NERVOUS SYSTEM

Introduction:
The nervous system is the most complex, widely investigated and least understood system in the
body. It along with endocrine system regulates the functions of all other systems of the body.
Hence nervous system is called master system of the body.
The functions of the Nervous System
1. Gathers information from both inside and outside the body - Sensory Function
2. Transmits information to the processing areas of the brain and spine
3. Processes the information in the brain and spine – Integration Function
4. Sends information to the muscles, glands, and organs so they can respond appropriately –
Motor Function
5. It controls and coordinates all essential functions of the body including all other body
systems allowing the body to maintain homeostasis or its delicate balance.

Divisions of the Nervous System

The Nervous System morphologically is divided into two main divisions: Central Nervous
System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

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The central nervous system (CNS): consists of brain and spinal. The brain is located within the
cranial cavity and the spinal cord within the vertebral canal.
The CNS is responsible for integrating, processing, and coordinating sensory data, and giving
appropriate motor commands. It is also the seat of higher functions such as intelligence, memory,
learning, and emotions.

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes all the neural tissues outside the CNS, such as
12 pairs of cranial nerves, 31 pairs of spinal nerves, and ganglia associated with cranial and
spinal nerves.

The peripheral nervous system provides sensory information to the central nervous system and
carries its motor commands to the peripheral tissues and systems.

Functional Division of Nervous System

This also the nervous system is divided into two parts:
1. The afferent division that brings sensory information to the central nervous system.
2. The efferent division carries motor commands to the muscles and glands.

Basic Cells of the Nervous System

The highly specialized and complex nervous system consists of only two principal categories of
cells,
1. Neurons: The basic structural and functional units of the nervous system. They are
excitable cells which are specialized for reception of stimuli and the conduction of nerve
impulses. Transmits impulses (up to 250 mph)
Parts of Neurons
a) Dendrite – receive stimulus and carries it impulses toward the cell body
b) Cell Body with nucleus – nucleus & most of cytoplasm
c) Axon – fiber which carries impulses away from cell body
d) Schwann Cells- cells which produce myelin or fat layer in the Peripheral Nervous
System
e) Myelin sheath – dense lipid layer which insulates the axon – makes the axon look gray
f) Node of Ranvier – gaps or nodes in the myelin sheath

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NOTE: Impulses travel from dendrite to cell body to axon

Classification of Neurons
The neurons exhibit considerable diversity in form and function. Therefore, they are classified
structurally as well as functionally.
1. Anatomical (morphological) classification
According to polarity:
a) Pseudo-unipolar neurons: it possess oval or rounded cell body, single process and T-
junction.
b) Bipolar neurons: they possess spindle-shaped cell body from each end and single
process emerges.
c) Multipolar neurons: have multipolar cell body from which emerges several dendrites
and a single axon.

According to size of nerve fibre

a) Golgi type I neurons: this neurons have long axon and connect different parts of the
nervous system. They are found in the granular layer of the cerebellum. They release
neurotransmitters GABA plays vital role in motor control and coordination.

b) Golgi type II neurons: it is also called micro neurons, have short axon and found in
large numbers in cerebral cortex and hippocampus of the brain. They release
neurotransmitter Glutamate to stimulate the activity of other neurons. Involve in
processing and integrating sensory information and may play a vital role in attention,
memory and learning.

2. Functional classification
These types of neurons are classified into the following base on their contribution to the nervous
system.
a) Sensory neurons: they carry impulses from the receptor organs to the central nervous
system.
b) Motor neurons: they transmit impulses from central nervous system to the muscles and
glands (effector organs).

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Neuroglia or Glial cells: These are supportive cells that support the neurons functions to
support, protection, insulation, aid in function of neurons both structurally and functionally.

These are:
Astrocytes: help to regulate flow into CSF, regulate chemical composition of tissue fluid à when
neurons are damage astrocytes form hardened masses of scar tissue and fill in the space =
sclerosis.
Microglia (CNS): carry out phagocytosis of microbes and cellular debris microglia also remove
unused synapses.
Ependymal Cells (CNS): helps to produce and circulate Cerebro Spinal Fluid.
Oligodendrocytes (CNS): Are responsible for producing myelin, which is an insulating sheath
on the axon of nerve fibers.
Schwann Cells (PNS): found only in PNS plays essential role in regeneration of cut or injured
neurons [CNS neurons don’t regenerate]
Brain
Is part of the central nervous system situated in the skull (cranial cavity). It is continued as spinal
cord in the vertebral canal through the foramen magnum of the skull bone.
Its weight about 1400g – 1500g in male and female 1200g – 1250g in females.

The functions of the brain are as follows:

 It receives information from, and controls the activities of trunk and limbs mainly
through its connections with spinal cord.
 It assimilates experiences, a requisite to higher mental process such as memory, learning
and intelligence. Etc.

Lobes of the Cerebrum

 Frontal – motor area involved in movement and in planning & coordinating behavior
 Parietal – sensory processing, attention, and language
 Temporal – auditory perception, speech, and complex visual perceptions
 Occipital – visual center – plays a role in processing visual information

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 Regions of the Brain
• Cerebellum – coordination of movement and aspects of motor learning.
• Cerebrum – conscious activity including perception, emotion, thought, and planning
• Thalamus – Brain’s switchboard – filters and then relays information to various brain
regions
• Medulla – vital reflexes as heart beat and respiration
• Brainstem – medulla, pons, and midbrain (involuntary responses) and relays
information from spine to upper brain
• Hypothalamus– involved in regulating activities internal organs, monitoring
information from the autonomic nervous system, controlling the pituitary gland and
its hormones, and regulating sleep and appetite

SPINAL CORD
• Spinal cord is an elongated, almost cylindrical part of the central nervous system, which
is suspended in the vertebral canal surrounded by the meninges and cerebrospinal fluid.

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 • The spinal cord is continuous above with the medulla oblongata and extends from the
upper border of the atlas (1 cervical vertebra) to the lower border of the 1 st lumbar
vertebra.
• It is approximately 45 cm long in adult males and thickness of the little finger.
• It is the only nervous tissue that connects between the brain and the rest of the body.

MENINGES/MENINGEAL LAYER
Meninges are the three coverings around the brain & spine and help cushion, protect, and nourish
the brain and spinal cord.
1. Dura mater is the most outer layer, very strong fibrous connective tissue.
2. Arachnoid mater is the middle layer and adheres to the Dura mater and has web-like
attachments to the innermost layer, the Pia mater.
3. Pia mater is very thin, transparent, but tough, and covers the entire brain, following it
into all its crevices (sulci) and spinal cord.

CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
Cerebrospinal fluid is a clear, slightly alkaline fluid with a specific gravity of about 1.005
consists of the following compositions: Water, Mineral salt, Glucose, Plasma proteins, small
amount of albumin and globulin, A few leukocytes, Small amount of creatinine, and Small
amount of urea.
Function of CSF:- Buffers, nourishes, and detoxifies the brain and spinal cord, flows through
the subarachnoid space, between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater, It act as a shock
absorber, and It supports and protects brain and spinal cord by maintaining uniform pressure.
The CSF contains four irregular shaped cavities or ventricles, containing cerebrospinal fluid. They are
the:

 Right and left lateral ventricles

 Third ventricle
 Fourth ventricle.
The average amount of cerebrospinal fluid formed per day is 500 ml. CSF is produced in the
brain by choroid plexus.

CRANIAL NERVES
The cranial nerves are set of 12 paired nerves that arise directly from the brain. The first two (2)
nerves (olfactory and optic) arise from the cerebrum, whereas the remaining ten (10) emerge
from the brain stem. The cranial nerves are numbered I-XII, from rostral to caudal.

They are called cranial nerves because they emerge through foramina of fissures in the cranium.
Some of these nerves are sensory cranial nerves, motor cranial nerves and mixed cranial nerves:

1. Olfactory nerve (CN) - control sense of smell

2. Optic nerve (CN) - transmit visual information
3. Oculomotor nerve (CN) - supplies external muscles of the eye
4. Trochlear nerve (CN) - supplies muscles of the eye

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5. Trigeminal nerve (CN) - control chewing and sensation in the face
6. Abducent nerve (CN) - controls lateral eye movement
7. Facial nerve (CN) - supplies muscles of facial expression and taste buds in the anterior 2/3 of
the tongue.
8. Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN) - control hearing and balance
9. Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN) - control swallowing, salivary gland and movement of the
tongue
10. Vagus nerve (CN) - controls organs of the thoracic and abdominal cavities
11. Spinal accessory nerve (CN) - supplies the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles
12. Hypoglossal nerve (CN) – supplies the muscles of the tongue and the muscles surrounding the
hyoid bone, and contribute to swallowing and speech.

Mnemonic: Oh Oh Oh To Touch And Feel Very Good Valvet Ah Heaven

Base on the function of the cranial nerves are classified into the followings:
Sensory cranial nerves: Are composed of entirely of afferent (sensory) nerve fibers bringing
sensations to the brain
1. Olfactory nerve
2. Optic nerve
8. Vestibulocochlear nerve
Motor cranial nerves: Are composed entirely of efferent (motor) fibers
3. Oculomotor nerve
4. Trochlear nerve
6. Abducent nerve
11. Accessory nerve
12. Hypoglossal nerve
Mixed cranial nerves: These possess both sensory and motor nerve fibers
5. Trigeminal nerve
7. Facial nerve
9. Glossopharyngeal nerve
10. Vagus nerve

Mnemonic: Some Say Marry Money But My Brother Says Bad Business Marry Money

PLEXUS
There are five large plexuses of mixed nerves formed on each side of the vertebral column. They
are the:
Cervical plexuses
Brachial plexuses
Lumbar plexuses
Sacral plexuses
Coccygeal plexuses.

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REFLEX ARC
• Reflex activity is the response to a peripheral nervous stimulation that occurs without our
consciousness.
• Reflex arc is the anatomical nervous pathway for a reflex action. For example, when hand
is placed on a hot object, it is withdrawn immediately.
A simple reflex arc includes five components:

1. Receptor (2) Afferent Nerve (3) Center (4) Efferent Nerve (5) Effector Organ

SYNAPSE
Synapses are the functional connection between neurons and a few other cells (e.g. muscles,
glands). It is the meeting point between a neuron and any other cells. Neurons generally are not
directly connected to each other but are separated by a small gap.

Functions of the synapses:

1. Triggers release of chemical (neurotransmitters) exocytosis e.g. GABA, glycine,
glutamate (glutamic acid) and aspartate, noradrenaline, adrenaline, dopamine, serotonin,
histamine, and acetylcholine, nitric oxide; diffuses across synapse and binds to receptor
Proteins in cell membrane of target cell
2. Triggers response in target cell

RETICULAR ACTIVATION SYSTEM (RAS)

Is a collection of neurons in the core of the brain stem, surrounded by numerous and diffuse
neural pathways that conduct ascending and descending nerve impulses between the brain and
the spinal cord.

Function of Reticular activation system:

a) Helps control muscle tone, balance and posture during body movements
b) Filters flood of sensory input
c) Sleep and consciousness

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 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
Introduction:
The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs in both males and females
that work together for the purpose of procreating. The function of reproductive system is
replication; reproduction by means of sexual intercourse produces new human beings and
hereditary traits to be passed from both parents to their children’s.
The sex hormones play an important role both in the development and function of the
reproductive organ and in sexual behavior.

Overall function is to produce offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones. Ovaries
produce eggs and female sex hormones and Mammary glands produce milk

The male reproductive system is responsible for delivering sperm to the female reproductive
system. The male reproductive system comprises of the following organs:
A. Primary sex organs or gonad in male (Testes)
B. Accessory sex organs in males are: Scrotum, 2 Epididymis, 2 Deferent ducts (Vas
deferens), 2 Spermatic cords, 2 Seminal vesicles, 2 Ejaculatory ducts, 1 Prostate gland,
Urethra, and 1 penis

Scrotum: is a pouch of deeply pigmented skin, fibrous and connective tissue and smooth
muscle. It is divided into two compartments each of which contains one testis, one epididymis
and the testicular end of a spermatic cord. It lies below the symphysis pubis, in front of the upper
parts of the thighs and behind the penis.

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Testes: They are about 4.5 cm long, 2.5 cm wide and 3 cm thick and are suspended in the
scrotum by the spermatic cords. They are surrounded by three layers of tissue. It has three layers
(Tunica Vaginalis, Tunica Albuginea, Tunica Vasculosa)
Spermatic cord: It helps to suspend the testes in the scrotum.
Seminal vesicles: Are two small fibromuscular pouches lined with columnar epithelium, lying
on the posterior aspect of the bladder. It secretes viscid fluid rich in fructose, prostaglandins,
ascorbic acid and falavins.
Their ducts join the ends of the vas deferens forming the Ejaculatory duct which pass through the
prostate and open into urethra.
Prostate gland: It lies in the pelvic cavity in front of the rectum and behind the symphysis pubis,
surrounding the first part of the urethra. It secretes a thin, milky fluid that makes up about 30%
of semen, and gives it its milky appearance. It is slightly alkaline, which provides a protective
local environment for sperm arriving in the acidic vagina.
Epididymis: Each epididymis is a single long coiled tubule in which the sperms are store and
become more mature and release.
Vas deferens: Is a long muscular duct that conducts the sperm from the epididymis to the urethra
by peristaltic movements.
Cowper’s gland: This secretes mucous during intercourse which neutralizes the acidity inside
the urethra and lubricates the sexual movements.
Penis: This is formed of erectile tissue that can accommodate a great amount of blood, resulting
in its erection (which is necessary for introduction of the seminal fluid deep into the female
genital tract).

Female Reproductive System:

The female reproductive system functions to produce gametes and reproductive hormones, just
like the male reproductive system. However, it also has the additional task of supporting the
developing fetus and delivering it to the outside world. Unlike its male counterpart, the female
reproductive system is located primarily inside the pelvic cavity.
The Female reproductive system comprises of the following organs:
Internal Genitalia
A. Primary sex organs or gonad in female (2 Ovaries)
B. Accessory sex organs in females: Vagina, Uterine cervix, Uterus, Female breast, and 2
uterine tubes (fallopian tubes or oviducts).

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External Genitalia
Are known collectively as the vulva, and consist of the labia majora and labia minora, the
clitoris, the vaginal orifice, the vestibule, the hymen and the vestibular glands (Bartholin's
glands).
The vestibule: is a space between the labia minora. Its floor contains the greater vestibular
glands and the opening for the urethra & vagina. During sexual arousal the greater and lesser
vestibular gland secrete alkaline mucous for lubrication to aid penetration.
The Mons pubis: Mound of fatty tissue covers pubis symphysis. It is covered with hair at
puberty.
Hymen: The hymen is a thin layer of mucous membrane which partially occludes the opening of
the vagina.
Labia majora: These are the two large folds which form the boundary of the vulva. They are
composed of skin, fibrous tissue and fat and contain large numbers of sebaceous glands.
Labia minora: These are two smaller folds of skin between the labia majora, containing
numerous sebaceous glands. The cleft between the labia minora is the vestibule. The vagina,
urethra and ducts of the greater vestibular glands open into the vestibule.
Clitoris: The clitoris corresponds to the penis in the male and contains sensory nerve endings
and erectile tissue but it has no reproductive significance. It’s very sensitive organ.
Vestibular glands: The vestibular glands (Bartholin's glands) are situated one on each side near
the vaginal opening. It secretes mucus that keeps the vulva moist.
INTERNAL STRUCTURES
Vagina: It is a fibro-muscular tube lined with stratified squamous epithelium, connecting the
external and internal organs of reproduction.
It runs obliquely upward and backwards at an angle of about 45° between the bladder in front
and rectum and anus behind.

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In the adult the anterior wall is about 7.5 cm (3 inches) long and the posterior wall about 10 cm
long. It is the site where semen deposits during sexual intercourse; it is a canal for menstrual
flow and a birth canal during childbirth.
Uterus: A hallow muscular organ located in front of the rectum and behind the urinary bladder.
It is like an inverted pear when viewed anterior and is pear size as well, during pregnancy it
increases 3 - 6 times. It is somewhat pear-shaped
Uterus has three (3) parts:
1. Fundus: the upper, doom shaped part
2. Body: the tapering middle portion
3. Cervix: the body terminate to narrow portion
Uterus is a thick muscular chamber that opens into the roof of the vagina and usually tilts
forward over the urinary bladder. Its function is to harbor the fetus, provide it with a source of
nutrition (the placenta, composed partially of uterine tissue), and expel the fetus at the end of
gestation (pregnancy).

Ovary
Ovaries: Are females’ gonads that produce ova and female hormones. It is about the size of
unshelled almond. The ovaries are located in the pelvic cavity one in each side of the uterus.
Each ovary is attached by a mesentery called mesovarium to the backside of each broad
ligament.
A thickening border of the mesovarium called ovarian ligament extends from the ovary to the
uterus.
The ovary is suspended from the pelvic wall by the suspensory ligament.

Ovulation
An ovary contains thousands of immature egg cells. During each menstrual cycle, follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH) causes one egg to begin development; this takes place inside a
primary follicle.
The follicle enlarges as its cells proliferate, and begins to fill with fluid, becoming a secondary
follicle that moves to the ovary’s surface.
It also increases its production of the hormone estrogen. The lining of the empty follicle thickens
into a corpus luteum a temporary source of hormones.

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Function of the Ovary
Ovaries have two functions, gametogenic and endocrine functions.
 Gametogenic function is the production and release of ovum or egg, which is the female
gamete (reproductive cell).
 Endocrine function of ovaries is the secretion of female sex hormones.
Uterine Tube: Are a pair of tubes one in each side of the uterus. The uterine tube (fallopian
tube) conveys the oocyte to the uterus. One of the paired tubes receives the oocyte from the
ovary to take to the uterus.
It has 3 distinct portions.
a) Infundibulum: funnel shaped, near the ovary
b) Ampulla: thin walled middle portion
c) Isthmus: opens in to the uterus
Puberty in Female
Puberty is the age at which the internal reproductive organs reach maturity, usually between the
age of 12 and 14. This is called menarche and marks the beginning of the childbearing period.
It is characterized by a rise in the production of reproductive hormones and initiation of female
reproductive cycle. The activity of ovary leads to the secretions of estrogens, which are the main
stimulus for the development of the physical changes associated with puberty.
These changes are also called the secondary sexual characteristics and include:
 Growth of pubic and axillary hair
 Development and enlargement of the breasts
 Maturation of the uterus, uterine tubes and ovaries
 Increased fat deposition in the subcutaneous tissue, especially at the hips and breasts.

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Menstrual cycle:
A menstrual cycle consists of natural changes that occur in a woman’s body every month in
preparation for pregnancy. Menstruation starts at puberty and ends at menopause.

The cycle lasts an average of 28 days but may vary between 20 and 40 days. The first day of a
cycle is the first day of a menstrual period and the last day is that of the following period.

First menstrual period:

The menstrual cycle often begins at puberty between the ages of 8 and 15 (average age of 12). It
usually starts two years after breasts and pubic hair start to develop.

Phases of the menstrual cycle:

There are four phases: menstrual phase, the follicular phase, ovulation phase and the luteal
phase.

Menstrual phase:
Menstruation is the elimination of the internal lining of the uterine wall along with other
secretions from the body through the vagina. It usually lasts three to seven days but this could
change to more or less days from month to month and depending on each woman.

The follicular phase:

The follicular phase starts on the first day of menstruation and ends with ovulation. During this
phase the pituitary gland (situated at the base of the brain) releases a follicle (cyst) stimulating
hormone. This hormone produces 10 to 20 follicles in the ovary and each follicle houses an
immature egg.

These follicles produce the hormone estrogen, which in turn thickens the lining of the
endometrium in preparation to receive a fertilized egg. Often, only one follicle keeps growing
and travels to the ovarian surface while the remaining follicles gradually fade and are absorbed
back into the body.

Ovulation phase:
Ovulation occurs 12 to 16 days before the following period but not necessarily in the middle of
the cycle. The term “ovulation” indicates the formation of a mature egg by one of the ovaries.
The release of estrogen during the follicular phase causes the brain to produce a gonadotrophin
releasing hormone that prompts the pituitary gland to produce raised levels of luteinizing
hormone.

This extracts the mature egg from the follicle (cyst) and transports it from the ovary to the
fallopian tube. If fertilization does not occur during this phase, the egg continues to the uterus
and dissolves within 6 to 24 hours.

The luteal phase:

During this phase, the follicle from which the mature egg burst out (now called the yellow body
of the ovary or corpus luteum) released a large quantity of progesterone and some estrogen. The
two hormones help thicken the lining of the endometrium and maintain its thickness.

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If fertilization does not occur, the yellow body degrades and progesterone levels decrease,
leaving the lining unstable. The lining then falls away and a new menstrual cycle period begins.

Menopause
The menopause (climacteric) usually takes place between the age of 45 and 55 years, marking
the end of the childbearing period.
It may occur suddenly or a period of years, sometimes as long as 10 years and is caused by
progressive reduction in estrogen levels as the number of functional follicles in the ovaries
declines with age.
Several other phenomena may occur at the same time, including:
1. Shrinkage of the breasts
2. Loss of bone mass, predisposing to osteoporosis
3. Gradual thinning of the skin

4. Sparseness of axillary and pubic hair

5. Atrophy of the sex organs
6. Uncharacteristic behavior e.g. irritability, mood changes
7. Slow increase in blood cholesterol level and this may lead to risk of cardiovascular disease.

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Female Breast
The breasts or mammary glands are accessory glands of the female reproductive system. They
also exit in the male but only in a rudimentary form.
Breast contains varying number of glandular tissue, supported by fatty tissue and fibrous
connective tissue that anchor the breast to the chest wall.
Each breast contains about 20 lobes, each of which contains a number of glandular structure
called lobules. Where milks are produced and lobules open into tiny lactiferous ducts, which
drain the milk towards the nipple.
Nipple is a small conical eminence at the center of the breast surrounded by pigmented area
called Areola. On the surface of the areola there are numerous sebaceous glands, which lubricate
the nipple during lactation.

DISEASES/DISORDER OF REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Dysmenorrhea: Painful menstruation in the absence of pelvic disease, caused by excessive
endometrial prostaglandin secretion. Prostaglandins stimulate painful contractions of
myometrium and uterine blood vessels. Usually begins around age 15 or 16 and affects up to
75% of women from 15 to 25 years old.

Amenorrhea: Absence of menstruation. Normal in pregnancy, lactation, early adolescence, and

perimenopausal years, but can also result from gonadotropin hyposecretion, genetic disorders,
CNS disorders, or excessively low body fat content.

Ectopic pregnancy: Implantation of the conceptus anywhere other than the normal location in
the uterus, such as the uterine tube (over 90% of cases), cervix, or abdominal cavity; usually
must be surgically terminated to prevent serious and potentially fatal hemorrhage.

Other disorders includes: Gonorrhoea, Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS),

Hepatitis B infection, Trichomonas vaginalis, cervical carcinoma, Ectopic pregnancy,
Gynaecomastia, and Prostate tumor etc.

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Course Tutor: Mal. Sadiq Rabiu Umar
Email: isoanatomist@gmail.com
Phone Number: 08101821666

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