Detailed answers

Answer no. 3. Role of Microbes in Food Preserving:

1. **Fermentation:** Microbes like bacteria and yeast are used to ferment food,
producing acids or alcohol that preserve the food and inhibit the growth of
harmful bacteria.

2. **Production of Preservatives:** Some microbes produce natural

preservatives like bacteriocins, which can prevent spoilage by inhibiting the
growth of spoilage-causing bacteria.

3. **Probiotics:** Certain beneficial microbes (probiotics) can be added to

foods like yogurt and cheese, improving shelf life by outcompeting harmful
bacteria and enhancing food safety.

**Role of Microbes in Sewage Treatment:**

1. **Biological Degradation:** Microbes play a crucial role in breaking down

organic matter (like human waste) in sewage through processes like aerobic and
anaerobic digestion.

2. **Nutrient Removal:** Certain microbes help remove nutrients such as

nitrogen and phosphorus from sewage, reducing environmental pollution when
the treated water is released back into water bodies.

3. **Pathogen Removal:** Microbes also contribute to the removal or

inactivation of pathogens (disease-causing organisms) in sewage through
natural biological processes and treatment technologies.

In both food preservation and sewage treatment, understanding and harnessing

microbial activity are essential for effective and sustainable practices that
enhance food safety and environmental health.
Answer no. 4.
**DNA replication** is the process by which a cell makes an identical copy of
its DNA. This process is essential for cell division, growth, and repair in living
organisms.

**Process of DNA Replication:**

1. **Initiation:** DNA replication begins at specific sites on the DNA

molecule called origins of replication. Here, enzymes and proteins
unwind and separate the double-stranded DNA into two single strands.

2. **Unwinding and Separation:** Enzymes called helicases unwind the

double helix by breaking the hydrogen bonds between complementary
base pairs. This creates a replication fork where the DNA strands are
exposed and ready for copying.

3. **Primer Binding:** Primase, a type of RNA polymerase, synthesizes a

short RNA primer on each strand of the DNA. This primer provides a
starting point for DNA polymerase to begin synthesizing new DNA
strands.

4. **DNA Synthesis:** DNA polymerase enzymes then add nucleotides to

the growing DNA strands. They can only add nucleotides in the 5’ to 3’
direction, so one strand (the leading strand) is synthesized continuously,
while the other (the lagging strand) is synthesized discontinuously in
short segments called Okazaki fragments.

5. **Proofreading and Correction:** DNA polymerases have proofreading

abilities to ensure accuracy. They can detect and correct errors in base
pairing as they add nucleotides.
 6. **Ligase Action:** After DNA polymerase completes synthesis, DNA
ligase seals any gaps between Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand
and joins the sugar-phosphate backbone into a continuous strand.

7. **Termination:** Replication continues bidirectionally along the DNA

until the entire molecule is copied. At termination points, specific
proteins help complete the process and ensure that all DNA is accurately
replicated.

DNA replication results in two identical DNA molecules, each containing one
original strand and one newly synthesized strand. This ensures genetic
continuity and fidelity during cell division and growth.

Answer no.5. Biogeochemical cycle:

A biogeochemical cycle, often referred to as a biogeological cycle, describes
the pathway that an element or chemical compound takes through the biotic
(living organisms) and abiotic (non-living environment) components of Earth.
These cycles are essential for the circulation and recycling of nutrients and
elements necessary for life.

**Nitrogen Cycle:**

The nitrogen cycle is a biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of

nitrogen through various reservoirs (such as the atmosphere, soil, and living
organisms) and the transformations it undergoes.

1. **Nitrogen Fixation:** Nitrogen gas (N2) from the atmosphere is converted

into ammonia (NH3) or ammonium ions (NH4+) by nitrogen-fixing bacteria,
either free-living in the soil or in symbiosis with certain plants (e.g., legumes
like soybeans and clover).

2. **Nitrification:** Ammonia (NH3) produced by nitrogen fixation or from

organic matter is converted into nitrites (NO2-) and then into nitrates (NO3-) by
nitrifying bacteria (e.g., Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter) in the soil.

3. **Assimilation:** Plants and other primary producers take up ammonium

(NH4+) and nitrates (NO3-) from the soil to build proteins and nucleic acids.

4. **Ammonification:** Decomposer bacteria break down organic nitrogen

compounds from dead organisms and waste products into ammonia (NH3) and
ammonium ions (NH4+), which can be reused by plants.

5. **Denitrification:** Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates (NO3-) in the soil

back into nitrogen gas (N2), completing the cycle by returning nitrogen to the
atmosphere.

The nitrogen cycle is crucial for maintaining soil fertility and ecosystem
productivity. It involves biological processes driven by various bacteria and
other microorganisms, as well as chemical and physical transformations
influenced by environmental factors such as temperature, pH, and moisture.
Human activities, such as agriculture and industrial nitrogen fixation, can
disrupt the nitrogen cycle, leading to environmental issues like water pollution
and greenhouse gas emissions.