Reference: April, K., & Forster, D. (2024).

Spirituality, religion,
diversity, equity & inclusion. In M. H. Carrim, & L. Moolman
(Eds.), Managing diversity in the South African workplace (2nd ed.,
pp. 113-140). Pretoria, SA: Van Schaik Publishers.

PRE-PUBLICATION TEXT

Chapter 6
Spirituality, religion, diversity, equity and inclusion

Kurt A. April & Dion A. Forster

Learning outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

• Offer a definition of religion and spirituality, and highlight some of the characteristics
of such orientations.
• Differentiate between religion and spirituality.
• Explain the importance of the religious and spiritual in all spheres of life (including
working life).
• Show some understanding of the different ways in which religion and spirituality relate
to, and are important in, the world of work.
• Show an understanding of why religion and spirituality, and religious and spiritual
outlooks, are important to South Africans.
• Outline some theories of diversity management that have a particular bearing upon
religion and spirituality in relation to the world of work.
• Offer some suggestions, insights and guidance for managing religious and spiritual
diversity in the world of work.

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Key terms

Accommodations: The willingness, or capacity, to live with differences of

opinion, behaviour and physical challenges of those considered “other”.

Diversity: A range of differences among persons that could include culture,

ethnicity, race, religion, age, gender, various abilities, values, and other
informants of individual or social identity

Faith: The belief and trust in something or some being based on spiritual
conviction that orientates one’s life and gives purpose to one’s existence

Intersectionality: A dynamic matrix of thinking that highlights the shifting

interplay of lived experiences, structures and enactment of oppression, spatial
disempowerment, forms of power and privilege, and contexts of marginalisation

Psychology: The study of the human mind, its functions, and its effect on
behaviour

Religion: A system of beliefs with associated practices (such as worship, prayer,

service) in the service of, and worshipping, a superhuman controlling power (a
god or gods)

Sociology: The study of the development, structuring and functioning of human

society

Southern Africa: A geopolitical description of the southernmost region of the

African continent which includes the nations of Angola, Botswana, Eswatini,
Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe

Spirituality: A life orientation that takes account of more than just physical and
material reality, and includes a sense of connection to something bigger than
ourselves. It typically involves a search for meaning in life. Spirituality may, or
may not, be associated with a historical religion.

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 World of work: Those environments, tasks and actions that are associated with
labour, production and employment

6.1 Introduction
Many people long to find significance in their lives. They look for deeper meanings to
their existence, and seek congruence between their inner and outer person. Of course, this
search for meaning touches every part of their lives – not only their so-called “private
lives” (at home or in their communities), but also their “public lives” (at work, institutions
and organisations), yet they often fail to connect these “greater questions” with their
ordinary living and their everyday activities.

In this chapter you will be invited to examine, and reflect upon, two of the most important,
yet least considered, aspects of diversity management in the contemporary workplace –
religion and spirituality. Where do your values come from? What is it that forms your
idea of what is wrong and right in society? What is the source of your greatest hopes and
dreams? Is there more to life than the hours you spend at work? Do you long to engage
in the kind of work that is meaningful to you, and contributes to the common good of
society? Why is it that many people are unhappy in their work lives, even though they
earn a good salary or have a job with social status? What should you do if your employer
expects you to do something that conflicts with your values and beliefs? How do you
engage with people at work whose beliefs and values differ from your own?

These are very important questions.

Our aim is to help you to see how important religion and spirituality, in their different
forms (such as formal religious traditions and beliefs, spiritual beliefs, spiritual practices,
unquestioned religious beliefs, cultural beliefs or social beliefs) are in shaping who we
are and how we engage with the world around us. We shall see that these important
aspects of our lives do not shut down when we go to work. Whether we are aware of it or
not, religion and spirituality play important roles in the world of work.

We will begin by examining some characteristics and definitions of religion and

spirituality. These will help us to identify how religion, and the religious, feature in the
lives of South Africans. Next, we will gain some insights into the prevalence, and
importance, of religion for South Africans. The most reliable and up-to-date research on

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religion in our region focuses on South Africa, so we shall concentrate on that
demographic data. Having established this foundation, we will move on to suggesting
some ways in which recent research in diversity management can be related to religious
diversity in our context. Finally, we will offer some ideas, suggestions and resources that
could be helpful in engaging religious diversity in the South African workplace.

6.2 Towards a definition of religion, the religious and

spirituality
When you read the word “religion”, you may have had a few concepts in mind. What are
those concepts? Is it a particular faith tradition, such as Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism,
Judaism or Christianity? Perhaps you associate religion with some connection or
relationship to something or someone larger than yourself? Did it cause you to think about
people’s relationship to nature and the cosmos? Or did you associate “religion” with
certain practices such as prayer or rituals of worship? Maybe you associated it with some
religious symbols (such as the cross of the Christian faith) or religious garments (such as
turbans worn by Sikh men, or the hijab worn by some women in the Islamic faith)? All
of these, and many more, could be associated with religion and being religious.

In the academic literature, a “religion” is most frequently defined as a certain set of

beliefs, rituals and practices that are associated with the transcendent or the divine
(Koenig, Zaben, Khalifa & Shohaib, 2015). The Oxford English dictionary says that the
word “transcendent” simply means something that is “beyond or above the range of
normal or physical human experience” (Simpson & Weiner, 1989), whereas the divine
refers to the character, person and nature of God. Religion could thus be organisational
(a formal or historical religious tradition with sacred texts, buildings, officials, etc.) or
non-organisational (beliefs, norms, practices, expectations, commitments, experiences,
etc.). Religions most frequently facilitate a connection between what we experience in
“this world” and beliefs/faith associated with “other worlds” (e.g. a life that is lived after
human death, or a world that is inhabited by spiritual beings such as deities, angels,
demons or, as in many African and Shintoist Japanese traditions, the ancestors) (Thorpe,
1998; Setiloane, 1998). The relationships between “this world” and the “other worlds”
are often structured according to sets of beliefs that take the form of both doctrines (what
is true) and ethics (what is right). As a result, people structure their lives in “this world”
according to what they believe to be true and right in accordance with their beliefs. In
some religious systems, living faithfully according to the doctrine and ethics of the

4
religion will secure blessings, protection or favour (or alternatively curses, harm or
punishment if not followed properly). The benefits, or hindrances, of religious
faithfulness could relate to “this world” or the “other world”. For example, some religious
people believe that if they live their lives faithfully and carefully, they will have eternal
life, or a better life, after they die (e.g. variously understood by certain Christian, Muslim
and Jewish religious groups). Others believe that faithful adherence to their religious
beliefs and values secures a better present life (e.g. certain African traditional religions,
some Japanese traditions, some Buddhists traditions, and some Christian traditions who
term this “kingdom life”). Still others believe in the transmigratory nature of religious
adherence or deviance, and the possibility of living multiple lives on the earth, often in
different physical bodies or forms (central tenets of Jainism, Sikhism, Hinduism and
Buddhism). Some people may not adhere to a particular religion, or religious tradition,
yet they would consider themselves as ”spiritual”, practising a form of “spirituality” as
part of their daily lives. This may include practices such as silence, meditation, breathing
exercises, journalling, the awakening of gratitude, immersion in nature, to name just a
few examples. While religions are often characterised by their doctrines (beliefs),
religious practices (worship, prayer, service) and religious communities (Christian,
Muslim, Hindu, etc.) (Saucier & Skrzypińska, 2006), spiritualities tend to be less
homogeneous.

Ashforth and Pratt (2003) suggested three major dimensions of spirituality: (1)
transcendence of self, which they define as a connection to something greater than oneself
(e.g. other people, causes, nature, and belief in a higher power); (2) holism and harmony,
which they associate with authenticity, balance and perspective; and (3) growth, which
they regard as the realisation of one’s aspirations and potential. The combination of these
two concepts is best described by Evans (1990), who views spirituality as connected to
what I am (identity) and what I must become (meaning, control and growth). This
conceptualisation has a Western materialist and instrumentalist underpinning that is
rooted in concepts of the individual and control. The contemporary usage of the term
“spirituality” often refers to practices and beliefs that are not necessarily connected with
a specific religious community or historical religious tradition. Rather, spiritualities and
spiritual practices seek to deepen the individual’s experience of the sacred dimension in
daily life (Saucier & Skrzypińska, 2006). Of course, spirituality also entails some beliefs,
such as the existence of a spiritual dimension to reality, spiritual beings (such as angels),

5
and a connection between daily activities and the spiritual dimension (such as prayer,
meditation, spiritual consciousness, etc.).

It is important to keep in mind that many people will hold beliefs even though they may
not be formally related to any religious grouping, institution or tradition (Koenig et al.,
2015, p. 530). For example, while 85.3% of South Africans indicated that they are
adherents of the Christian religious tradition in the most recent SA Statistics Census
(2022) , far fewer are members of churches or attend religious meetings and services on
a regular basis (Schoeman, 2017, pp. 3–4). The statistical category for religiosity was
removed from the Statistics SA surveys after the General Household Survey of 2015.
However, more recent research supports that the levels of religiosity contained in these
figures still remain accurate to a large extent with some minor deviations (see Cultural
Atlas, 2019, United States Department of State, 2022 and SA Statistics Census, 2022).
Regular church attendance is around 10% – yet this does not mean that those not attending
formal religious buildings/institutions/gatherings are not religious. Many of them will still
engage in personal forms of religious and spiritual practice, such as prayer, meditation
and the practice of silence, the reading of sacred scriptures, and follow rituals in their
homes or communities (such as religious wedding ceremonies, burials, rites of passage
associated with birth, blessing ceremonies, coming of age, cleansing ceremonies, etc.).

Koenig et al. (2015, pp. 530-561) suggest that there are 10 major dimensions of religion
(Table 6.1) that one should take into account when engaging religiosity or faith. It is worth
noting that only one of the aforementioned dimensions of religion is directly connected
with institutional religion – that is, organisational religious activity (ORA). As such, it is
wise to remember that one should not associate religiosity only with people who are
formally and overtly associated with a historical faith or an institutional religion (Koenig
et al., 2015, p. 530). It is quite likely that the majority of people in contemporary society
hold some forms of belief, values and commitments that could be considered “religious”
in nature, while only a few of them would be formally or openly associated with an ORA.
Pico Iyer (2018) suggests that “spirituality is water, religion is tea”. He claims that “you
can survive without tea”, but “you can’t survive without water” (Iyer & Tippet, 2018).

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Table 6.1 Major dimensions of religion

Dimension of religion Examples of dimensions of religion

Belief in a deity or deities.
Belief in seen or unseen spirits, or living
Transcendent beliefs beings from other worlds (angels, demons,
ancestors, etc.).
Belief in an afterlife.
Motivations for beliefs or actions (such as
Religious motivation obedience to God, a desire for reward, a
fear of punishment).

Participating in corporate worship

(attending church or going to a mosque).

Evidence of religious symbols (wearing a

Organisational religious activities (ORA)
cross, dressing in clothing associated with
a religious community or tradition).
Self-identifying an association with a
religious group or religious tradition.

Personal prayer.
Personal or private religious practices or
Non-organisational religious activities
rituals (fasting; charitable action; invoking
(NORA)
protection, help or support from spiritual
beings).

Orientating decisions and actions in

relation to belief in a deity.
Attachment to God
Including belief in a deity in daily life
(prayer, discernment, obedience, etc.).

Believing that a deity engages in the life of

the person or community.
Trust in God Trusting in the deity to change
circumstances, deal with problems, or
provide insights, strength or

7
Dimension of religion Examples of dimensions of religion

encouragement for daily life, which is

frequently associated with economic
provision, the restoration of social
harmony in situations of conflict,
supernatural healing and other such divine
interventions.
Being able to relate instances of
encounters with the divine or the
supernatural.
Religious experience Contact with transcendent beings (spirits,
angels, the ancestors).
Visions, divine revelations or experiences
of divine provision or divine intervention.

Meditative practices.
Prayer for guidance, help or peace.
The presence of religious objects (sacred
Religious coping texts, religious symbols such as a
crucifix).
Contact with like-minded religious people
for support, encouragement or education.
A deep sense of trust in the validity of
religious beliefs.
Extensive experience of the value of
religious practices.
Religious maturity Extensive knowledge of a religious
tradition and its constituent elements
(sacred texts, rituals, values, etc.).
Trusted and looked up to by others of the
same, or similar, religious orientation.

Stemming from a deeply religious family

History of extended exposure to religion A member of a historical religious
movement or grouping.

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Dimension of religion Examples of dimensions of religion

The spouse, child or sibling of deeply

religious people.
Extended history of involvement in a
religious tradition or religious community.

Source: Adapted from Koenig et al. (2015, pp. 530-561)

This notion would seem to resonate with contemporary research on the importance, and
prevalence, of religion in contemporary life. There was a time when some philosophers
and sociologists believed that religion, spirituality and belief would vanish (see Wilson,
1999; Berger, 2011). The most recent research shows that we are more religious today
than we were in previous decades, with organised faith growing particularly in sub-
Saharan Africa, Latin America, India and China (Stark, 2015; Taylor, 2009; Milbank,
2009, pp. 89–104; Smith, 2014). However, our relationships to religion, and the religious,
are constructed in very different ways. While associations with formal religious
communities, and attendance at religious services or events, may be less prevalent today,
belief, spirituality and religiosity are very important for contemporary people (see Taylor,
2009; Joas, 2014; Berger, 1999). To return to Iyer’s comment, perhaps we realise just
how much we need water (spirituality) to survive, while only some of us have developed
a taste for, or persisted in, our preference for tea (ORA).

According to Makgoba, April and Al-Ariss (2014, pp. 41–42), their findings revealed
three broad categories of spirituality:

1. First, there are those authors who can broadly be put into the palliative category of
spirituality. These include most religious mystics who wrote on spirituality (Nouwen,
1994b; Keating, 1999; Merton, 1961), as well as more modern writers in the field (Carson,
2006; Fluker, 2003; Runcorn, 2006; Gibbons, 2000). Their views of spirituality tended to
centre on the individual, and the individual’s longings or quest for self-actualisation
(Kellemen & Peltonen, 2005),

2. In contrast to these palliative writers, there is a second group whose views can be said
to be accommodationist in orientation (Nolan, 2006; Wilber, 1998). These writers
acknowledge that the phenomenon of spirituality lacks sufficient conceptuality,
particularly as it relates to the workplace, pastoral care, and phenomenological and

9
existential issues. They integrate an emphasis on a deity and palliative care with
consideration of the communal context, thereby offering a continuum from the individual
to the community, rather than an either/or model. The middle or “via media” authors view
spirituality as a religious “accommodationist orientation” that places the individual’s
search for interiority in a broader communal context (Nolan, 2006; Williams, 2004;
Gibbons, 2000; Thurman, 1984).

3. Finally, writers in the third category are suspicious of an inclusive, global spirituality
(Carrette & King, 2004), especially when it seems to be religion repackaged. They reject
the “accommodationist orientation”, and argue for a spirituality that is devoid of any
religious connections.

Table 6.2 Representative sampling of definitions of spirituality

Definition of spirituality
The personal expression of ultimate concern
That which involves ultimate and personal truths
How the individual lives meaningfully with ultimacy in his or her response to the
deepest truths of the universe
The presence of a relationship with a higher power that affects the way in which one
operates in the world
Our response to a deep and mysterious human yearning for self-transcendence and
surrender, a yearning to find our place
A way of being and experiencing that comes about through awareness of a
transcendent dimension and that is characterised by certain identifiable values in
regard to self, life, and whatever one considers to be the ultimate
A transcendent dimension within human experience … discovered in moments in
which the individual questions the meaning of personal existence and attempts to
place the self within a broader ontological context
A subjective experience of the sacred
A personal life principle which animates a transcendent quality of relationship with
God
The human dimension that transcends the biological, psychological and social
aspects of living

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 The vast realm of human potential dealing with ultimate purposes, with higher
entities, with God, with life, with compassion, with purpose
That human striving for the transforming power present in life; it is that attraction
and movement of the human person toward the divine
Pertaining to the innate capacity and tendency to seek to transcend one’s current
locus of centricity, which with transcendence involves increased knowledge and
love
The animating force that inspires one toward purposes that are beyond one’s self and
that give one’s life meaning and direction

Source: Adapted from Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2010); Jurkiewicz and Giacalone (2019)

Table 6.2 depicts spirituality as concerned with personal search, meaning, transcendence,
the sacred, relationship with God and a vital force within the individual (Giacalone &
Jurkiewicz, 2010; Jurkiewicz & Giacolone, 2019). These factors are both intrinsic and
extrinsic and, with the exception of transcendence, view spirituality as palliative. Table
6.2 highlights the various aspects that make up the definition of workplace spirituality as
connected to the following variables: wellbeing, transcendence/meaning, personal
identity, other dimensions of life, needs, personal safety, belonging and self-
consciousness.

Table 6.3 The dimensionality of spirituality

Spiritual
Description
dimension
Spiritual The affirmation of life in a relationship with God, self, community
wellbeing and environment. Nurtures and celebrates wholeness
Spiritual Capacity of individuals to stand outside of their immediate sense of
transcendence time and place to view life from a larger, more objective perspective
Spiritual The process of incorporating spiritual experiences that result
development ultimately in spiritual transformation
The openness to the spiritual dimension that permits the integration
Spiritual
of one’s spirituality with the other dimensions of life, thus
wellness
maximising the potential for growth and self-actualisation
Spiritual needs Any factors necessary to establish and/or maintain a person’s

11
 dynamic personality relationship with God (as defined by that
individual) and out of that relationship to experience the
forgiveness, love, hope, trust, and meaning and purpose in life
A disruption of the life principle that pervades a person’s entire
Spiritual distress being and that integrates and transcends one’s biological and
psychosocial nature
Abilities and competencies that may be part of an individual’s
expert knowledge, which include the capacity to transcend the
Spiritual
physical and material, the capacity to be virtuous, and the ability to
intelligence
experience heightened states of consciousness, sanctify everyday
experience, and utilise spiritual resources to solve problems
Spiritual The extent to which individuals reflect on their faith and beliefs
(religious)
Spiritual growth Reflective of the gratification of individual needs, especially
self- “belonging” and those of a higher order such as a “sense of
consciousness achievement”
Optimal function is the enhancement of spiritual oneness with
whatever a person considers to be more that the self as an individual
Spiritual health
with reason, experience and intuition; the ongoing development of
an adherence to a responsible ethical system

Source: Giacalone & Jurkiewicz (2010); Jurkiewicz and Giacalone (2019)

In their desire for a more humane workplace, many individuals are defining themselves
as “seekers” (Lofland & Stark, 1965) who are less willing to consign their spirituality to
non-work hours and domains (Ashforth & Pratt, 2003). The seekers are thus searching
for spiritual fulfilment, especially in work settings (Mitroff, Denton & Ferguson, 1999).
Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2010) and Jurkiewicz and Giacolone (2019) define workplace
spirituality as organisational values promoting employees’ experience of transcendence
and facilitating their sense of being connected to others. They further describe workplace
spirituality in terms of practical and ethical utility, the former producing better work
outputs and the latter ensuring that such work is held within a moral framework.

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6.3 Demographic information on religion in South Africa
As was mentioned, South Africa remains a deeply religious nation. In this section, we
shall draw upon two important sources to gain some understanding of the demographic
makeup of the religious population in South Africa, and consider how South Africans
engage with religion in their public lives.

The most recent census survey of the South African population conducted by Statistics
South Africa was done in 2022. This survey shows that 85.3% of South Africa’s citizens
self-identified as Christian (Stats SA, 2022, p. 24). Table 6.4 provides some detailed
information on religious affiliations in South Africa.

Table 6.4 SA Census 2022: Religious Affiliations/Beliefs

Religious Belief/Affiliation Percentage

Christianity 85.3
Traditional African 7.8
No religious affiliation 2.9
Islam 1.6
Hinduism 1.1
Other 1.0
Judaism 0.1
Atheism 0.1
Agnosticism 0.1
Buddhism 0.0
Total 100

These statistics offer some valuable insights into some aspects of religion in South Africa.

• Although South Africa is a multifaith society, like most of sub-Saharan Africa the
Christian religion is dominant. That could hold some challenges for people of other
faith perspectives (see Carrim, 2015; 2017).
• Furthermore, it would be a mistake to assume that Christianity is a single, unified,
religious tradition or perspective. Research shows that the largest part of the group
marked as Christian belongs to what are variously known as “African Independent
Churches” (Hendriks & Erasmus, 2005). There are significant differences in doctrine,
belief, ritual and ethical commitment among these groupings. So, while there are some

13
 shared beliefs and practices, it would be a mistake to regard all of South Africa’s
“Christians” as sharing a common faith.
• Another factor that is worth keeping in mind is the intersection of South Africa’s social
construction and religious identity (see Forster, 2017, pp. 3–9; 177–210; 214–219).
While some religious groupings may be numerically small, such as adherents to
Judaism or people who indicate that they are agnostic or atheists, these groups exercise
a disproportionally significant influence in public life, the media and the formation of
policies and laws related to religion and society. For example, almost all of South
Africa’s Jewish, agnostic and atheistic population are upper middle-class white South
Africans. Because of South Africa’s social and political history, people in this segment
of society are generally wealthier, more educated, and have greater economic and
social influence. Their voices, and their concerns, are more readily represented in the
media. Hence, when it comes to religious diversity management in the South African
workplace, one cannot just consider religion apart from other important demographic
factors such as race, education and economic status (intersubjective understanding is
what is required).
• A final point, among many others that could be made, is that in South Africa, certain
religious traditions are very closely associated with certain cultures and geographically
located communities. For example, Islam is most prominent among the so-called
Coloured communities of the Western Cape and Gauteng, with very little significant
presence among cultural groups in other geographic locations. The same can be seen
with Hinduism, which is largely concentrated in KwaZulu-Natal and parts of Gauteng
among the Indian population. Among the African Independent Churches, the Zion
Christian Church (also known as “Boyne”), which has around 9 million members, is
largely present in Limpopo and Gauteng. Similarly, the Nazareth Baptist Church (also
known as iBandla lamaNazaretha, founded by Isaiah Shembe), which is believed to
have around 8.8 million members, is largely located among the Zulu-speaking
populations of KwaZulu-Natal and Gauteng. One could trace the social and cultural
histories (often related to the arrival of missionaries in southern Africa) to specific
denominations and groupings – for example, the Dutch Reformed Church remains
almost entirely white and Afrikaans-speaking, while the Methodist Church of Southern
Africa (the largest mainline Christian denomination) is multiracial and multilingual
(Forster, 2019).

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In addition to what we can ascertain from religious statistics, there are some other
important factors to consider. A 2010 Pew report found that 74% of South Africans
“indicated that religion plays an important role in their lives” (Lugo & Coopermann,
2010, pp. 3–4). The World Values Survey (WVS) helps us to understand a qualitative
aspect of this “important role”. The WVS shows that religious organisations remain
among the most trusted institutions in society, enjoying higher levels of public trust and
confidence than either the State or the private sector (Winter & Burchert, 2015). The
report notes that “while trust in political institutions recedes, in contrast, civil society
organisations enjoy growing trust” (Banda, 2019; Winter & Burchert, 2015). In this
report, the church is classified within the “civil society” grouping. Hennie Kotzé, the lead
researcher on the WVS for South Africa, clarifies the situation further when he comments
that “religion in general, and churches in particular, play an important political
socialization role [for South Africans]” (Kotzé, 2016; Kotzé & Garcia-Rivero, 2017).
Affiliated groups and institutions, also known as “agents”, such as churches, mosques,
synagogues and temples, facilitate the development and transmission of political
knowledge, values, attitudes, beliefs, expectations and social norms at the individual and
communal levels during the lifelong process of political socialisation (Mbabvu, 2017;
Wass, 2005).

From this short overview of the statistics in the recent SA Census (2022) and the World
Values Survey on South Africa (2013), at least two things can be concluded:

• First, that South Africa remains a deeply religious nation with 85.3% of the population
self-identifying as members of the Christian faith (Stats SA Census, 2022).
• Second, that South Africans place a great deal of trust and confidence in their religious
convictions, religious leaders, institutions of religion and faith communities. These
remain among the most trusted personal and social institutions in South Africa at
present (Banda, 2019; Kotzé, 2016, pp. 439–440; Kotzé & Garcia-Rivero, 2017, p. 3).

A case study in spirituality, religion and diversity management

Naomi is a 35-year-old black African Christian lady from Nigeria, who recently
moved to South Africa to work at a multinational financial services company. She
hails from a Christian background, but she also embraces her African spirituality,

15
which revolves around the interconnectedness of all living things and the presence of
the divine in every aspect of life. She believes that these two aspects of her faith
complement each other and provide her with a sense of belonging, balance and
harmony. Naomi is highly educated and experienced in her field of expertise, and
responsible for a team of 12 individuals who all report to her. Naomi is finding it
hard to adjust to the South African workplace in that it is predominantly Western in
its orientation, and not something she is accustomed to – in her new workplace,
people are more individualistic, task oriented and focused on personal goals, whereas
in Nigeria she was used to a collectivist and relationship-driven work environment.
Another black African colleague, Lungisani, had spoken about Ubuntu numerous
times – which is fundamentally cognisant of African solidarity, social sensitivity,
consciousness of community, behaving for the common good, and interconnectivity
with others and the environment.

Surprising to Naomi is the fact that the majority of South Africans are black African,
and also claim to come from communal cultures, yet display quite Westernised
orientations once in the workplace. In fact, recently Lingomso, a Christian lady from
the Eastern Cape, confided in Naomi, sharing that she feels like she has to show up
inauthentically to work and give up most of her African identity. Her reason: the
norms and practices of African spirituality are physical, “loud” and unfamiliar to the
Westernised understanding of spirituality, and are therefore rejected and discouraged
in the workplace and are not recognised within the scope of diversity management in
companies in South Africa. In fact, quite surprising to Naomi was Lingomso’s
explanation that she was a Christian but also believed in calling on the ancestors
(spirits of deceased family members, elders and community members who have
passed on to the afterlife) for assistance, guidance, wisdom and blessings. Lingomso
wanted to know why, when done by black Africans or indigenous Latin Americans
(some still engaged in animistic, geomancy and ancestor worship systems), these are
viewed as “dark practices”, but are perfectly acceptable when practised by the
Japanese or Europeans.

Susan, a white English-speaking colleague who openly identified as lesbian and

vegan, had claimed (when it came up in discussions at a workplace social) that she
was an animal lover and was totally opposed to the slaughtering of animals, even for

16
African, Muslim (dhabihah) and Jewish (shechitah) religious rituals, and
disappointed that it was accepted that generally males perform these rituals. Earlier,
she also noted that she was tired of continuously having to explain to colleagues that,
even though she identified differently to most in the department, she was still a
religious Christian who attended a church that was accepting of her gender choices.

Petrus, a so-called coloured cisgender male, who is a self-confessed born-again

Christian, was happy about Naomi starting many a meeting with a Christian prayer,
and often clashed with Susan, as he did not support the idea of different gender
identifications beyond binary classifications, and asserted that it was “not okay in the
eyes of God”. He was also in disagreement with Johannes, who is also classified as
so-called coloured/Camissa but with indigenous Khoi and San roots, and engages in
mythical tales involving multiple gods and ancestor heroes.

Sarika, who is Hindu and also believes in multiple gods, avoids meat and eggs, and
often agrees with Susan about avoiding them (and insists on different eating options
at work get-togethers/lunches), but often hotly debates the doctrines of samsara (the
continuous cycle of life, death and reincarnation) with Susan. Also, even though not
voiced, Sarika has not been happy with the idea that Prabashnee, another Indian in
the department but from a lower caste, was allowed to be promoted above her. She
believes that one day karma (the universal law of cause and effect) will sort out the
“unethical practice” of promoting Prabashnee “beyond her station in life”.

Abdul, a Muslim colleague, is less concerned about the ancestor talk, but has objected
multiple times about the fact that Naomi starts meetings with Christian prayers, and
he refuses to attend the regular Friday late-afternoon/evening socials held to help
everyone feel included, but which happen in a pub or non-halaal restaurant serving
alcohol and pork.

Annelize similarly claims to be spiritual, but not necessarily religious, and finds
connection and purpose in nature and the outdoors – and has previously expressed
that she felt uncomfortable when others involved her in overtly religious practices.

In the past Johan, a white Afrikaans-speaking male and another member of the team,
has been openly critical of religion. He stated that he was an atheist and thought that

17
religion and conversations about religion should be private matters and should have
no place in a professional work environment.

Linda, a Jewish colleague, is also not happy with the Friday socials since she cannot
be out beyond sunset, as required by her religion during Shabbat (in addition to the
pressure she feels for all of the preparations for Shabbat, which fall to her in her
household).

Abdul is actually fine with Petrus coming in late to work on a Wednesday morning,
because he attends cell-group prayer meetings, since Abdul also goes off to mosque
on a Friday afternoon. The human resources department has approached Naomi about
concerns they have heard, and now she is unsure of what to do. What does the law
permit and require? In trying to be more inclusive, should someone from a different
spiritual and/or religious orientation lead the opening of meetings on different days?
Her religion is important to her, but is it so important that it should be considered in
relation to the world of work?

Key questions for reflection on the case study

1. What responsibility, if any, do you think Naomi should take in managing the
diversity of beliefs, religious convictions and diversity of her colleagues in
relation to their working relationships and work life?
A possible answer would be that Naomi has an important role to play in
facilitating the respectful management of a diversity of beliefs in this context.
She has an opportunity of “creating” space and opportunities in which her
colleagues are able to give expression to their religious beliefs and find space to
practice their faith in a manner that is meaningful, sensitive to others and
respectful of the diversity of beliefs and practices. She bears a dual
responsibility that is both formal and informal. In the formal sense she must
ensure that she understands what her colleagues’ religious rights are, and
facilitate the opportunity for them to be held and practised in the context of
religious freedom and the expectations of the Bill or Rights of the Constitution
of South Africa. In an informal sense, she has the responsibility of creating a

18
 measure of trust and openness among her colleagues that allows for healthy,
open and productive relationships in order to ensure an inclusive workplace.

2. Is it possible for those in manager and leader roles to do so aligned with their
personal values and convictions, given the inherently contradictory nature of an
authentic self and the socio-politico dimensions and necessary compromises
inherent in leadership contexts? How would you balance the seeming
paradoxes?
Yes, it is not only necessary, but it is also important for those who hold positions
of power and responsibility in the organisation to be self-aware, and also aware
of others, in their leadership. Such persons should take great care not to abuse
their positions of power and influence to privilege any particular religious
perspective, set of beliefs or set of practices. This will require a critical self-
awareness of their own faith convictions and practices, as well as the faith and
non-faith convictions and practices of their colleagues. In order to balance the
power dynamics inherent in a position of leadership with a diversity of spiritual
and non-spiritual perspectives, the leader will need to be open to the insights,
perspectives and needs of their colleagues, and be willing to engage those in
relation to their own convictions and beliefs with a measure of compromise that
seeks the common good, and that of their colleagues/teams.

3. What would be an appropriate way of engaging with requests, such as the one
made by Abdul? Why is it important to attend to such concerns and issues in the
workplace?
There are two reasons why Abdul’s request is important. First, his faith matters
to him, and that should be recognised and affirmed in meaningful and sensible
ways. Second, Abdul has a legal right to hold his religious views and engage in
reasonable religious practices associated with his faith. As such, Naomi should
do her best to understand not only what Abdul’s request entails, but also how it
might be accommodated in a way that affirms his religious convictions and
needs, and also does not infringe on the rights and freedoms of his colleagues
who may hold different convictions or beliefs.

19
 4. How could Abdul affirm the importance of religious beliefs and practices (such
as those held by Abdul and Susan), yet deal with the complexities of different
beliefs and practices, and the need for respect and sensitivity?
As with so many aspects of diversity, the management of information and the
facilitation of insight and encounter play an important role in maintaining
authentic and meaningful working relationships. Naomi could seek to facilitate
an opportunity in which colleagues are encouraged to share their lived
experiences and to understand the content and practices of colleagues who hold
different beliefs. There should also be an opportunity for individual team
members to understand their rights and freedoms in the world of work, but also
that there are some reasonable boundaries to adhere to in a diverse working
environment. It could be helpful to try to develop a set of values within the
working team that could serve as guidelines and informants of an authentic and
respectful working environment.

5. Some religious and spiritual beliefs may create a specific limitation for certain
religious and spiritual communities in the workplace which, at times, could be
at odds with the organisation’s working culture (e.g. requiring specific holidays)
which conflict with important work periods, different body language and
sensitivity about body proximity/space, suppression of parts of an individual’s
identity, having meetings arranged in pubs or restaurants serving alcohol and
non-kosher/halaal food, extended working hours, clothing requirements and
religious appropriateness, or strong feelings about working with other genders
or gender-neutral/fluid individuals. Do you have any examples in your social or
work life where you breached such limitations, or you saw such limitations
being breached?
This is a crucial issue to consider. It is highly probable that there will be
instances in which all of the religious, spiritual and diversity expectations and
needs of one’s colleagues will not be able to be met, or met fully. How will one
respond in such instances?1 There are more, and less, constructive ways of
managing such situations. Collaborative decision making, shared responsibility

1
For example, how might one respond to a colleague who presents a “sick note” from a traditional
healer? cf Mokoena, U.C.A. (2014). The legality of traditional healers’ sick-notes in South Africa.
Studies on Ethno-Medicine, 8(2), 111–117. https://doi.org/10.1080/09735070.2014.11917625

20
 for workplace culture, mutual accountability, ensuring the dignity of all, and the
creation of a culture of respect and accommodation (among other attitudes and
practices) could help to manage such situations.

6. What is the role of ancestors in people’s religious and spiritual practices? Who
practises it? Do you have any examples in your social or work life where you
either practised or came across individuals who practised engaging with
your/their ancestors?
Calling on the wise and powerful ancestors is a practice passed down from
generation to generation and is an important part of the belief system of many
black African communities in South Africa (and many other parts of Africa).
These spirits are considered to be powerful and wise, and are believed to have
the ability to intercede with the divine on behalf of the living. When questioned
about “this dark practice”, Lingomso compared it to the visiting of and praying
at the graves of loved ones by Christians, or laying wreaths at memorials of
those fallen in wars and conflicts by many European countries, and making
symbolic and real (usually animal) sacrifices in the Muslim and Jewish faiths,
among others, to the offerings made during calling on the ancestors (such as
food, drink or other items that were valued by the ancestor(s) during their
lifetime). She also made the point that those who practise Shintoism in Japan,
for instance, practise ancestor worship and the memorialising of the dead, such
as visiting their graves, observing the annual (obon) festival and rituals at the
household (kamidana), the Shinto altar. The daily activity is to offer incense,
flowers and food to the family ancestors.

7. What is your understanding of Ubuntu in the South African context?

Within South Africa, Ubuntu is an indigenous moral, social and psycho-spiritual
ethic that influences the understanding of life and all of existence as relational.
Given that it encourages a shared humanity, this philosophy guides relationship
building and lived experiences within African indigenous communities; as an
ethical orientation, it is multifaceted and all encompassing. According to Banda
(2019a), on a personal level, Ubuntu is evidenced by a person’s behaviour and
conduct towards the other, often defined as personhood, which can be rendered
as human identity, human virtue or humanness. Dreyer (2015) posited Ubuntu

21
 as the good, which is about virtue ethics; as an issue of the right, which speaks
to duty ethics; and about the wise or wisdom, which is about situation ethics.
Ubuntu is a fluid concept, embodying a spirituality that has the ability to
transcend difference and create a shared experience for all, and therefore we
need to understand African spirituality in the context of humanity. Ubuntu also
has the capacity to support a contextually and culturally relevant re-
conceptualisation of religious and spiritual rights, enabling many individuals to
access workplace rights and opportunities not currently accessible to them.

8. Do you think Johan and Annelize are right or wrong in their views that religion
should be a private matter and should not be imposed on others (especially not
at work)? Why do you think this?
In the South African context, religious beliefs are not only important to the
majority of persons, but are also a legal right. As outlined in the chapter, religion
does not only operate in the private sphere. Religious beliefs and convictions
operate in all spheres of the lives of religious individuals, and also shape their
shared social lives. As such it is important to facilitate respectful and sensitive
“spaces” and “times” for religion to be recognised and space be held for a
diversity of beliefs to operate in ways that are not divisive or confrontational.

9. In what ways do you think that religion and spirituality are important, or
meaningful, and could make a positive or constructive contribution to the lives
of the individuals who hold beliefs, and the working relationships of a diverse
team of people with differing beliefs and practices?
As the chapter shows, religion and spirituality are important sources of meaning,
strength and motivation for many persons in South Africa. As such, they can
help people to live fuller and more meaningful lives that are characterised by
transcendent resilience, grace, patience, acceptance and altruism (among other
values). Moreover, the recognition and acceptance of religious diversity could
also facilitate acceptance and recognition of other diversities within the
workplace.

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6.4 Faith and work in South Africa
As we saw in the case study as well as the demographic data discussed in the previous
sections, religious beliefs and practices play an important role in the lives of many South
Africans. The case study illustrated three examples of the complexity of this.

• Abdul’s religious beliefs extend into the world of work. In other words, what he
believes goes beyond his home life and has consequences for all aspects of his life.
This includes his work life. There are certain practices that are important for him to
maintain (such as not eating certain foods and refraining from consuming alcohol).
Because he wants to be a faithful and devout Muslim, he remains committed to his
beliefs, values and practices at work.
• Petrus, Susan and Naomi’s religious convictions are also important to them. Petrus
engages in regular prayer with his cell-group, and he believes that God is active and
present, not only in the church, his cell-group and in his private life, but also in his
work life. Susan believes that she is fully accepted by God, even though others may
question her gender identification. Her Christian community provides both support and
acceptance of her, and she feels a sense of belonging that engenders a strength within
her at her workplace too. Given her experiences as a foreigner, Naomi feels that her
faith gives her wisdom, insight, courage and resilience to cope with the challenges of
the world of work.
• Annalize’s and Johan’s stances highlight another important consideration – while
South Africans largely identify as being members of the Christian faith, there are many
citizens who hold different spiritual convictions, or no faith convictions. This is an
important consideration in the world of work.

As has already been mentioned, the most up-to-date research shows that religion is
becoming an increasingly important factor in contemporary society for many reasons: the
development of identity; to cope with the uncertainty and ambiguity of modernity; to
reflect spirituality in all of life; for psychological wellbeing; or to maintain or establish a
sense of community, connection and belonging (to name but a few aspects among many).
(See some important examples, lived experiences and case studies in April, Makgoba &
Forster, 2018; as well as in Rapiya, April & Daya, 2023)

Yet, there is another important consideration that must be kept in mind, and that is the
Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, and specifically Chapter 2 of the

23
Constitution which contains the Bill of Rights (1996). Section 15 (1) of the Bill of Rights
reads as follows: “Freedom of religion, belief and opinion: (1) Everyone has the right to
freedom of conscience, religion, thought, belief and opinion”. Section 30 of the Bill of
Rights reads: “Language and culture: Everyone has the right to use the language and to
participate in the cultural life of their choice, but no one exercising these rights may do
so in a manner inconsistent with any provision of the Bill of Rights”. Finally, section 31
of the Bill of Rights reads:

[t3]Cultural, religious and linguistic communities: (1) Persons belonging to a cultural,

religious or linguistic community may not be denied the right, with other members of that
community: (a) to enjoy their culture, practise their religion and use their language; and
(b) to form, join and maintain cultural, religious and linguistic associations and other
organs of civil society. (2) The rights in subsection (1) may not be exercised in a manner
inconsistent with any provision of the Bill of Rights (Republic of South Africa, 1996, pp.
12–14).

[t1]What the Constitution shows is that South Africa is not a so-called “secular society”
(in which religion has no public recognition, or public role). Rather, the Constitution
recognises the importance of religions for South Africans (and indeed for South Africa)
and so protects the freedom to “practise their religion and … to form, join and maintain
cultural, religious and linguistic associations”. Section 15 (2) of the Bill of Rights states
that the freedom of religion and consciences entails that religious persons have the right
to practise their religion (in private and in public life) as long as such practices are
conducted on “an equitable basis”, and participation and attendance is “free and
voluntary” (Republic of South Africa, 1996, pp. 13–14). Hence, South Africa is what one
could call a multifaith constitutional democracy (Bentley & Forster, 2012, pp. 73–88;
Forster, 2019, pp. 1–29). Religion is deemed important to South Africans, and so the Bill
of Rights protects the right of the citizens of South Africa to hold their beliefs, and practise
them, in private and public, as long as they do not infringe on the rights of other citizens.

A consequence of this is that employers, and employees, need to adhere to the provisions
of the Bill of Rights with regard to religion. Naturally, as we have seen in the case study
above, this is not as simple as it may sound. It requires careful consideration, insights
from various disciplines and forms of expertise (such as management theory, legal
expertise, sociology, psychosocial theories, and even insights into theology and religion).
Moreover, as we have already seen, we face some important considerations in a complex

24
working environment. We cannot deny what is important to individual members or
communities. Indeed, it would be unwise to do so since it could not only create legal and
ethical problems, but could also demotivate staff and create unhappiness in the workplace.
Yet, we have to keep this in tension with the reality that not all religions hold the same
values and beliefs, and that some people may find the convictions, religious and/or
spiritual practices of others strange or even offensive. Lastly, the intention of the
Constitution is to protect the dignity and rights of all of South Africa’s citizens. The law
is most often needed in instances where minority voices, or minority positions, stand a
chance of being disregarded or silenced by majority views. For South Africans this means
that the law will often have to protect people who hold views, beliefs or values that
conflict with the supposed majority views of the general population. For example, we
have seen how some religious convictions could inform decisions around gender roles,
sexual preferences and subtle (or blatant) discrimination. Such elements are central to
effective diversity management of religion and spirituality in the world of work.

In the section that follows we shall present some approaches to managing diversity in the
world of work. In particular, we shall do so with the aim of considering how we might
manage the complexities of religious and spiritual diversity in the South African
workplace.

6.5 Diversity, equity, inclusion, religion and spirituality and

the world of work
Formally, diversity is seen as recognising and embracing the existence of many visible
differences (e.g. genders and the gender-fluid; races and ethnicities; nationalities;
variously abled people; different age groups; skills; sexual orientations; languages;
sometimes religions) and invisible dimensions (e.g. religions; thinking styles;
psychometric profiles; experiences and different tenures; leadership styles; philosophical
views – conservative vs liberal; socioeconomic class; education backgrounds and
different educational disciplines; learning agilities; value systems; personal purposes;
different upbringings; various heritages, beliefs and perspectives; and individual
differences). Each visible and invisible dimension can render someone a diverse minority
in the workplace, for example being an black African employees from rural South Africa
(from the majority population in the country) working in a company based in an urban
city with mainly Western business practices and attitudes and with a majority white
management and leadership group (who are the economic majority, even though they are

25
a population minority) – thus rendering the individual an economic minority in such a
space.

Equity is fair treatment, access, opportunity and advancement for all people, while at the
same time striving to eliminate barriers that have prevented everyone from participating
equally in achieving the organisation’s and stakeholders’ goals. Often there is confusion
as to whether organisations should provide “equality” or “equity” in the workplace.
“Equality” means that each employee or employee group of people is given the same
resources or opportunities. This would make sense if there were no historical advantages
for some over others, i.e. balanced educational, social and economic systems, and all
individuals and groups started from the same base, but that is not the case the world over
and certainly not in South Africa, given its enduring colonial and apartheid legacies.
“Equity”, however, recognises that each employee or specific employee group has
different circumstances and starting educational, social and economic positions, and
allocates the requisite resources and opportunities needed to reach an equal outcome
(April, 2022, pp. 120). Dressel (2014) explains that “[t]he route to achieving equity will
not be accomplished through treating everyone equally. It will be achieved by treating
everyone justly according to their [specific] circumstances”. “Justice” can take “equity”
one step further by fixing the social, legal and workplace systems in ways that lead to
long-term, sustainable equitable access and opportunities for generations to come.

Inclusion, though, is about creating a workplace environment that values and integrates
each person’s differences and provides the opportunity for everyone to participate equally
in achieving the organisation’s and stakeholders’ goals. So, you can see how, even when
an organisation has lots of diversity in its employee, supplier and stakeholder base, it may
not be inclusive of all of their differences or deem them equally credible in workplace
and business settings, or make employees feel like they are supported or belong (April,
2022, pp. 120). Can you think of examples, in your life, where you were different from
others (in either visible or invisible dimensions, or both), and did not necessarily feel fully
included? What did it cause within you, emotionally and/or psychologically, and how did
you behave after such a realisation?

Was there a time when you had to defend your stance for/against religion or spirituality?

There are three underlying theoretical sources that organisations draw from to inform the
diversity and inclusion (D&I) approaches:

26
1. The sociological perspective relies on the concept of learned behaviour (April,
Dharani & April, 2023; April, 2022; DiTomaso, 2021; Faist, 2018; Lindsey, 2016;
Syed & Özbilgin, 2015; Brown et al., 2011; Ditomaso, Post & Parks-Yancy, 2007;
April & Shockley, 2007; Kalev, Dobbin & Kelly, 2006; Ely & Thomas, 2001; Dass
& Parker, 1999; Bond & Pyle, 1998; Trickett, Watts & Birman, 1994).
2. The psychological perspective relies upon psychological coping strategies
developed to deal with separation (April et al., 2023; April, 2022; Hommel, 2022;
Roberts et al., 2020; Hays-Thomas, 2017; Jones et al., 2017; Moritz et al., 2017;
Ferdman & Roberts, 2014; Hays-Thomas, Bowen & Boudreaux, 2012; Shore et al.,
2011; Turnbull et al., 2010; Thomas, 2008; Davidson & Fielden, 2003; Schippmann
et al., 2000).
3. The spiritual perspective stems from separation from God/The
One/Oneness/Being/Universe (April et al., 2023; Rapiya, April & Daya, 2023;
April, 2022; Ali et al., 2020; Butler, 2019; Hicks, 2019; Cho & Han, 2018; Syed &
Pio, 2018, McNulty, Eitle & Steffens, 2009; Goths & Kortezi, 2008; Milliman,
Czaplewski & Ferguson, 2003; Neck & Milliman, 1994; Rizzuto, 1979).

6.5.1 The sociological perspective

This perspective argues that, as humans, we spend most of our lives trying to differentiate
ourselves from others by changing ourselves: physically (hairstyles, lipstick, clothes,
earrings, tattoos and branding, etc.); educationally (schooling, tertiary and professional
qualifications, continuous learning, etc.); and otherwise (different cars and colours of
cars, different watches, different restaurants, different brands of cellphones, different
suburbs, etc.), so that we may gain social favour/capital and economic favour/capital in
the future. We will even create rules and structures (and internalise them) to sustain our
power.

Social capital, together with conscious exclusion, and the dominant group’s cultural
norms in an organisation are known to be identified as highly influential to career-
progression opportunities and access, with unspoken expectations to assimilate into
mainstream cultural norms. The extent to which diverse minorities participate in such
cultural integration has previously been identified as a significant factor affecting
progression. As a result, those in the dominant/privileged groupings consciously and
unconsciously fight notions of “being equal” because their separateness and
differentiation are spurred on by their desire to obtain and hold onto such social and

27
economic power (religiously, the seeking of power as an end in itself is discouraged in
most spiritual traditions). According to Goodman (2011), superiority is not always
conveyed in blatant and intentional ways. It is the expectation (often unconscious) that
people of colour should assimilate white norms in order to be acceptable and accepted. A
similar process occurs when women are expected to adopt “males’ styles” of leadership
and communication in order to be viewed as credible, competent and effective in the
workplace (although they cannot be too masculine either). Trying to get people from
marginalised groups to be “more like us” is usually a sign of privilege at work, carrying
the implicit message that “our way” is better (pp. 15).

Organisations following this approach argue that humans will not willingly give up their
hard-earned power and privileges (religiously, the questioning of what possesses the
heart), and therefore have to mandate for equal opportunity, inclusion of others, and the
collective unlearning of prejudices by way of organisation policies and compliance
rules/disciplinary committees, D&I training workshops, and facilitation initiatives
(religiously, engaging not only to feel the pain and suffering of others, but also doing
something to remove some or all of it).

Countries like South Africa and Malaysia do, and have done (e.g. New Zealand, Canada,
US), the same with employment equity laws and affirmative action policies, and insist
that in-country organisations become legally compliant. They have to visibly manage
risks related to D&I. Within organisations, such initiatives are usually overseen by HR
departments and/or specialised D&I functions, and the responsibility is generalised, in
non-threatening ways, for people to come to terms with their prejudices. Even though
employment equity and affirmative action have somewhat improved levels of diversity in
many organisations, this has not resulted in individuals necessarily feeling fully accepted
or credibly included. The consequence of this is that many employees attempt to
acculturate to the dominant/prototypical/Western/white culture in a company, thereby
sacrificing their authenticity. For instance, economic minorities and the less
organisationally powerful may aspire and attempt to change their accents; suppress their
own heritage, cultures and interests; stifle their indigenous religions and spirituality;
engage in skin lightening; and straighten their hair to more closely resemble the dominant
and economically powerful white, and largely male, group in senior and executive
organisational positions. This deculturalisation results in tension within their own psyche,
leading to guilt as a result of abandoning their heritage and authentic identity, causing

28
continuous struggles to find congruency between personal values and behaviours, and
even leads to the splitting of personalities to form dual or multiple identities within these
individuals (April, Dharani & April, 2023).

6.5.2 The psychological perspective

The psychological perspective argues that, as we grow up, there are aspects of ourselves
that we are forced to give up or suppress, either by parents or the community/society in
which we find ourselves. However, we are attracted, negatively or positively, to this
denied aspect of ourselves in others, and when we see these aspects allowed to exist
overtly in other people, especially those who are different from us, they “press our
buttons” (we have psychic scars around these denied and projected aspects, according to
both Freud and Jung).

The pathway for development, from this perspective, is to reown the projected aspect,
and reintegrate it into ourselves by doing courageous self-work; understanding personal
meaning-making processes (religiously, committing to pathways that encourage
eudaemonic choices over hedonic approaches towards a virtuous existence); engaging in
self-awareness initiatives; understanding and noticing transference in our behaviour
(religiously, not to continue to make choices in relation to our parents and significant
others); growing in emotional maturity (religiously, not to be guided by our carnal ways,
but rather by spiritual principles); learning to forgive ourselves and others (encouraged
by all spiritual traditions); and developing the capability to rigorously interrogate our own
reaction formation and mental models (particularly about others – religiously, treat others
as you would wish them to treat you).

The responsibility for such work lies with individuals as it is deeply personal work, often
complemented through coaching, in which individuals begin to accept their own internal
diversity (religiously, acceptance of who they are), and therefore are more able to accept
the external diversity they see outside of themselves (religiously, extending grace to
others and moving beyond their shame, as instructed by a higher power and seeing others
through that power’s lens).

The American Psychological Association (APA) has also insisted that such work gets
done in colleges and universities, and not just left up to individuals to initiate, and they
have issued Multicultural guidelines: An ecological approach to context, identity, and
intersectionality (APA, 2017), which provides guidance on considering these guidelines

29
for all aspects of psychology, including teaching and training. The guidelines include five
levels of analysis ranging from individuals to international contexts, and consist of 10
guidelines (two per level). They emphasise three processes in their model, including (1)
power and privilege; (2) tensions; and (3) fluidity. They encourage the ongoing
consideration of intrapersonal, interpersonal and contextual dynamics with attention to
preventing trauma and promoting resilience. The guidelines call on educators to include
multicultural coursework in their curriculums, model cultural competence, and engage
students in community-based training activities with diverse constituents (Fuentes et al.,
2021).

6.5.3 The spiritual perspective

The spiritual perspective challenges one to see others as one’s God or higher power sees
them, and asks us to consider how we would wish to treat them if God or a higher power
also exists within them. This perspective therefore seeks cohesion and relationship
alignment, by getting individuals, teams, customers and stakeholders to dialogue about
their values and purposes (religiously, encouraging character congruency through finding
coherence between their espoused values and their lived values). In transformational
leadership literature, such an orientation is often expressed as servant leadership or
stewardship in which organisations strive to make others powerful and mentor them also
to become leaders over time, engaging in collective meaning making and social
contribution (religiously, being purveyors of hope and providing comfort to believers).

The orientation of this perspective, from both individuals and the organisation itself, is
toward contribution, supporting others (religiously, operating from the standpoint of
agape love), and working with others towards the evidence of things not yet seen in their
lives (religiously, demonstrating faith and alleviating anxiety). Gotsis and Grimani (2017)
advance a conceptual model according to which “inclusive practices founded on spiritual
values will mediate the positive relationship between spiritual leadership and a climate
for inclusion”. They argue that “calling and membership as components of spiritual well-
being will reinforce employees’ experience of both uniqueness and belongingness, thus
affecting their perceptions of inclusion and inducing multi-level beneficial outcomes” (p.
908).

All three of these perspectives promote a positive orientation to equality, respect, faith,
meaning making, accommodations, integration, values and purpose. However, each of

30
these perspectives can also throw up possibilities for conflicts and disagreements, as
religious perspectives and differences of interpretation can also be sources of conflict,
disharmony, as well as challenge, both at work and in society at large. For instance,
workplace harassment is often the result of deteriorating political and social contexts in
countries or regions, and cannot be viewed in isolation from broader trends of sexism,
racism, xenophobia and, in particular, growing anti-Semitic, anti-Muslim and anti-black
sentiments across the globe.

6.6 Managing religious and spiritual diversity in the

workplace
The various approaches to diversity, equity and inclusion can, and should, inform the
management of groups (work environments and persons within such environments) and
some possible issues of benefit or concern (such as accommodations, respect, celebrating
difference, becoming self-critical, developing self-awareness, facilitating positive inter-
group contact strategies, etc.).

From what we have discussed in the previous sections, what do you think might be some
of the values, processes and approaches that could inform an effective management
approach in a context of religious and spiritual diversity?

Following are some suggestions that we propose that you may consider as part of
developing a diversity, equity and inclusion strategy:

• Develop a clear policy: Create a written policy that outlines your organisation’s
commitment to supporting religious and spiritual practices in the workplace. This
policy should include guidelines for addressing requests for accommodations, time off,
and any other relevant issues.
• Transparency and clarity: Employers adopting effective religious policies and
procedures in a broader diversity, equity and inclusion strategy need to spell out clearly
to all of their employees, customers and wider stakeholders as to why they need such
a policy, and the rationale for, and benefits of, an inclusive work culture.
• Working culture of freedom, respect and dignity: Create a working culture that is
inclusive, and allow all to express aspects of their identity (including their religious
and spiritual identities) without harassment, intimidation or subjection to
microaggressions and microinsults as a result of such expression.

31
• Become informed and communicate: We can only engage with what we know, so do
your best use open dialogue to understand as much as you can about the people with
whom you work. In relation to religion and spirituality, take some time to get to know
and understand aspects of their religions, spirituality and systems of beliefs. Be willing
to learn from them, and then learn about their different lived experiences. Be careful
where you source your information from. It is always best to get your information
directly from the person him- or herself, and also to aggregate that with information
from reputable sources (published texts, religious council publications, academic
sources dealing with religion, spirituality and faith, enquiring at religious institutions).
• Develop a nuanced and textured understanding: Belief is a “textured” reality. Not
every person believes the same things – even persons from the same faith tradition
may hold variations of their shared beliefs, the assumptions underpinning such beliefs,
and their understanding of their spiritually located role in society and the world. Try
to understand not only what people believe, but also why their beliefs are important to
them.
• Be willing to listen and attempt to understand: It is important to listen by suspending
judgement, to seek to understand what a person or group is communicating, and what
the importance is in what they are saying (discernment). Naturally, this goes for
convictions or beliefs, but in relation to religious and spiritual diversity, it could also
relate to people who are concerned about the beliefs, values or practices of their
coworkers.
• Engage difference with respect and sensitivity: Difference can be a great gift. The
unique ideas, commitments and values of a group of people can work together in ways
that are deeply rewarding. Seek to find and affirm constructive diversity. Always
engage difference with respect and a sense of reverence. Try to withhold judgements
on the convictions, values and practices of others.
• Respect religious holidays and observances: Be mindful of religious holidays and
observances when scheduling meetings, events and deadlines. If possible, offer
employees the option to take time off or swap shifts with colleagues to observe their
religious holidays.
• Cultivate a level of self-awareness: Become aware of your own convictions, beliefs,
mental models and biases. Also, consider what convictions, beliefs, biases and
heuristics may exist within the institution, among senior staff, or within the company’s
policies and procedures.

32
• Allow space for a diversity of ideas and practices: This is often quite tricky! While we
are pretty good at allowing freedom of belief, it can be challenging to hold respectful
and open spaces for a diversity of practices. This is also related to more formal spaces
(covered in our next point).
• Creating dedicated spaces for prayer, meditation and other spiritual practices: In
order to overcome feelings of discomfort in relation to having to observe various
religious and spiritual practices during the day, the creation of dedicated spaces for
associated rituals overcomes potential barriers for observant practitioners (these are
already in place in many shopping malls and airports around the globe). These spaces
(clean, comfortable and free from distractions) will have to go in conjunction with
flexibility of working schedules so that employees can reconcile their religious and
spiritual observances with their work lives.
• Seek to be flexible and supportive: Wherever possible, and sensible, do your best to be
accommodating of sincere requests and engagements for religious and spiritual
diversity and freedom. This may require some wisdom and courage. It may even lead
to mistakes that need to be discussed, considered and avoided in future. However, your
colleagues will appreciate honest attempts at supportive engagement for themselves,
and for others. This also relates to our next suggestion.
• Advocacy and education: Given your positional power, advocate for more
understanding and inclusion of various religious and spiritual persuasions, particularly
marginalised ones, in the workplace, for example African spirituality. Offer training
and educational resources to management and staff on various religious and spiritual
practices, as well as the importance of respecting and accommodating these practices
in the workplace. Raise issues to do with religious and spiritual diversity challenges in
departmental and corporate newsletters, intranet briefs, blogs and staff newsletters.
Volunteer to lead workshops, seminars and committees that promote culture, a
religious and spiritual awareness, helping to create a more inclusive environment for
everyone.
• Celebrate diversity: Organise regular events or activities that celebrate the various
religious and cultural backgrounds of your employees. This can help to foster a sense
of community and appreciation for different beliefs and practices.
• Establish and/or allow for the establishment of religious and spiritual support
networks: Allow staff members to create employees resource groups (ERGs) that
connects them with members who identify with specific identities and communities,

33
 for example African immigrant ERG, a yoga and wellbeing ERG, meditation and
contemplation ERG, Muslim ERG, a LGBTQIA+ ERG, etc. This will aid employees
to maintain their religious, spiritual and identity wellbeing, and offer them a space to
practice and share their beliefs without fear of judgement. If possible, providing some
funding for ERGs may signal its encouragement and sanction from management and
leadership.
• Flexibility with work patterns and schedules: Being open and frank with all staff about
the need to be considerate to their colleagues’ needs for special leave (e.g. attending
of funerals of “family”/“extended family”/clan members for black African
employees), flexibility on religious holidays (e.g. Christian, Muslim, Jewish, Hindu,
Buddhist and other religious holidays) and even rearranging schedules around work,
and particularly shift work (e.g. a Jewish single mom who needs to be home before
dark in order to prepare for Shabbat, employees who need regular time out for
meditation breaks, Muslims who must attend Friday mosque gatherings, or Christians
attending prayer circles in the mornings just before work).
• Test recruitment practices: Every so often, an organisation can set out to test the
robustness, fairness and transparency of its recruitment processes so that both
conscious and unconscious bias are mitigated. Also, a review of recruitment
committees and outside recruitment firms/agencies needs to take place to ensure that
potential candidates are not unduly prejudiced for both recruitment and promotions.
• Collect equity data: Organisations really are what they measure – and therefore it is
important to collect equity data in employee and stakeholder surveys (e.g. composition
of the workforce; pipeline for targeted groups and mobility up the pipelines; supplier
diversity; intersectional effects; length of tenure of marginalised individuals and
groups; inclusive leadership; number of bullying and harassment complaints, etc.).
These surveys should also include religious and spiritual diversity management (e.g.
whether religious and spiritual diversity is represented in senior management and
executive positions, when such staff are on the payroll, progression opportunities for
all religious affiliations and spiritual persuasions, confidential channels for reporting
and considering incidents of breach of the religious policy, what the timelines are to
hire externally if there is a need to increase such diversity, etc.).
• Facilitate positive intergroup contact: There is a great deal of research that shows that
“mere contact” between persons of different groups can be counterproductive. Often
the engagement with “difference” needs some careful facilitation to lessen the anxiety

34
 of contact with an “other”, to honestly face one’s own prejudices or unquestioned
convictions, and to recognise the humanity and worth of different people with different
ideas. Such facilitated “positive intergroup contact” sessions can be extremely
valuable and productive for building harmony, cooperation, support and mutual
understanding among team members (for an example, see Forster, 2017, pp. 57–80;
2021).

Be proactive in addressing conflicts: If conflicts arise due to religious or spiritual

differences, address them promptly and fairly. Encourage open communication, offer
mediation, be willing to compromise, and always prioritise the dignity and wellbeing of
all employees involved.

Of course, there are many other ways in which one could approach religious and spiritual
diversity within the world of work. Perhaps the central commitments to recognising,
respecting and safeguarding the dignity and freedoms of all people are important values
that should guide you. From that perspective, many strategies, engagements,
opportunities and ideas can emerge that will allow your staff to appreciate their employer,
recognise and accommodate one another, feel more engaged and integrate the various
aspects of their lives into their work in constructive ways that can lead to flourishing.

6.7 Conclusion
In this chapter we have introduced you to the importance of considering, planning for and
facilitating carefully considered diversity management practices in relation to religious
and spiritual diversity in the workplace.

Our case study illustrated that religion and spirituality have public consequences and that
they serve many important spiritual, psychological and social functions for many people.
The demographic data showed that South Africa has a deeply religious and increasingly
diverse religious population. However, such commitments and diversity can lead to
misunderstanding, distrust and even conflict in the world of work.

Our approach suggests that religion and spirituality should be integrated into the diversity,
equity and inclusion strategies of the South African workplace. Not only can this serve to
facilitate the smooth and effective functioning of teams but if handled properly, can also
help people to flourish and find deep and lasting meaning in their work and experiences.

35
Review questions

1. What are the differences between a religion and spirituality?

Refer to section 6.2 for a detailed discussion of this topic.

2. Can you give some insights into the prevalence, and importance, of religion from
the demographic data presented in this chapter?
Refer to section 6.3 for a detailed discussion of the demographic statistics and their
importance.

3. What are the three approaches to diversity management that were presented in this
chapter?
Refer to section 6.5 for a detailed discussion of this topic.

4. Please list the 14 considerations for developing a strategy for managing religious
diversity in the workplace.
Refer to section 6 of the chapter for a presentation of the 14 considerations.

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