1. Introduction to the North Eastern India 1.

1 ethinic affinity
2. The concept of the ‘tribe’
3. Major tribes of India’s north east
4. Social Structure of tribes
5. Political Structure of tribes
6. Tribal festivals
7. Food culture
8. Summary

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

 To know about North East India its division their ethnic affinity
 To understand is the concept of tribe
 To know the major tribes of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram,
Tripura and Meghalaya
 To understand the social organization of tribes of the north eastern India
 To understand the political life of tribes of the north eastern India
 To understand the major tribal festivals
 To understand food culture.

1. INTRODUCTION:

India’s north east is one of the most culturally diverse regions in the world. North eastern India
comprises seven states commonly known as “seven sisters,” namely Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya. North eastern region of India
is surrounded by Bhutan, Tibet, China, Myanmar, and Bangladesh and a long narrow passage in
the west which connects the region with the West Bengal. North eastern India occupies an area of
255,000 sq km, it comprises above 7 % land mass of the total land mass of the India. North East
India is unique in its culture and traditions, different tribes have their own oral literature consisting
of songs, and folklores.
 Fig 1. Source: http://www.google.co.in/images?imgurl=http://www.mapsofworld.com/india/
maps/north-east-india-.jpg
 Arunachal Pradesh is called as the Land of Rising Sun, because it is the state where the sun
first rises in India. It is situated on the North Eastern end of India. Geographically, it is the largest
state of North East region. It has many rivers and streams. It became India’s 24th state in
December 1986 and a union territory in 1972. It is surrounded by the border of Bhutan, China and
Myanmar, and also by surrounded by Assam and Nagaland. Itanagar (city of bricks) is the capital
of the Arunachal Pradesh, which is named after Ita Fort meaning fort of bricks. This region has
their unique culture, history and belief. There tribal people speak more than 40 different languages
and dialects, main tribal languages of Arunachal Pradesh are Adi, Bodo/Boro, Mikir, Mishmi,
Monpa, Nishi/Dafla, Nocte, Tangsa and Wancho, which mostly belonging to the Sino-Tibetan
language family specially the Tibeto-Burmese branch. Religion the main religions are buddisims,
Hinduism, chrishtianity donyi polism. Around 35% people are hindus, and around 19% are
Christians and almost 40% of populations follows Buddhism. Followers of Donyi Polism worship
celestial bodies. Agriculture is the main occupation of the tribal people of the Arunachal Pradesh.
The major crops are rice, millets, maize, potatoes, pulses, mustard. Bamboo is the vital forest
product. Adi, Aka, Dafla their occupation revolves around the slash and burn cultivation.

Assam: The meaning of the word “Assam” is the not uniform or uneven. The Assam is
surrounded by the states Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and
Meghalaya. Capital of the Assam is Dispur. Assam got recognition of statehood on 15 August
1947. There are 23 districts in the Assam. Brahmaputra is the major river of the state. The
Assamese is the main language, which belongs to the Indo- Aryan group. Hindi and English are
also spoken in Assam. Hinduism is the major religion in the Assam. Islam and Christianity are also
followed by the people of the Assam. Also there are people who follow Buddhism, Sikhism and
Jainism in this state. The main occupation of the tribal people of Assam is agriculture. The main
crops are rice, tea, sugarcane, potatoes and jute. About one sixth of the tea production of the world
comes from the Assam. In India 50% of tea production of tea is comes from Assam alone. Also
there are mines of mineral oil, coal and limestone.

Nagaland is surrounded by the Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur and Myanmar. The capital
of the state is Kohima. The name Nagaland is comes from the Sanskrit word “nagan” means naked.
Some scholars say that this word comes from the mythology, the daughter of the king of the
snakes, princess Ulupi, who lived in this region. Some scholar says that this region attain its name
due to abundance of Naga (which is one of the species of snake). The Nagaland got the recognition
of statehood on 1 December 1963. The state is divided into 23 districts. Tribes of Nagaland have
their own language. There are total thirty languages. Language varies from village to village even
within one tribal area. They use Nagamese language to communicate between two different tribes.
The Christianity is the predominant religion in the Nagaland. They believe in the concept of the
afterlife. They also believe in the spirits and consider nature as alive. The major occupation of the
tribes of the Nagaland is agriculture. Shifting and terrace cultivation both are the basis of their
agrarian economy. Rice crops are having special importance in agriculture of Nagaland. Some
other important crops are maize, pulses, millets, cardamom, tea and coffee.

Manipur is surrounded by the Nagaland, Myanmar, Mizoram and Assam. The capital of the
Manipur is Imphal. The meaning of the word Manipur is “land of jewels”. Geographically the
Manipur state can be divided into two regions – plains and the hills. The main rivers found in the
Manipur are iril, barak, irang and thoubal. The Manipur got statehood on 21 January 1972. The
people of Manipur speak mainly Manipuri, Hindi and English. The Hinduism is followed by the
majority of the people. There is small portion of people who follows Christianity and Islam. Also,
there is a small number of Buddhism. Most of the people are depends on the agriculture, animal
husbandry and fisheries. The major occupation of the people is agriculture. The main crops are
rice, sugarcane, tobacco and mustard. The weaving industry of Manipur is famous all over the
world. The handloom is present in almost in every house, women are especially engaged in the
weaving the traditional designs.

Mizoram is surrounded by the Manipur, Myanmar and Tripura. The capital of the Mizoram is
Aizwal. The word Mizoram means the “land of the Mizos”. It is declared as 23rd state of India on
20 February 1987. The whole area is hilly. The state is divided into 30 districts. The most common
languages in Mizoram are Mizo and English. Some other languages spoken by the people of the
Mizoram are paite, lakher, pawi, hmar, Ralte,Pang and Magh. These languages belong to the
Tibeto-Burman sub family of Tibeto-Chinese languages. The Christianity is religion followed by
the majority of the people of Mizoram. Small proportion of the state is following the Buddhism.
The agriculture is the main occupation of the most of the people. The major crops are maize and
paddy which are cultivated in slopes of the hilly region. The other important crops are sugarcane,
potato, pulses, ginger, chilly, tobacco, pineapple and banana. The Mizoram lacks any major
industry due to lack of mineral resources and its physically isolation from the country. Cottage
industry consists of mainly the handloom and handicrafts.

Tripura is surrounded by the Mizoram, Bangladesh and Assam. The capital of the Tripura is
Agartala. Geographically the state is can be divided into two main region- northern region and
southern region. The state is covered with the hilly terrains. The state got the position of statehood
on the 21 January 1972.Almost the 60% of the total land is covered with forests; major types of
trees are Sal, Garjan, Bamboo and miscellaneous species. The majority of the people of Tripura
speaks the Bengali language. Other languages like karborak and Manipuri is spoken by the
people of the Tripura. Hinduism is the predominant religion of the state. They worship nature such
as the God of water, the God of forests, the God of earth, the God of fire etc. Sacrifices are
considered as an important part of their religion, animals used for the sacrifices are the buffaloes,
pigs, goats, and fowls. “Cantais” and the “Deodais” are regarded as the superintendent of the
Tripuri religion and occupy a very important position in society as the Brahmins in Hindu
society. Agriculture is the chief occupation of most of the people. The major crops are rice, jute,
cotton, tea, mustard, sugarcane maize and potato. Tripura lacks any major industry. There are
recently small cottage industries of handloom, weaving, pottery and basket making are initiated by
the government of the India.

Meghalaya is surrounded by Assam, and the Bangladesh. The meaning of the word Meghalaya
is ‘Adobe of clouds’. The state attained the statehood on the 21 January 1972. The capital of
Meghalaya is Shillong. The Meghalaya is also called as ‘Scotland of the East’ due to its scenic
beauty. The whole state is divided into three division- Jaintia (Eastern), Garo (Western) and Khasi
(central) hills. The Meghalaya is rich in the flora and the fauna. The major languages of Meghalaya
are Garo and Khasi. The Garos language belongs to the Bodo group of the Tibeto-Burman family,
the Khasi language belong to the Mon-Khmer family of Austro-Asiatic family. English is the
official language of the state. There tribes follow their own religion. They worship of Supreme
Being. They believe in the ghosts, spirits (both good and bad), there give special importance to
sacrifices in their rituals. Christianity is also found there. The agriculture is chief occupation of the
most the people. The major crops are maize and rice. Other important crops are oranges, ginger,
pineapple, jack fruit, banana, peach, plums, cotton, jute and mustard. Also crops are cashew nuts,
tea and coffee is cultivated in the Meghalaya.

1.1 ETHINIC AFFINITY OF INDIA’S NORTH EAST:

 From ethnic point of view the people of the north east India can be divided into two broad
groups: the indid and the ‘mongoloid’ (Sengupta, 2003). Indid group mostly comprises the Hindu
castes and the Muslims, who considered as the Caucasoid in origin (Sengupta, 2003). It is
generally agreed that the mongoloids once occupied practically the whole of the north eastern
region (Sengupta, 2003). According to Sengupta, 2003 the Mongoloid are characterized by
following features:

1. Yellow or yellow brown skin

2. Eyes are black or dark brown
3. Eye- slit is oblique
4. Presence of the Mongolian fold in their eyes
5. Wavy and coarse head hair
6. Face is broad
7. Zygomatic arches are very prominent
8. Scanty growth of facial and body hairs

2. THE CONCEPT OF THE ‘TRIBE’:

In common language the term is linked with the people who are living in isolated surroundings
from the rest of the population (Thomas T. Jacob, Indian Tribal Culture: A Rediscovery of Gospel
Values). The Shillong consolation of tribals in 1962 defined tribe as “an indigenous, homogeneous
unit, speaking a common language, claiming a common ancestry living in a particular geographical
area, backward in technology, pre-literate, loyally observing social and political customs based on
kinship” (Religion and Society 9:80). In International Circles, by the UNO (United Nation
Organization), the “Indigenous people” is replaced the term tribe. But the Government of India has
not agreed to the status of the “Indigenous people” to the Indian tribals. (Religion and Society
38:18). Some Indian anthropologists and politicians fear that the term adivasi (indigenous or
original people) would raise claims of privilege among some people that would harm harmony and
the peace of the races and peoples. (G.S. Ghurye, p.29).

3. MAJOR TRIBES OF THE INDIA’S NORTH EAST:

India’s north east is the land of a large number of tribes; there are more than 150 tribal
communities. According to the census 2001 the tribe of the north east region constitutes around 15
percent of the total tribal population of India. In the states of Assam tribal population is of 12.4% to
the total population, Manipur tribal population is of 34.2% and Tripura 31.1% tribal population to
the total population of the India. Also the percentages of tribal population of Arunachal Pradesh,
Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland states are very high. (Ali, A.N.M. Irshad and Indranoshee
Das)

Major Tribes of Arunachal Pradesh:

 According to Sengupta, 2003 there are 24 major tribes which are divided into a number of sub
tribes and each tribe have a unique geographic distribution. The major tribes are-

2. Aka
3. Apatani
4. Bangni
5. Khamba
6. Khowa
7. Memba
8. Miji
9. Khampti
10. Hill miri
11. Mishing
12. Monpa
13. Na
14. Tagin
15. Nishi (Dafla)
16. Nocte
17. Sherdukpen
18. Sulung
19. Singpho
20. Tangsa
21. Wancho
22. Yobin
23. Zakhring (Meyor)
24. Mishmi

Major tribes of Assam:

According to Sengupta, 2003 there are 14 main tribes of the Assam are:
1. Chakma
2. Dimasa
3. Garo
4. Hajong
 5. Hmar
6. Khasi
7. Kuki
8. Lakher
9. Man
10. Lusani
11. Pawi
12. Syntheg
13. Naga tribes
14. Mikir

Major Tribes of Nagaland:

According to Sengupta, 2003 there are 13 major tribes which have sub-tribes also. The following
are the major tribes of the Nagaland:

2. Adi
3. Aka
4. Dimasa
5. Galong
6. Garo
7. Khasi
8. Mizo
9. Karbi
10. Kuki
11. Khowa
12. Momba
13. Synteng

According to Sengupta, 2003 important tribes of Manipur are as follows:

 Major Tribes of Mizoram:

According to Sengupta, 2003 there are 13 main tribes which are further divided into sub-tribes.
The tribes of Mizoram are as follows:

1) Kuki tribe

i) Baite i) Jongbe

ii) Changloi iii) Khawchung

iv) Doundgel v) Khothalong

vi) Gamalhou vii) Khelma

viii) Guite ix) Kholhou

x) Gangte xi) Kipgen

xii) Hanneng xiii) Lenthang

xiv) Haokip xv) Lhangum

xvi) Haolai xvii) Lhoujem

xviii) Hengna xix) Lhovun

xx) Rangkhol xxi) Lupheng

xxii) Mangjel xxiii) Misao

2) Mizo tribe
3) Chakma
4) Dimasa
5) Garo
6) Hajong
7) Hmar
8) Khasi
9) Lekhar
10) Man
11) karbi
 12) pawi

Major Tribes of Tripura:

There are majority of Bengali peoples are residing in the state. Tribal people prefers the remote
hilly areas. According to Sengupta, 2003 there are 18 major tribes as follows:

Major Tribes of Meghalaya:

According to Sengupta, 2003 there are 20 important tribes of the Meghalaya:

4. SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF TRIBES OF THE INDIA’S NORTH EAST:

 Ethnographically, Arunachal Pradesh remained one of the least known areas of the world
(Sengupta, 2003). There is lot of confusion in the nomenclature of the tribes of this
 area. Adi, the Assamese used term of “Abor” (meaning wildmen) for all the hillmen of the
siang district this term is replaced by the Adi. The Adis follows the patrilineal
descent inheritance and patrilocal residence (Sengupta, 2003). The clans are exogamous in
nature and the sub-tribes inter marry. Aka, is the major tribe of the Kameg district known to
itself as ‘Hruso’ meaning the hunting being (Sengupta, 2003). Linguistically they are more
close to the Adi and Dafla whom they can marry. The tribes are divided into the two major
divisions; kotsun and kovatsun, each which is further divided into the sub-clans (Sengupta,
2003). These maintain the vertical hierarchy and the marriages are hypergamous. The
family is patrilocal in residence. Dafla (nishi), is another major tribe of Arunachal
Pradesh. The term has derogatory connotation, meaning a barbarian. The Dafla themselves
want to called “Nishi or Nishing” “Ni” means man (Sengupta, 2003). The Dafla are
patrilineal in descent and inheritance and patrilocal in residence. The Wanchu and
Nocte, the society is organized under great chief, each controlling a number of villages. The
society is divided into three hierarchical classes. The chief (wangham ) middle class
(Wangsa) and the commoners (Wangpen). They are jhum cultivators. Their religious
belief centre around a God, living in the sky who is kind and benevolent (Sengupta, 2003).
 The inhabitants of Assam can be divided into three categories, namely the tribal population,
the non tribal population, and the scheduled castes. The tribals consist of different ethno-
cultural groups such as the Kacharis (Bodos), the Miris, the Deoris, the Rabhas, the
Nagas, the Garos, the Khasis, etc. The non tribal groups include the Ahoms, the
Kayasthas, the Kalitas, and the Morans etc. The Scheduled caste includes the Basfors,
Baniyas, the Dhobis, the Hiras, the Kaibartas nd Namasudras. The non tribals can be
divided on the basis of religion amongst whom the Muslims constitute the second largest
group followed by the Christians, Sikhs and the Buddhists. Tribes are divided into the hill
tribes and the plains tribes according to geography of their location. Tribal religion is very
close to animism but with ingredients of Hinduism. There are tribes like the Bodo Kacharis,
Karbis and Lalungs which are purely patriarchal, and the Khasis, Jaintias and Garos which
are strictly Matriarchal. A number of tribes such as the Hmars, Rengma Nagas and Garos
have a social institution called the youth dormitory in which young males live away from
their families and undergo training and education. Child marriage is still prevalent among
the Brahmans and Kayasthas, more particularly in the villages. However death rituals of
tribes here are quite interesting the burying of the dead is a common custom. Tribes like
Akas, the Adis, the Dalfas and most of the Nagas bury the dead.
 There are various estimated derivations of the name Nagaland. Some scholars opine that the
term NAGA is derived from the word NOK or NOKA which means folks or people. Some
say that Naga has evolved from the Kachari word NANGRA which means a warrior. Nagas
were never under the British Empire. Basically Nagas are the tribal people with each tribe
having its own effective system of self-governance. Nagas belong to the Indo-Mongoloid
stock and their ancestors lived of natures’ abundant gifts. Above all, they have a reputation
for a warm-hearted hospitability. Naga tribes have their own language. In actual practice, the
language, even within one tribal area, varies from village to village, there are about thirty
languages. The chief occupation of Naga people is Agriculture. The traditional Naga religion
is animistic, though conceptions of a supreme character and an afterlife exist. Nature is seen
to be alive with invisible forces, minor deities, and spirits. In the nineteenth century, with the
advent of British people, Christianity was introduced, and Baptist missionaries became
especially active in the region. As a result population now is predominantly Christian. The
Angami, Lotha, Rengma and Ao villages have a democratic structure. Among
the Angamis, although the chief is chosen for his wealth, physical prowess and skill in
diplomacy, the decisions are taken collectively by the villagers. On the other hand,
the Semas have a system of hereditary village chief. In case of marriages, the Naga tribes
 follow the exogamous principle. Persons of same clan do not marry. The only exceptions
are the Konyak chiefs who are considered so sacred that their principal wife must be a
woman of the same clan. The Chakhesang of the Phek district of Nagaland is formed out of
three subgroups of the allied ethinic groups called Chakro, Kheza, Santam although they
have separate and distinct moieties like Chuzo and Thevo in addition to number of clans and
lineages. But due to some politico-economic pressure from within and outside their own
group they were compelled to be merged together, this could enable them to be established
as single and powerful political and ethnic force to preserve their identity and culture.
With conversion to Christianity, the traditional marriage, the pattern is totally changed.
After negotiation of marriage, when the date is fixed foe wedding, both the parties go to the
church, adorned in western wedding dresses in most of cases for solemnization.
 The Purums of Manipur are old kuki tribes. They believe that Purums are
divided intothe five clan Marriam, thaho,makam, Kheyang and Parpa. Each of them are
belived to be exogamous. According to the Tarakchand Das (1945: 111) these are no longer
exogamous. Among them he finds the many sub-clans Rhimphonchong, Rimkung, Rim-ke-
lek in Marriam clan. Thao kung, thao rum, Teyu in Thao clan. Kankung
and ingte in Kheyang clan. No sub clan in Parpa clan. Each sub-clan has the Pipa who is
regarded as the head of the group. The eldest son of the Pipa Succeed his father. Thus tribal
structure is tribe- clan- subclan- family and individual.
 There are a number of sub-tribes under the Mizo, it includes Ralte, Paite, Dulien, Poi,
Sukte, Pankhup, Jahao, Taute, Lakher Leillul and Tangur. These further divided into
the clans like Lushais, Pawis and Lakhers. The clan endogamy is permissible. They are
patriarchal descent. The youngest son in the family inherits the property. They believe that
the youngest son is the fittest person in the family and can look after their old parents and
elder brothers thus he is most eligible for inheriting the property. For the chief the eldest son
consider as the most eligible. The tribal structure of the Mizos is tribe- subtribe- clans-
family-individual (Vidarthi, 1976).
 Eighteen tribes with all their traditions and customs make Tripura a cosmopolitan state.
Tripuras dominate all other tribes of the state. Laskars and Notias are the other two groups
of tribes. This group belongs to the Bodo race. The Mundas, Oraons, Santhals, Bhils,
Lepchas, Bhutis migrated to Tripura in recent past. The Kukis form another group of tribes
in the state.. A diverse ethnic element among the people of Tripura is that- there are two
major racial elements, namely, the Indo Aryans represented by Bengalese and the Indo-
Mongoloids represented by a few communities like the Tripuris, the Reangs, the Jamatis,
the Noatias, the Kukis, the Halmas, the Chakma, the Mogh and the Lushai. Besides
these major tribes, there are ten more tribes. All the tribes are classified as “scheduled
tribes.” They have partrilineal system. The tribal structure of Tripura is tribe-sub-group-
clan-family-individual (Vidarthi, 1976).
 The three main tribal groups residing in Meghalaya are: Khasis, Jaintias, Mikris and
Garos, who are said to have inhabited this area before the reign of Christians. Women play a
more important role in the social system than the man. They believe that women are
personification of nature and so they believe that where women are honoured, there Gods
are pleased. The three major tribes prohibit marriage within same clan. They have
matrilineal society. The matrilineal system of the khasis also carries within it the
underpinnings of the relationship between nature and mother built into the complex
mechanism of their land tenure system, the social customs and laws. The youngest daughter
of the family acts as a custodian of its land and property. Property is inherited to female line.
It is managed by male Mahari. Household responsibilities are shared between the maternal
uncle and the father.
 The clan relationship regulates the social behavior. The matrix of the tribal community of the
north eastern India based on the distinct factor of endogamous unity of the tribe ( means marriage
take place inside the tribe) and exogamous unity of the clan ( means no take place within a clan).
(Thomas T. Jacob, Indian Tribal Culture: A Rediscovery of Gospel Values). Most of the tribes
having patrilineal system (means lineage is traced through the father side); some exception like
Garo of Meghalaya is matrilineal. In Khasis of the Meghalaya the marriage is forbidden in both in
mother’s clan as well as in the father’s clan. Breaking the marriage rules is considered a very
severe crime and strict punishment is given to the rule breakers of the marriage. Punishment may
include the loss of the property rights and even the expulsion from the village. Clan plays the role
of the extended family, clan look after the weaker members of the tribes like sick, widows,
orphans. Weak members can ask for the food, shelter and work from the other members. Village
administration of the tribal people is carried out by the village council which includes all the elders
of the families. Village council has the judicial powers. Women generally enjoy the equal status
but don’t have any role in the decision making bodies of the village council even in the matrilineal
tribes like Khasis. The very popular saying among the Khasis that “the war and politics is for men
and the property and children is for the women” (Thomas T. Jacob, Indian Tribal Culture: A
Rediscovery of Gospel Values). Tribal democracy is doesn’t depends on the majority or the
minority, they believe on the principle that anyone can be superior to anyone else. Tribal people of
the north eastern India considers the land and the water is the public property. All members work
together on the same land and follow the “slash and burn” method called jhoom cultivation.
Hunting is also very common among them. The game meat is shared by all the members. Tribal
communities generally don’t have class system. Social status is depends on the merits of the
individuals. They always give importance to community over individual. They don’t believe in
accumulation rather they believe in distribution. The act like organizing the social feast not only
enhances their social status and prestige among their tribes but also it ensures the better rewards
and peaceful life even after the death. They believe that the lazy people and greedy people the life
will be difficult even after the death.
5. POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF THE TRIBES OF THE INDIA’S NORTH EAST:

Political life is tribal communities is where the monarchy and democracy co-exist. The members
of the tribes are united by the kinship and marriage, thus it become difficult to differentiate
between the political matters and domestic matters. Lineage segmentation is main principle of the
political structure of the tribal communities. The tribal laws are depends on the Agnatic
relations like clan and lineage, Moral principles and public opinions are the matter of
consideration. Oaths are considered as the important mode of the evidence. They believe that the
supernatural power also gives the punishment to offenders. The institutions are mainly of five types
(Sengupta, 2003):

i) The council of the elders- where the elders of the clan look after matter. Lushias have their
‘upas’ they deal with their matters and also give advice to tribal chief who can disregard.
The Ao clan elders are elected from different clans. The clans elders play crucial role
among Nagas. A man’s position in the community is determined by the intelligence, character and
by the wealth. The Khasis and Tripuries also have this institution of clan elders. (Sengupta, 2003)

ii) The village headman- it is honored and obeyed by the rest of the members. This post is
heredity. The Khasis have the ‘tynmen shnong’ as their village head. The tripuris have ‘chandhari’
as village head. Among the Purums ‘khullapka’ (khul means village, lakpa means protector) is the
village head. After the British rule, the village head loses his power but the customary law prevails.
(Sengupta, 2003).
 iii) The tribal chief- it is also the heredity post and have the ultimate judicial power.
Chieftainship is common features of many tribes like the Nagas, Khasis, Lushais, etc. (Sahay,
1969: 160). The democratic spirit is can be observed in indigenous tribal administrative
organizations. The constitutional monarchs were the Khasis Siems . They hardly take any decision
independently. It is their ministers take decision for them. But the Lushai chiefs are more powerful,
even they could disregard the decision taken by their upas (village elders). Thus we can observe
that although the chiefs and the Siems are heredietary principles their administration is thoroughly
democratic (Vidhyarthi, 1976). Social disputes are sorted in the court also. In some cases women
are allowed during the trials. Since the independence whole administration in the region has
changed. In the Konyak villages the chieftainship is known as the Ang or Wang still present but the
chieftainship is losing its importance to the new elected and educated leaders (Vidhyarthi, 1976).
iv) The village Panchayat- in this all villagers are the members who are above age of twenty
years. They sit together to discuss the problems. There is no formal voting each person gives their
opinion. The village headman has no real power than any other villager but pay more attention due
to prestige of his position. The punishment to rule breakers is given by village council. The concept
of the punishment is compensate the loss, or to purify the guilty, or to readmit the guilty after
paying the fine. The Ao of Nagas has the institution of village council. The village council has the
two chambers – Unger Menden (clan elders) and Saman Menden (village
elders). Saman Menden is concerned with the secular matters. The democratic Konyak villages
had village council in which the representatives are from different morung (men’s house). Their
position as morung was either hereditary or selection was made for a limited period (Vidhyarthi,
1976).

v) The union of the village- Pragan Panchayat – In this the villages (around 200 villages) are
grouped in lose unions. Such a union is known as the parha or pargana. This has a court of appeal;
in some cases they have power to readmission to the tribe (Sacchidanand, 1968: 123). Among
the Nagas Long Phang is the regional head and work with the different village headmen member
villagers. The Khasis have Siem Ried (regional head) who works with the Gaon Burhas and other
representatives of the village. The tripuri villages have the Thakurs, Kobras and Sardars.

6. FESTIVALS OF INDIA’S NORTH EAST:

a) Tribal Festivals of Arunachal Pradesh:

In Arunachal Pradesh there is the huge importance of the festivals. Their all festivals are related
to the mainly to the agriculture. They celebrate the festivals to increase the crop production or to
express their thankfulness to the god for providing the blessing of the crops. Some major festivals
of the people of the Arunachal Pradesh are:

i) Mol (Tangsa)
ii) Mopin and Solung (Adi)
iii) Ojhiale (Wancho)
iv) Nyokum (Nishing)
v) Reh (Mishmi)
vi) Lossar (Monpa)
vii) Boori-Boot (Hill Miris)

b) Tribal festivals of Assam:

 Important festivals of the Assam are Magh Bihu (celebrated in January), BohagBihu (celebrated
in april), Kati Bihu (celebrated in may). People together celebrate these festivals irrespective of
caste, gender and age. The Assamese people also celebrate Diwali, Id, Janamshtami, Muharram,
Durgapuja There are other festivals also celebrated by tribal people of the Assam like:

i) Ali-Ai-Ligang (Mishing tribe)

ii) Baishagu (Bodo tribe)
iii) Baikho (Rabha tribe)
iv) HarniGarba (Dimasa tribe)
v) Ambubhashi Mela
vi) JonbillMela

Figure-4 Bihu dance of Assam; source:

http://www.travelmasti.com/images/assam/assam_festival.jpg

c) Tribal Festivals of Nagaland:

Tribal festivals of the Nagaland are majorly related to the agriculture. Their participation in their
festivals considered as sacred and compulsory. Various arts performed here are Music and dance,
Pottery , Crafts, wood-carvings, Morung Pillars, Kharu, Wooden log-drum, Black smithy etc. Naga
people enjoy playing musical instruments like Trumpets and drums in their festivals.
 Figure Sumi dance of Nagaland; SOURCE:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Sumi_dancer_girls.jpg

The important festivals of Nagaland are:

i) Moastsu (Ao tribe)

ii) Ngada (Rengma)
iii) Monyu (Phom)
iv) Nikanyulum (Chang)
v) Sekrenyi (Agami)
vi) Sukurnye(Chakhensang)

d) Tribal Festivals of Manipur:

All the festivals of the Manipur have special place for music and dance. The Lai Haraobai is the
dance is performed by priests and priestess presenting the Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati,
depicting the creation of the life. It celebrated during March- April for almost 15 days. Holi is one
of the important festivals in the Manipur. The boys and girls sprinkle colored water on each other.
It is celebrated during the Vasant Purnima day. Also they perform the Thabal Chouba dance on
the holi. Ras Lila is very famous dance which depicts the eternal love of Lord Krishna and Radha,
especially during the vasant purnima, sarat purnima and kartika purnima. The beautiful costumes
add more beauty to this dance form.

Figure 5 Rasleela of Manipur; Source: http://kanglaonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/ras-

lila-leela-manipur-classical-dance.jpg
 e) Tribal Festivals of Mizoram:

In the festivals of Mizoram various art forms practiced by the people like Dance, Music, etc. The
main festivals of the Mizoram are:

i) Chapcharkut:
It is also known as the spring festival. They celebrate it on the completion of their heavy job of
jungle clearing for jhoom cultivation. On this day all people irrespective of ages decorate
themselves in traditional colorful costumes, and together they perform folk dance and sing the folk
songs.

ii) Mimkut:
It is also known as the maize festival. It is the festival celebrated on occasion of maize harvest. It
is celebrated in month of the August and September. They perform folk dances and together sing
folk songs. They drink rice beer on this occasion. Some portion of their harvest is given for their
ancestors.

Figure 6 bamboo dance of Mizoram; Source:

http://assamportal.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Chapchar-Kut-Festival-Mizoram.jpg

The major folk dance is Cheraw the Bamboo Dance which is very famous in the Mizoram. In
this dance long bamboo stave is used.
f) Tribal Festivals of Tripura:

The major festivals of the Tripura are:

i) Kharchi Puja: it is celebrated in july. On these festivals people worship the 14 deities of head
image in the Chaturdaus Deutas temple in Agartala.

Figure 7 Kharchi puja; Source: https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?

q=tbn:ANd9GcQRdumkY5ODwKos2DPrukNh-jB6l-f82OnO5Sgb6mmnFloGZS3uFw
 ii) Gariya Puja: it is beileive this festival brings prosperity into their lives. It is celebrated on the
7th day of the month of vaishakh. On this day sacrifices of cock is performed by tribal people.

iii) Ker Puja: this festival is celebrated within specific boundaries, for this they take permission
from the gazette office. No outsider is allowed in the specific boundaries.

iv) Durga Puja: it is celebrated for the goddess Durga, it is believe that she is the protector their
family. At the end of the festival the idol of goddess Durga is immersed in the water.

g) Tribal Festivals of Meghalaya:

The following are the major festivals celebrated in the state of the Meghalaya:

i) Wangle festival: it is celebrated during October- November. It is the celebrated to worship the
God Sun. It is celebrated by Garo tribe.

Figure 8 wangle festival; Source: https://meghalayatours.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/wangala -

festival-meghalaya-tours.jpg
ii) Shad Sukmyseium: It is the festival of Kasis. It is celebrated during the second of the
April.
iii) Bhehdiengkhlam: It is main festival of the Jaintias. It is celebrated in July.
iv) Christmas: it is celebrated by Christian community of the state. It is celebrated in
December.

7. FOOD CULTURE OF NORTH EASTERN INDIA:

The food culture of the North east India is different from the rest of the India and it is largely
same in these seven states. North India cuisine is highly influenced by Chinese, Burmese, and
Mongolian cuisine. North eastern Indians are basically non-vegetarians.

Arunachal Pradesh: People here generally are non vegetarian. Food is highly influenced from
the Chinese cuisine. Apong (local drinks made from rice or millets) is also a famous among the
tribal people.

Assam: food of Assam is mainly based on rice and fish. Rice is the main diet in Assam. The
Assamese eat a huge variety of rice based breakfast cereals with the milk, yogurt or thick cream
akhoi (puffed rice), chira (chura), the muri, komal chaul ( a specially processed rice which doesn’t
require but just an hour’s soak in cold water). For dessert there is wide range in “pithas”(cakes).
Also various kinds of pitha that is prepared from rice powder. Very little oil is used and practically
no spices. Mustard oil is used for cooking and occasionally clarified butter or ghee.

Figure 2. khar; Source: http://s3.scoopwhoop.com/ach/NE/1.JPG

Nagaland: The food habits of Nagaland are very different from the other region. Both the men
and women are fond of drinks. Some of the popular drinks are Zutho, Ruhi, Dzutse where are made
up of rice. They are basically non-vegetarian and eat of all kinds of animals like dog, spiders,
crabs, beef and even elephants. In general, they don’t throw any part of the animal, even intestine
and skin considered as dishes.

Manipur: The traditional Manipuri fine dining with the banana-leaf plates. The rice is the major
food. Some take rice with meat and some prefer fish. Kabok, traditional dish (fried rice with
vegetables) is very famous. Also Iromba, is another famous Manipuri dish.
 Figure 2. Iromba Manipuri chutney; Source: http://www.ndtv.com/cooks/images/Iromba_600.jpg

Mizoram: The people are basically non-vegetarian. They prefer spicy food but cooked on such a
way that the nutritional value is restored. “Zu” (tea) is popular drink. Both men and women are
fond of smoking.

Tripura: Food is highly influenced by Bengali cuisine. Fish is their inseparable part of their diet.
Many Bengali recipes are also famous here. The traditional dish of Tripura ‘Moi buruk‘ is also
very famous.

Meghalaya: The Meghalayan cuisine is famous for meat particularly, pork. “Jadoh”- spicy dish
of rice and pork is very famous. Chinese food is also famous here. “Kyat”, the local brew made
from rice is famous on special occasion.
8. SUMMARY:

 Thus we can conclude that the India’s north east have great diversity in the term of
language, religion, cultures.
 All the seven states have a uniqueness of their own.
 Ethnic affinity is of majority have mongoloid elements.
 Languages belong to the Sino-Tibetan linguistic family.
 Every states have their own distinct festivals.
 Tribal economy is majorly depends on agriculture.
 Social organization is depends on the clan relationship.
 Most of tribes have patrinilineal system.
 In general there is Endogamous unity of tribe, Exogamous unity of clan.
 The political institutions are mainly of five types: The council of the elders- where the elders
of the clan look after matter. Lushias have their ‘upas’ they deal with their matters and also
give advice to tribal chief who can disregard. The Ao clan elders are elected from different
clans. The clans elders play crucial role among Nagas. The village headman- it is honored
and obeyed by the rest of the members. This post is heredity. The Khasis have the ‘tynmen
shnong’ as their village head. The tribal chief- it is also the heredity post and have the
 ultimate judicial power. Chieftainship is common features of many tribes like the Nagas,
Khasis, Lushais, etc. The village Panchayat- in this all villagers are the members who are
above age of twenty years. They sit together to discuss the
problems.Strict punishment given to rule breakers.
 Each state has unique festivals of their own.
 The food culture of the North east India is different from the rest of the India and it is largely
same in these seven states. North India cuisine is highly influenced by Chinese, Burmese,
and Mongolian cuisine.