leadership and direction. Participant observation is the major
interviewing method preferred by social workers. It is used to obtain
empirical facts of specific behavior and relationships as well as the
subjective definition and meanings made by the client about himself,
his problem and his situation.
3. Assessment
o Assessment is both a process and an outcome of an understanding upon
which helping action is based. As a process, it is on-going, throughout the life
of the case. As part of a social case study, diagnosis or assessment is an
interrogative formulation upon which intervention plans are made.
o The content of a casework assessment is determined by the helping model
used. The content of the problem-solving as Perlman described it includes the
following variables: (1) the specification of the problem to be worked on (at
any given time), its objective and subjective stresses, its precipitating causes,
and its current spirals of cause-effects, effect-causes; (2) the person seeking
help, assessed especially in relation to his motivation and capacity for using
help to resolve his difficulty and the forces within and outside him which
thwart or disturbs his optimal level of problem-solving, and (3) the resources
and opportunities within the person’s own command which must be mobilized
for him in order to fill realistic deficits or aid to him in coping.
o Statement of the problem- the caseworker should define and describe the
troublesome difficulty or problematic behavior, and the meanings of these
behaviors and difficulties to the help-seeker and his social environment. The
problem to be worked on is usually a constellation of interrelated problems
and can be examined and classified in such a way that helping efforts can be
directed to these problems of immediate concern for the client. The following
are the frames of reference for defining the problem
• A. Immediate- that about which the client is most concerned,
which is causing the current difficulty and in terms of which he
perceives his need for help
• B. Underlying- the overall situation that created and which
tends to perpetuate the immediate problem
• C. Working problems- those contributing factors which stand
in the way of both remedy and prevention which must be dealt
with if change is take place.
4. Planning the Intervention

o The Planning process is concerned with moving from problem definition to
problem solution, and transforming the problem into partialized, short term
goals and specific objectives. It involves the task of developing a course of
action which is expected to have a successful outcome for the client. it
requires the client’s participation since he is to be involved in the
implementation of the plan.
o The outcome of planning is the intervention plan or the plan of action. The
plan consist of immediate, intermediate, and long term goals and specific
objectives, the services which are needed for accomplishing specific
objectives; casework activities to be performed in relation to these goals and
objectives; and the caseworker’s decisions on how case progress or
movement is to be monitored, how the case is to be evaluated, and how it is
to be terminated.
5. Intervention
o Assessment, planning and implementing intervention plans are shares
activities of the caseworker and the client. in implementing planned actions,
the caseworker helps accomplish tasks and objectives through skilled
performance of interventive and managerial roles and through the application
of interventive techniques and procedures. All these activities will require her
assertive influence on the client, and her professional se of self if she is to
help this client to mobilize resources available to him for solving his problem
in efficient ways.
o Influence is a basic dynamic for helping intervention and change. It refers to
the ability or power of to realize one’s own intentions and to affect one’s own
actions and the actions of others in desired directions. To have influence is to
be able to obtain, control, exchange and dispense resource, to be able to
obtain assent, allegiance or compliance of others, to define social roles and
the reality of their life situation. To use influence means to assert one’s will to
overcome obstacle and to persuade others in accordance with one’s wishes.
o Authority is influence that is delegates, legitimated and sanctioned by society
as having official warrant and compliance with its directives. The social
worker’s source of authority are: (1) the social work profession, (2) the social
agency, (3) personal sources of authority (4) the client.
6. Monitoring and evaluation

o Monitoring and evaluation are considered to be ethical responsibility of the
social worker.
o Monitoring is a way of checking and reviewing the case movement or the
progress being made in relation to problem-solving goals and objecitves.
o Evaluation refers to the appraisal of the intervention program to find out if the
stated objectives accomplished expected outcomes. It is done at the end of
an intervention program and or after its termination, and in the follow-up and
contact with the client.
o Evaluation of proves is necessary for improvement of practice while
evaluation of outcome is necessary for practice and for demonstrating
effectiveness of social work methods of helping people. Results are useful for
appraising social work performance and efficiency.
7. Continuation or termination
o Continuation is indicated when the outcome of the helping task and objectives
show progression towards the desired ends. Movement towards desired
direction confirms the validity of the problem assessment, the mode of
intervention, and the contract. If it is not moving, or if it is moving much more
slowly than expected, it will be necessary to evaluate the intervention
program and find out what went wrong.
o Termination is the process of ending the helping relationship or closing the
case. It is often a difficult process to go through for many social workers and
for clients because of the separation anxiety that comes with it. To minimize
problem at termination period, it usually helps to prepare oneself and the
client for the expected ending of the relationship. This can be done by
discussing it at the beginning of the helping service, by spacing the interviews
to lessen client-worker contact as the intervention goals are about to be
achieved and to assure the client that he or she can sick help in the future if
service of the agency will be needed again.
o Indications for termination
▪ The goal has been reached and the agency service is completed
▪ When nothing further can be gained from the service
▪ When the client wants to end the service
▪ When referral is made to mother agency and the original worker will
no longer be involve
▪ Either the worker or the client are unable to continue, and the
progress warrants termination (when worker leaves the agency)
MODELS OF CASEWORK
The helping process in casework is generic and applicable to all types of cases.
However, the application may differ according to the needs or problems of each individual
client. while a caseworker may use the same steps, skills and techniques and even social
welfare resources, the way she puts them together, i.e., combines them as intervention is
dictated by the client’s need and situation. The Americans who practice casework
extensively have conceptualized some of these approaches. Out of these we have selected
these models which are closely similar to casework practice in the Philippines.
For beginning casework practice, it will not be necessary for you to choose which
model to use for which problem. What is important is that the helping process should come
naturally to you. As you gain more experience and the cases that are given to you become
more complicated and/or sophisticated only then may you find it necessary to know which
combination or model to use for each case in order to be more effective.
PSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH (Mary Richmond, Florcence Hollis, Gordon Hamilton and Charlotte Towle)
The foremost advocates of this model are Mary Richmond, Florcence
Hollis, Gordon Hamilton and Charlotte Towle. To them, casework is a form of a
psychsocial treatment of individuals and families. This is the model that has been
more or less adapted for use in the Philippines in working with clients with impaired
social functioning. Among these are some types of the following:
o Juvenile delinquents
o Drug dependents
o Alcholics
o Mentally ill
This approach assmes that the client’s behavior is pathological and that there
is disorientation.
This model is also sometimes called the diagnostic, sometimes the clinical
approach. It emphasizes the importance of diagnosis and treatment in casework.
The goal is to cure. Sometimes it is called the Freudian or Psychoanalytic School
because it draws heavily upon Freadian Theory for its understanding of the
personality factor in problems of social adjustment.
Mary Richmond was of the belief that the answer to what needs to be done to
help the client will be found in data collected through careful and systematic study of
the case. As long as the worker has enough facts about the case, the solution to the
problem will soon become apparent. The process consists of social study and social
diagnosis.
The psychosocial approach is concerned with both the inner psychological
realities of men and the social context in which he lives, hence, the term “person-in-
situation”.
Casework treatment from this viewpoint embraces both the intervention in the
situation on the client’s behalf and direct work with the individual or several
individuals as in the case of a family.
The psychosocial approach is used in the Philippines although in a less
specified degree: in medical and psychiatric setting.
In this approach, the well-being of the client is the central concern, hence, it is
client centered. Its objectives may consist of any of the following:
o Meet the client’s needs
o Help him deal with the predicament of the problem with
which is he is confronted
o Strengthen him in his general capacity to function
comfortably and productively
o Lessen his suffering and distress
o Enhance his opportunities and capacities for fulfillment
of his own objectives and aspirations
There are at lease three steps in this approach: (1) the gathering of social
evidence, (2) social diagnosis and (3) treatment
1. Social evidence

▪ The social evidence may include data and
information from infancy to the present, the
family profile, background of each parents to the
marriage situation as well as such other
information that me be needed to understand
the client’s present attitudes and behavior.
2. Diagnostic Assessment (social diagnosis)

▪ The psychosocial approach requires that the
treatment must be individualized in terms of the
worker’s diagnostic understanding of the
person-in-situation problem. The term
“diagnosis” is used here to refer to the process
of drawing inferences or tentative conclusion
about the nature of the problem. This may be
done by examining the problem from as many
perspectives as necessary or helpful in order to
decide what kinds of social work intervention
are likely to contribute to its alleviation. In effect,
one looks at the person or client within the
totality of his situation to determine first, how he
is interacting with his environment, and second,
how person’s in his social network interact with
him and with each other. The objective are: first,
to learn what the nature of the dysfunction is,
and second to understand what contributes to
the difficulty.
3. Social Treatment
▪ The so-called social treatment here is of two
kinds: social therapy and psychotherapy
▪ The Social Therapy treatment emphasizes
changes in the environment; Psychotherapy is
concerned with changes in the person himself.
Inasmuch as the client’s problem usually
springs from a combination of interlocking
component, treatment much be responsive in a
multiple way.
▪ The psychosocial approach attempts to mobilize
strength of the client and the resources of the
environment at strategic points to achieve an
improvement in the opportunities available to
the individual and to develop more effective and
interpersonal functioning.
▪ Simultaneously, the caseworker must attempt to
influence those parts in the person situation that
are (1) salient in contributing to the total
problem, (2) most accessible to influence and
(3) most likely to have a strong reverberating

effect in enabling the system to function in a
more comfortable and productive manner.
FUNCTIONAL APPROACH (Jessie Taft, Virginia Robinson and Ruth Smalley)

The Functional Approach in casework is defined as method for engaging the
client, through a relationship process essentially one-to-one, in the use of a social
service toward his own and the general social welfare. This approach was first
developed in the 1930s by the faculty of the School of Social Work in the University
of Pennsylvania, principally Jessie Taft, Virginia Robinson and Ruth Smalley.
AGENCY FUNCTION (SERVICE): PURPOSE AND USE: This model
considers casework as a method for administering some specific social service with
such psychological understanding of and skill in the helping process so that the
agency service somehow contributes to or promotes the individual’s social welfare. In
effect, the primary purpose is to provide a s social service which the agency has and
which the client needs. The process is accompanied by social work interventive skills
in such a way that there emerges a visible change in the client or in his life condition.
Viewed in this light this is the approach that closely approximates the service
delivery model extensively used by the social workers of the Philippines Ministry of
Social Services and Development.
Functional Casework then is a form of practice that utilizes the agency
function (service) as an integral part of the social worker’s skill. The use of this
function (service) gives focus, content and direction to a specific helping process and
assures the social responsibility as well. (note the term “helping” is used instead of
“treatment). Simpler stated, it means that the caseworker is using the helping
process to accomplish a specific social purpose or to deliver a specific service for
which the social agency has been established. This may be child placement, family
counseling, job placement, self-employment assistance or any other service it has
been empowered by existing social policy to provide. The caseworker’s primary
purpose is to deliver the service and accomplish the functions of the agency.
However, by using his professional knowledge and methodological skill, he also,
while helping the client, develops, recovers, or improves the latter’s capacity for self-
direction and self-control. The caseworker keeps a sensitive diagnostic orientation to
the client’s possible difficulty in making use of the service and utilizes his skill in
furthering its productive use.
NDIVIDUAL IN RELATION TO SERVICE: in this model, no attempt is made
to know the total individual in his total situation. Rather, the focus throughout the
relationship is on an understanding of the individual in relation to the service offered.
For example, the social worker dealing with a school drop-out will focus on what in
the child and his environment seems to be interfering with his full use of the school.
the service to be rendered must resolve the obstacle or impediment. Thus, the
purpose of the service such as the balik paaralan (back to school) program will help
to give sharpness and focus to the diagnosis or understanding needed.
While pyscho-social approach is geared towards the restoration of impaired
social functioning, the functional approach is focused in releasing the human power
in individuals, groups and communities for personal fulfillment and social goal, and

the release of social power for the creation of the kind of society social policy and
social institutions that make self-realization most possible for all men.
THE PROBLEM-SOLVING APPROACH (Helen Harris Perlman)

FOR TEMPORARY DISEQUILIBRIUM: Helen Harris Perlman was the chief
exponent of the problem-solving approach which emerged during the fifties. It
contains elements of both the diagnostic and functional approaches. Its chief
difference lies mainly in its basic assumption: that all human living is a problem-
solving process the exercise of which may severely tax the ego function of the
person. It may happen that the usual problem-solving capacity or resources of the
individual suffers or breaks down under the strain so that a disequilibrium occurs,
making him incapable of solving his problems by himself. Such a stare usually lasts
from four to six weeks. Iin such a situation, the person turns or has to turn to
someone for material aid or psychological help in the solution to his problem. Lacking
anyone he can comfortably turn to; he may opt to seek the help of a social welfare
agency.
FOR “Ps”: This model emphasizes the four Rs: A person beset by a problem
seeks some solution from a place (a social agency or other institution) where he is
helped by a social worker who uses the professional process to engage and enhance
that person’s own problem-solving powers and/pr supplement his problem-solving
resources.
In contrast to the diagnostic model, which views the client as someone with
impaired social functioning, the problem solving approach assures that the person’s
ability to cope with a problem in his own may be due to lack of motivation, capacity
knowledge and/or opportunity to work on, solve or mitigate the problem in
appropriate ways. The client is neither “sick” nor does he possess a weak ego. It just
so happens that in a specific given situation, he is unable to cope with or solve his
problem due to any of the reasons already stated.
GOAL: Under the above circumstances, the chief aim of this model is to help
individuals or families cope with whatever they are currently finding insurmountable
and to do some in ways that make maximum use of their own conscious efforts,
choices and competencies
The primary goal of the problem-solving model is to help the client to deal
more effectively and satisfyingly as possible with the present social problems he is
encountering.
The by-product of this process which makes intensive use of ego-functioning
is the leaning of ways by which future difficulties and decisions my be dealt with. This
is a hoped for by-product, which may be used to be another goal in the problem-
solving model that of engaging a person in ways of coping that may serve him for the
new problems he may inevitably encounter as long as he is alive.

As in all social work practice, two of the MAJOR COMPONENTS of this
model are diagnosis and treatment.
1. Diagnosis- the diagnosis aims to identify and
explain the nature of person’s problem, to appraise
it within a framework of specific intentions and
goals, and to use that appraisal as a guide to
action.
2. Treatment- the test to the effectiveness of the
helping process or of the ongoing work between the
client and the caseworker will lie in the actions the
client is able to take in relation to his problems. In
this model, the caseworker will provide the client
with any single or combination of the following
services:
i. Sustaining and stimulating emotional
experience of connection with a
concerned and competent
professional helper
ii. A clarified perception and
understanding of his problem and of
himself as an actor in it
iii. The repeated exercise of his drives
and capacities to cope more
competently
iv. The provision of material means or
enriched opportunities and
v. A strengthening of the linkages
between and person and such
people and prospects in his social
network through whom he can find
greater fulfillment.
CRISIS INTERVENTION (Helen Harris Perlman)

The crisis intervention model is slowly gaining adherents among social work
practitioners in the Philippines. In this model, the crisis may consist of an inability to
determine what action to take or lack of knowledge of the alternative open to the
client, in a given situation, in a specific time. It denotes that here and how problem
implying urgency and perhaps, immediate action. There are three types of event
where crisis intervention may be applied, these are:
▪ Natural and manmade disasters
▪ Developmental and transitional crisis states
▪ Acute situational crisis

Sometimes, there may be an overlapping of situation. A crisis occurs when a
person faces an obstacle to important life foals that is for the tie being
insurmountable although he may be using his own methods of problem-solving.
The main features of crisis treatment are clear identification and clarification
of an immediate and identified problem, expansion and management of feelings, and
the use of both interpersonal and institutional resources, on the basis that the person
in crisis is most susceptible to the influence of significant others.
The goal of the treatment rests on the concept of restoration and
enhancement of functioning rather than cure.


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FOR REVIEW (CASEWORK)

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

INDIVIDUALIZATION (Proponent: JUAN LUIS DE VIVES)

PERSONAL NEIGHBORLY AID (Proponent: THOMAS CHALMERS)

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

- The American COS also introduced the friendly visitors

▪ CLIENT-WORKER OR HELPING RELATIONSHIP

- Aim of COS: To foster self-reliance among the poor.

FAMILY CENTERED CASEWORK

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO CASEWORK

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

ORGANISMIC APPROACH: Gordon Hamilton

CASEWORK IN THE PHILIPPINES

JOSEFA JARA MARTINEZ

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

CHILD CARE INSTITUTIONS AND PUBLIC ASSISTANCE SETTINGS

Medical and psychiatric Social work

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL WORK

Social Casework is a client-centered and humane operation rather than problem-

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

▪ Social Reality affects a person’s total social functioning. One area of

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

THE HELPING RELATIONSHIP

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

b. Purposeful Expression of Feelings- the recognition of the client’s needs to

c. Controlled Emotional Involvement- this is the worker’s sensitivity to the

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

e. The Non-judgmental Attitude- in relation to the principle of

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

o This principle is based on the democrative and social

g. Confidentiality- confidentiality is to preserve the client’s information and

THE HELPING PROCESS

GOAL OF SOCIAL CASEWORK

STEPS OF THE HELPING PROCESS

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

4. Planning the Intervention

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

6. Monitoring and evaluation

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

2. Diagnostic Assessment (social diagnosis)

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

FUNCTIONAL APPROACH (Jessie Taft, Virginia Robinson and Ruth Smalley)

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

THE PROBLEM-SOLVING APPROACH (Helen Harris Perlman)

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

CRISIS INTERVENTION (Helen Harris Perlman)

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

Compiled by: MARY GUEN Y. SABLAYAN, RSW

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