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La Matematica per il 3+2

Volume 153

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École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland

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Paolo Biscari, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
Ciro Ciliberto, Università di Roma “Tor Vergata”, Rome, Italy
Camillo De Lellis, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, NJ, USA
Victor Panaretos, Institute of Mathematics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de
Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
Lorenzo Rosasco, DIBRIS, Università degli Studi di Genova, Genova, Italy
Center for Brains Mind and Machines, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, US
Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
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Marco Manetti

Topology
Second Edition
Marco Manetti
Dipartimento di Matematica “Guido
Castelnuovo”
Sapienza Università di Roma
Roma, Italy

ISSN 2038-5714 ISSN 2532-3318 (electronic)

UNITEXT
ISSN 2038-5722 ISSN 2038-5757 (electronic)
La Matematica per il 3+2
ISBN 978-3-031-32141-2 ISBN 978-3-031-32142-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32142-9
1st edition: © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015

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Preface

To the Student

This textbook offers a primer in general topology (point-set topology), together with
an introduction to algebraic topology. It’s meant primarily for students with the
mathematical background that’s usually taught in the first year of undergraduate
degrees in Mathematics and Physics.
Point-set topology is the language in which a considerable part of mathematics is
written. It is no accident that the original name ‘analytic topology’ was replaced by
‘general topology’, a more apt term for that part of topology that is used by the vast
majority of mathematicians and is fundamental in many areas of mathematics. Over
time its unabated employment has had a constant polishing effect on its theorems
and definitions, thus rendering it an extraordinarily elegant subject. There’s no doubt
that point-set topology has a significant formative value, in that it forces the brain—
and trains it at the same time—to handle extremely abstract objects, defined solely
by axioms. In studying on this book, you’ll experience hands-on that point-set
topology resembles a language more than a theory. There are endless terms and
definitions to be learnt, a myriad of theorems whose proof is often rather easy, only
occasionally exceeding 20 lines. There are, obviously, also deep and far-from-trivial
results, such as the theorems of Baire, Alexander and Tychonov.
The part on algebraic topology, details of which we will give in Chap. 9 together
with the mandatory motivations, is devoted to the study of homotopy, fundamental
groups and covering spaces.
I included around 500 exercises in the text: trying to solve them with dedication
is the best way to attain a firm hold on the matter, adapt it to your own way of
thinking, and also learn to develop original ideas. Some exercises are solved directly
in the text, either in full or almost. They are called Examples, and their importance
shouldn’t be underestimated: understanding them is the correct way to make abstract
notions concrete. Exercises marked with .♥, instead, are solved in Chap. 17.
It’s a matter of fact that the best way to learn a new subject is by attending
lectures, or studying on books, and trying to understand definitions, theorems and

v
vi Preface

the interrelationships properly. At the same time, you should solve the exercises,
without the fear of making mistakes, and then compare the solutions with the ones
in the text, or those provided by teacher, class mates or the internet.
This book also proposes a number of exercises marked with K, which I
personally believe to be harder than the typical exam question. These exercises
should therefore be taken as endeavours to intelligence, and incentives to be creative:
they require that we abandon ourselves to new synergies of ideas and accept to be
guided by subtler analogies, rather than trail patiently along a path paved by routine
ideas and standard suggestions.

To the Lecturer

In the academic years 2004–2005 and 2005–2006, I taught a lecture course called
‘Topology’ for the Bachelor’s degree in Mathematics at University of Rome ‘La
Sapienza’. The aim was to fit the newly introduced programme specifications for
mathematical teaching in that part of the syllabus traditionally covered in ‘Geometry
2’ course of the earlier four-year degrees. The themes were carefully chosen so to
keep into account on one side the formative and cultural features of the single topics,
on the other their usefulness in the study of mathematics and research alike. Some
choices certainly break with a long-standing and established tradition of topology
teaching in Italy, and with hindsight I suspect they might have been elicited by my
own research work in algebra and algebraic geometry. I decided it would be best
to get straight to the point and state key results and definitions as early as possible,
thus fending off the terato(po)logical aspects.
From the initial project to the final layout of my notes, I tried to tackle the
conceptual obstacles gradually, and make both theory and exercises as interesting
and entertaining as possible for students. Whether I achieved these goals the reader
will tell.
The background necessary to benefit from the book is standard, as taught in first-
year Maths and Physics undergraduate courses. Solid knowledge of the language
of sets, of linear algebra, basic group theory, the properties of real functions, series
and sequences from ‘Calculus’ is needed. The second chapter is dedicated to the
arithmetic of cardinal numbers and Zorn’s lemma, two pivotal prerequisites that are
not always addressed during the first year: it will be up to the lecturer to decide—
after assessing the students’ proficiency—whether to discuss these topics or not.
The material present here is more than sufficient for 90 hours of lectures and
exercise classes, even if, nowadays, mathematics syllabi tend to allocate far less
time to topology. In order to help teachers decide what to skip, I indicated with the
symbol . ancillary topics, which may be left out at first reading. It has to be said,
though, that Chaps. 3–6 (with the exception of the sections displaying .) form the
back bone of point-set topology and, as such, shouldn’t be excluded.
Preface vii

The bibliography is clearly incomplete and lists manuals that I found most useful,
plus a selection of research articles and books where the willing student can find
further information about the topics treated, or mentioned in passing, in this volume.
Acknowledgements I am grateful to Ciro Ciliberto and Domenico Fiorenza for
reading earlier versions and for the tips they gave me. I’d like to thank Francesca
Bonadei of Springer-Verlag Italia for helping with the final layout, and all the
students (‘victims’) of my lectures on topology for the almost-always-useful and
relevant observations that allowed me to amend and improve the book.
This volume is based on the second Italian edition. Simon Chiossi has done
excellent work of translation; he also pointed out a few inaccuracies and proposed
minor improvements. To him and the staff at Springer-Verlag, I express here my
heartfelt gratitude.
Future updates can be found at http://www.mat.uniroma1.it/people/manetti/
librotopology.html

Rome, Italy Marco Manetti

February 2015
Preface to Second English Edition

The second English edition contains more exercises and an additional chapter
devoted to a partial and concise introduction to sheaf cohomology; a complete
treatment of this subject would require a much greater number of pages and a deeper
algebraic background. In practice, we only give here the basic definitions and the
minimum theory needed to prove the classical theorems of non-contractibility of
spheres and of invariance of dimension.
The approach given here is mostly topological and quite different to the majority
of contemporary treatments of sheaf cohomology, which are essentially algebraic
and with a large use of homological algebra. In particular, we adopt the original
Leray–Cartan definition of sheaf as an étalé space, instead of the nowadays more
usual (and equivalent) definition of sheaf as a presheaf satisfying the descent
conditions, while cohomology of sheaves is defined in terms of Godement’s
canonical resolution instead of the more refined approach via derived functors.
The author thanks Margot Bruneaux for useful comments and corrections on the
drafts of Chap. 15.

Rome, Italy Marco Manetti

January 2023

ix
Contents

1 Geometrical Introduction to Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 A Bicycle Ride Through the Streets of Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Topological Sewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 The Notion of Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Homeomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 Facts Without Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1 Notations and Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 Induction and Completeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 Cardinality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4 The Axiom of Choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5 Zorn’s Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.6 The Cardinality of the Product. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3 Topological Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1 Topological Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2 Interior of a Set, Closure and Neighbourhoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 Continuous Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.4 Metric Spaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.5 Subspaces and Immersions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.6 Topological Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.7 Hausdorff Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4 Connectedness and Compactness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.1 Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.2 Connected Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.3 Covers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.4 Compact Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.5 Wallace’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.6 Topological Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.7 Exhaustions by Compact Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

xi
xii Contents

5 Topological Quotients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.1 Identifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.2 Quotient Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.3 Quotients by Groups of Homeomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.4 Projective Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.5 Locally Compact Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.6 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6 Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.1 Countability Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.2 Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.3 Cauchy Sequences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.4 Compact Metric Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.5 Baire’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.6 Completions  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.7 Function Spaces and Ascoli–Arzelà Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.8 Directed Sets and Nets (Generalised Sequences)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7 Manifolds, Infinite Products and Paracompactness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.1 Sub-bases and Alexander’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.2 Infinite Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.3 Refinements and Paracompactness  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.4 Topological Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.5 Normal Spaces  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.6 Separation Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
8 More Topics in General Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
8.1 Russell’s Paradox. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
8.2 The Axiom of Choice Implies Zorn’s Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
8.3 Zermelo’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
8.4 Ultrafilters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
8.5 The Compact-Open Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
8.6 Noetherian Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8.7 A Long Exercise: Tietze’s Extension Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
9 Intermezzo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9.1 Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9.2 Polybricks and Betti Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
9.3 What Algebraic Topology Is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
10 Homotopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
10.1 Locally Connected Spaces and the Functor π0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
10.2 Homotopy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
10.3 Retractions and Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
10.4 Categories and Functors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
10.5 A Detour s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Contents xiii

11 The Fundamental Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

11.1 Path Homotopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
11.2 The Fundamental Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
11.3 The Functor π1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
11.4 The Sphere S n Is Simply Connected (n ≥ 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
11.5 Topological Monoids  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
12 Covering Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
12.1 Local Homeomorphisms and Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
12.2 Covering Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
12.3 Quotients by Properly Discontinuous Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
12.4 Lifting Homotopies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
12.5 Brouwer’s Theorem and Borsuk’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
12.6 A Non-Abelian Fundamental Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
13 Monodromy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
13.1 Monodromy of Covering Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
13.2 Group Actions on Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
13.3 An Isomorphism Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
13.4 Lifting Arbitrary Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
13.5 Regular Coverings  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
13.6 Universal Coverings  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
13.7 Coverings with Given Monodromy  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
14 van Kampen’s Theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
14.1 van Kampen’s Theorem, Universal Version. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
14.2 Free Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
14.3 Free Products of Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
14.4 Free Products and van Kampen’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
14.5 Attaching Spaces and Topological Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
14.6 Cell Complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
15 A Topological View of Sheaf Cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
15.1 Natural Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
15.2 Sheaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
15.3 Exact Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
15.4 Direct and Inverse Image Functors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
15.5 Complexes of Abelian Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
15.6 Cohomology of Sheaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
15.7 Cohomology and Continuous Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
15.8 Homotopy Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
15.9 Cohomology of Spheres and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
16 Selected Topics in Algebraic Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
16.1 Groupoids and Equivalence of Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
16.2 Inner and Outer Automorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
16.3 The Cantor Set and Peano Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
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16.4 The Topology of SO(3, R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

16.5 The Hairy Ball Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
16.6 Complex Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
16.7 Grothendieck’s Proof of van Kampen’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
16.8 A Long Exercise: The Poincaré–Volterra Theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
17 Hints and Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373