Nonrenewable energy resources

Visualizing Environmental Science
Fifth Edition
David M. Hassenzahl, Mary Catherine Hager & Linda R. Berg
Nonrenewable Energy Resources
Copyright © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Coal and the Environment
• As long as coal remains a major energy source we will continue to
struggle with its environmental consequences
• In many parts of the world, coal is burned using old technology
o Air, water, ground contamination
• Even though technology can remove particulates, sulfur, and
mercury, we can’t yet remove the CO2 it releases
• Large scale use of coal can be devastating
o Kingston, TN—2008
• Fly ash slurry spill destroyed houses and roads, and contaminated
rivers which feed the Tennessee, Ohio, and Mississippi rivers
Copyright © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 2
Energy Consumption (1 of 2)
• Human society depends on energy
o Grow, store, cook food; warm/cool homes;
extract/process natural resources,
manufacture items; transportation
• Per capita consumption of energy is much
higher in developed than developing
countries
o In U.S., 31% of total energy is for industry Annual per person commercial energy
o 41% consumed by buildings (homes and consumption in selected countries
offices)
o 28% transportation
o In developing countries, industrial energy
use is lower, and household use higher
Energy Consumption (2 of 2)
o Global energy consumption
increases almost every year
(biggest increases in India
and China)
o Developed nations use more
but consumption is not
increasing/relatively stable
o World’s energy requirements Projected total energy consumption, to 2030
will increase as populations
become larger
Coal
Distribution of coal deposits
• Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel on
Earth
o Mostly found in Northern Hemisphere
• U.S., Russia, China, Australia, India,
Germany, South Africa have largest
deposits
• U.S. has 25% of world’s coal deposits
• 100+ years’ reserve
o Used to produce electricity and steel
o Consumption has surged in recent years
• China and India
Coal Mining
• Two basic types of coal mines
o Surface mining
• Coal within 30 m of the surface
• Reached by removing soil, subsoil, and overlying rock strata
• 60% of U.S. coal is obtained this way
• Usually safer for miners, less expensive
• Disrupts the land extensively
• Strip mining—one type of surface mining
• Vegetation, soil, and rock are ‘stripped away’
• Trench is dug to extract coal
• Rubble dumped into nearby valleys
o Subsurface mining (deep underground)
• Approximately 40% of coal is mined this way in the U.S.
Environmental Impacts of Coal (1 of 3)
• Substantial effects on the environment
o Topsoil loss (from erosion or removal during mining)
• Prevents restoration of site
o Landslides occur due to loss of soil-stabilizing vegetation
o Acid and toxic mineral drainage leaches from minerals exposed in
mine waste
• Acid mine drainage—sulfuric acid and dangerous dissolved materials,
such as lead, arsenic, and cadmium, wash from coal and metal mines
into nearby lakes and streams
o Streams become polluted with silt runoff and acid mine drainage
o Mountaintop removal
• One of the most destructive mining methods
• Has leveled 15–25% of mountains in southern West Virginia
• Half the peaks in that area will be gone by 2020
• Valleys and streams between mountains are obliterated; filled in with tailings and
debris
• Also in Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia
o Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
• 1977—controlled abandoned surface mines
• Set standards for mines to follow during operation and reclamation
• Coal burning
o Contributes more air pollutants than oil or natural gas
o Coal burning electric power plants produce 1/3 of all airborne
mercury emissions
o When coal is burned it produces sulfur and nitrogen oxides, which
react with water in the atmosphere and cause acid deposition
o Releases more CO2 into the atmosphere (per unit of heat produced)
than other fossil fuels
Making Coal Cleaner
• Scrubbers and other technologies can be used to remove sulfur and
particulates from emissions released during coal burning
o In scrubbers, chemicals react with exhaust from the coal and precipitate out the
polluting emissions
o Fluidized-bed combustion
• Crushed coal is mixed with limestone to neutralize acidic compounds
• Produces fewer nitrogen oxides and removes sulfur
• Produces more heat per unit, so reduces CO2 emissions
• Clean Air Act—1990
o Provides incentives for utility companies to convert to clean coal technologies
• Fluidized-bed, CO2 capture
Oil and Natural Gas (1 of 6)
• Provide 56% of world’s energy
• In U.S., also supplies approximately
56% energy
• Other U.S. sources:
o Coal 23%
o Nuclear power 9%
o Renewables 11% (hydropower,
wind, solar)
o Liquid biofuels 1% World commercial energy sources
Petroleum refining
• Petroleum, or crude oil
o Liquid composed of hundreds of
hydrocarbon compounds
o Refining separates crude oil into different
products based on boiling points
• Gases, jet fuel, heating oil, diesel,
asphalt
o Petrochemicals
• Oil is also used to produce fertilizers,
plastics, paints, pesticides, medicines,
synthetic fibers
• Natural gas
o Only a few hydrocarbons
• Methane is used primarily for heating residential and commercial buildings, and
generating electricity
• Ethane
• Propane
• Butane
o Liquefied petroleum gas
• Propane and butane are separated and stored in pressurized tanks as a liquid
• Natural Gas Uses
o Electricity generation
• Cogeneration
• Natural gas is used to produce electricity and steam; steam is used for heating water and spaces
o Transportation
• Fuels for cars, trucks, buses
• Environmental advantages over gasoline/diesel
• 33% less CO2; 80–93% fewer hydrocarbons; 70% less CO; 90% fewer toxic emissions, almost no soot
• In 2015 there were 23 million natural gas vehicles worldwide, with more than half of them in China,
Iran, and Pakistan
• Natural Gas Uses
o Commercial cooling
• Residential and commercial air cooling
• Desiccant-based air cooling (air-drying system)
o Plastics and fertilizer production
• Main disadvantage
o Deposits are located far from where gas is needed
o Costs four times more to transport through pipelines than crude oil
• Must be compressed to form liquefied natural gas (LNG) and carried in specially
constructed refrigerated ships
• Then, it must be returned to the gaseous state at regasification plants
• Only five plants in the U.S.
• At least 40 needed according to energy companies
Reserves of Oil and Natural Gas (1 of 2)
• Reserves are found on every continent, but have uneven distribution
• More than half of all oil reserves are in Persian Gulf
o Other major oil fields are in Venezuela, Mexico, Russia, Kazakhstan, Libya,
U.S.
• About half of natural gas reserves are in Russia and Iran
• Large oil deposits probably also exist under continental shelves and
adjacent deep-water areas
• Hydraulic fracturing (fracking) techniques have changed estimates of
natural gas resources
o Environmental impacts of fracking different than other extraction methods
o Expensive, environmentally disruptive
Reserves of Oil and Natural Gas (2 of 2)
• How long will supplies last?
o Cannot predict
• Technological breakthroughs, new reserves discovered, changes in
world consumption rates
o Most optimistic predictions
• Global oil production will peak around 2035
• Natural gas is more plentiful, production will continue to rise for
perhaps 10 more years after that
Environmental Impacts of Oil and Natural Gas
• Oil
o CO2 production contributes to global warming
• Each gallon of gas burned releases 9kg of CO2 to atmosphere
o Acid deposition
o Photochemical smog
o Nitrogen oxides (almost no sulfur oxides)
• Natural gas
o Relatively clean
o No sulfur
o Releases far less CO2 and hydrocarbons
o Almost no particulates compared to oil and coal
• Risks associated with transport
o Leaks and spills
Major US Oil Spills (1 of 2)
• Exxon Valdez supertanker—1989 The extent of the
Exxon Valdez oil spill
o 260,000 barrels/10.9 million (black arrows)
gallons of crude oil
• Prince William Sound, along
coast of Alaska
o 300,000 birds and 3500–5500
sea otters died
o Orca and harbor seal
populations declined
o Salmon migration was
disrupted
o Commercial fishing was halted
Major US Oil Spills (2 of 2)
• Deepwater Horizon drilling platform explosion—2010, Gulf of Mexico
o 11 workers died
o 4 million barrels of crude oil spilled from the damaged ocean floor well
o Fisheries disrupted, wildlife killed, extensive ecological damage occurred
Major Oil Spills in the U.S.
• Oil Pollution Act of 1990
o Establishes liability for damages to natural resources resulting from
oil spills, including a trust fund to pay for damages when responsible
party cannot
o Required, since 2015, that all tankers entering U.S. waters be
constructed with double hulls
Five Largest Oil Spills in World History
Year Amount spilled (million Event Location
barrels of oil)
1910 9 Drilling rig hits pressured oil pocket Kern County, California
1991 6 Oil dumped by Iraqi army during first Kuwait

Persian Gulf War
2010 4 to 5 Deepwater Horizon oil rig fails Gulf of Mexico, south of Louisiana
1979 2.5 to 3.5 Exploratory well Ixtoc I fails Bay of Campeche, Gulf of Mexico
1979 2.1 Oil tankers Atlantic Empress and Aegean Trinidad and Tobago
Captain collide
Compiled from Casselman, A., (2012). "10 Biggest Oil Spills in History" Popular
Mechanics. Moss, L., (2010). “The 13 Largest Oil Spills in History” Microsoft News
Network July 12, 2010; Harvey, S. (2010). "California's Legendary Oil Spill". Los
Angeles Times, June 13, 2010.
Nuclear Energy (1 of 2) Atomic structure
• Atoms are composed of
o Protons (+)
o Neutrons (0)
o Electrons (–)
o Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus,
and electrons orbit the nucleus
• With fossil fuels, combustion releases
energy from changes in the chemical bonds
between atoms
• Nuclear energy comes from changes within An atom contains a nucleus made
of protons and neutrons. Circling
the nuclei of atoms the nucleus is a “cloud” of electrons
Nuclear Energy (2 of 2)
• Nuclear energy- the energy released by fission or fusion nuclear reactions
o Fission
• Splitting of nucleus into two smaller fragments, accompanied by the release of large
amounts of energy
• E.g., a neutron crashes into a nucleus of uranium
• Used in nuclear power plants
o Fusion
• Two small atoms are combined to form a large atom of a different element
• E.g., process that powers the sun and other stars
Nuclear Fission
Fission process in U-235 atoms
Conventional Nuclear Fission (1 of 3)
• Uranium ore is used in nuclear power plants
o Nonrenewable resource, 11% of global resources of uranium are located in
U.S.
o Ore contains three isotopes: U-238, U-235, U-234
o Enrichment—the process of refining uranium ore to increase the
concentration of U-235 to 3% so it’s usable in nuclear reactors
• Requires a great deal of energy
• Processed into small pellets (each pellet contains the energy equivalent of 1
ton of coal)
• Pellets are then placed into closed pipes called fuel rods
• Fuel rods are placed into groups of 200 to create fuel assemblies
• A reactor contains 150–250 fuel assemblies
• Fission of U-235 releases an enormous amount of heat
o In nuclear reactors, this heat is used to convert water into steam
o Steam then drives a turbine, generating electricity
• Nuclear reactors use controlled nuclear fission chain reactions to
produce energy
o Bombs are uncontrolled nuclear reactions
o Nuclear reactors do not contain enough bomb-grade U-235 to cause
a bomblike nuclear explosion
• Nuclear reactors
o Reactor core—fission occurs
here
o Steam generator—heat from
core is used here
o Turbine—uses steam to
generate electricity
o Condenser—cools steam
Pressurized water reactor
Nuclear Energy and Fossil Fuels (1 of 2)
• Nuclear power production has plateaued after a decade of growth
o In 201, 438 nuclear power plants in 30 countries operating; 67 more under
construction in 15 countries
• Supporters claim we need more nuclear energy
o Affects the environment less than fossil fuels
• Less pollution, no CO2
• Decreases demand on foreign oil
• Nuclear energy generates radioactive waste
o Spent fuel, coolant fluids and gases
o Special measures necessary for safe storage and disposal
Nuclear Energy and Fossil Fuels (2 of 2)
Comparison of environmental impacts of 1000-megawatt coal and conventional nuclear power plants*
Table 17.1
Impact Coal Nuclear (conventional fission)

Land use 7000 hectares 800 hectares
Daily fuel requirement 9000 tons (of coal)/day 3 kg (of enriched uranium)/day
Availability of fuel, based on present economics Around 100 years 100 years, maybe longer
Air pollution Moderate to severe, depending on pollution controls Low
Climate change risk (from CO2 emissions) Severe Small**
Radioactive emissions, routine 1 curie 28,000 curies
Water pollution Often severe Potentially severe at nuclear waste disposal sites
Risk from catastrophic accidents Short-term local risk Long-term risk over large areas
Link to nuclear weapons No Yes
Annual occupational deaths 0.5 to 5 0.1 to 1
*Impacts include extraction, processing, transportation, and conversion. Assumes that coal is strip-mined. (A 1000-MWe utility, at a
60 percent load factor, produces enough electricity for a city of 1 million people.)
**Currently, nuclear power requires the use of fossil fuels for mining, construction, processing, transportation, and waste
management, and so it cannot be considered carbon free.
Safety and Accidents in Nuclear Power Plants
(1 of 4)
• Nuclear power plants cannot explode like bombs. However,
accidents can cause radiation release
o Meltdown—metal encasing uranium fuel can melt
o Water can boil off and release radioactivity
• Nuclear industry considers major accidents low probability risks, but
public’s perception of risk is much higher
o Involuntary and potentially catastrophic
o People are distrustful of nuclear industry
o Consequences of accidents are drastic and long-lasting
• Worldwide, three major nuclear accidents have occurred since 1970
(2 of 4)
• Three Mile Island, USA
o Most serious commercial reactor accident in U.S.
o 1979, Pennsylvania
o Partial meltdown of reactor core
o Most radioactive material was kept in containment building, did not
escape
o No substantial environmental or human damage
o New regulations were put in place
• More frequent inspections
• Risk assessments
• Improved emergency and evacuation plans
(3 of 4)
• Chernobyl, Ukraine
o Severe accident at Chernobyl nuclear power plant in 1986
o 1-2 explosions ripped apart reactor and released large amounts of
radioactive material into environment
o Radioactivity quickly spread to surrounding area and other parts of Europe
o Ultimately more than 170,000 people abandoned their homes
o Farmlands and forest contaminated in many areas of Ukraine, people cannot
drink or eat local water, milk, meat, fish, fruits, or vegetables
o Mothers can’t nurse their babies—their milk is contaminated by radioactivity
o Increases in birth defects, leukemia, thyroid cancer, abnormal immune
systems
(4 of 4)
• Fukushima Daiichi, Japan
o Tsunami following an underwater 9.0 earthquake in March 2011,
disrupted normal and backup reactor cooling systems
o Three of six reactors had meltdowns
o Overheating led to hydrogen gas buildup and explosion in one reactor
o Contamination from accident extensive to both ocean and local land
areas
o Neighboring areas permanently evacuated
o High radiation levels will limit seafood catches locally for decades
The Link Between Nuclear Energy and
Nuclear Weapons (1 of 2)
• Fission is the nuclear process involved in both
• Countries with nuclear power plants have access to material for nuclear
weapons
o Spent fuel is reprocessed into plutonium
o Leaders worried about terrorist groups and some nations (Iran, North Korea)
The Link Between Nuclear Energy and
Nuclear Weapons (2 of 2)
• Several hundred metric tons of plutonium available worldwide
o Security nightmare
o Just a few kilograms are necessary for bombs of the magnitude used to destroy
Nagasaki and Hiroshima in WWII
o Security in U.S. at nuclear power plants and plutonium stockpiles increased
substantially since 2001
Radioactive Wastes (1 of 4)
• Low-level
o Solids, liquids, or gases that give off small amounts of radioactive energy
o Glassware, tools, paper, clothing, etc.
o Produced by power plants, nuclear medical facilities, university research labs
o Stored at four sites in the U.S.
• High-level
o Solids, liquids, or gases that give off large amounts of radiation
o Produced during nuclear fission in reactors
• Fuel rods and assemblies, coolants, air and gases from reactor, reprocessing of spent
fuel
o Among the most dangerous human-made hazardous wastes
• Difficult to store; toxic and produce considerable amounts of heat
o Secure storage must be guaranteed for thousands of years
• Recommended storage
o Stable rock formations deep in the ground
• People object to having it stored under their homes/cities
• Currently no long-term centralized storage in U.S.
• Commercial nuclear power plants store spent fuel on-site, but none are
designed for long-term storage
• No countries have successfully selected or developed long-term storage
facilities for high-level nuclear waste as of 2016
• Nuclear waste management is the biggest obstacle to increased nuclear
power in U.S. and abroad
o It will be decades before deep underground storage facilities are
developed
o Nuclear Waste Policy Act—1982
• Federal government has the burden of developing permanent sites for storage of
radioactive waste
• Congress identified Yucca Mountain, NV as the only candidate for a storage facility
• Billions of dollars were spent on feasibility studies
• In 2009 Obama administration withdrew support for this site—as of 2016, no new
siting process had yet been announced
• Transportation concerns were a major factor in canceling project
o Deep-underground storage is safest and best long-term option
EnviroDiscovery
• A nuclear waste nightmare
o Over past three decades Soviet (now Russian) practices have violated international
standards
• Billions of gallons of radioactive waste pumped directly underground
• Wastes dumped into the ocean, more than double the dumped wastes of 12 other
nuclear nations combined
• Potential health and environmental hazards unknown
Decommissioning Nuclear Power Plants
• Nuclear power plants do not last forever
o Critical components become brittle or corroded and eventually the plants must be
shut down and decommissioned
• International Atomic Energy Agency defines three options for decommissioning
o Storage
• Utility company guards facility for 50–100 years while radioactive materials decay,
making it safer to dismantle later
o Entombment
• Permanently encase plant in concrete
• Tomb would have to remain viable for 1000+ years—not viable option
o Immediate dismantling
• Robotics make it feasible to dismantle ‘hot’ sections of plant
Case Study
• The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR)—1980
o “America’s Serengeti”
• Biologically rich-home to many species
• Fragile ecosystem
o Environment vs. economy conflict
• Proposed opening of area to oil exploration
• Supporters—economic considerations are main reason for drilling; make U.S.
less dependent on foreign oil
• Detractors—money spent on exploration would be better spent on
developing alternative, renewable fuel sources, and energy conservation
• Permanent threats to balance of nature in Alaskan wilderness
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Visualizing Environmental Science

Nonrenewable Energy Resources

1991 6 Oil dumped by Iraqi army during first Kuwait

Impact Coal Nuclear (conventional fission)

Annual occupational deaths 0.5 to 5 0.1 to 1

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