CHAPTER -3

Classification of Elements

 Need for classification of Elements

The arrangement of the known elements according to their properties in a tabular form. At present 118 elements are
known.

 Historical Development of the Periodic Table

Lavoisier classified the elements simply as metals and non-metals. However, this classification proved to be
inadequate.
1. Dobereiner’s Triads (in 1817)
He classified the elements in groups of three elements called triads. The elements in a triad had similar
properties and the atomic weight of the middle number of each triad is very close to the arithmetic mean of the
other two elements.

 Limitations of Dobereiner’s Triads are :

 All the elements known at that time couldn’t be classified into triads.
 Only four triads were mentioned – (Li,Na,K ), (Ca,Sr,Ba) , (Cl,Br,I) , (S,Se,Te).

2. Newland’s Octaves (In 1865)

English scientist John Newlands arranged the 56 known elements According to him, when the elements are
arranged in increasing order of atomic weights, the properties of every eight elements are similar to the first
one. Newlands called this relation as the law of octaves due to similarity with the musical scale.

 Limitations of Newland’s octaves are:

 It was only up to calcium.

 The discovery of noble gases added to the limitations of this method since they couldn’t be included in this
arrangement without disturbing it completely.

3. Mendeleev’s Periodic Table (In 1869)

Russian chemist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev observed that the properties of elements, both physical and
chemical, were periodically related to the atomic mass of the elements.
The Periodic Law (aka Mendeleev’s Law), states that the chemical properties of elements are a periodic
function of their atomic weights.

 Advantages of Mendeleev’s Periodic table are:

 Systematic study of the elements.

 It was used to correct the wrong atomic weights in use at that time.

 Predictions of new elements (at that time 56 elements are known).

 Limitations of Mendeleev’s Periodic table are:

 Hydrogen’s position was in the group of alkali metals but hydrogen also exhibited halogen like qualities.
 Isotopes were positioned differently since this type of classification of elements was done by considering the
atomic weight of the element. Therefore – protium, deuterium, and tritium would occupy varying positions in
Mendeleev’s table.
 An anomalous positioning of a few elements showed that the atomic masses did not increase regularly from one
element to the next. An example of this would be the placement of cobalt (atomic mass of 58.9) before nickel
(atomic mass of 58.7).
 Some similar elements are separated are separated and dissimilar elements are grouped together.

 Modern periodic table (In 1913)

 English physicist Henry Moseley studied the wavelength of the characteristic x-rays By using
different metals as anti-cathode and showed that the square root of the frequency of the line is related
to the atomic number.
 He concludes that atomic number and not atomic weight is the fundamental property of the atoms.
 On the basis of the above observations Moseley gave the modern periodic law which states that
“Physical and chemical properties of the elements are the periodic function of their atomic numbers”.
  Classification of elements in modern periodic table
The modern periodic table consists of 18 vertical columns, called the groups(1-18), and 7 Horizontal
rows, called periods.
 The first period contains two elements, Hydrogen and Helium.
 The second period contains eight elements, from Lithium to Neon.
 The third period contains eight elements, from Sodium to Argon.
 The fourth period contains eighteen elements, from Potassium to Krypton.
 The fifth period contains eighteen elements, from Rubidium to Xenon.
 The sixth period contains thirty-two elements.
 The seventh period is incomplete.

Elements in the periodic table are classified into four blocks based on their electronic configuration: s-block, p-block,
d-block, and f-block.

 On the basis of electronic configuration, elements are classified into four Blocks known as s, p, d and f-
blocks.
 1st and 2nd group elements are called s-block elements. The general electronic configuration is ns1-2.
 13th to 18th group elements are called p-block elements. The general electronic configuration is ns2 np1-6.
 3rd to 12th group elements are called d-block elements. The general electronic configuration is (n-1)d1-
10 ns1-2.
 Lanthanides and actinides elements are called f-block elements. The general electronic configuration is (n-
2)f1-14 (n-1)d0-1 ns2.
 Structural Features of the Periodic Table
1. Groups
The vertical columns are called groups. There are 18 groups in the periodic table. Characteristics of groups:
(i) All the elements present in a group have same general electronic configuration of the atoms.
(ii) The elements in a group are separated by definite gaps of atomic numbers (2, 8, 8,18, 18,32).
(iii) The atomic sizes of the elements in group increase down the group due to increase the number of shells.
(iv) The physical properties of the elements such as m.p., b.p. density, solubility etc., follow a systematic pattern.
(v) The elements in each group have generally similar chemical properties.

2. Periods
Horizontal rows in a periodic table are known as periods. There are seven periods in the long form of periodic table.
Characteristics of periods:

(i) In all the elements present in a period, the electrons are filled in the same valence shell.
(ii) The atomic sizes generally decrease from left to right.
 Causes of Periodicity:
Periodicity is the recurrence of similar properties of the elements after certain regular intervals when they are
arranged in the order of increasing atomic numbers.

Thus, the causes of periodicity of the properties of elements is

“The repetitions of similar electronic configurations of their atoms in the outermost energy shell (or valence shell)
after certain regular intervals. “

 Periodic properties and their trends

The periodic properties of elements are closely related to their electronic configuration and
exhibit a gradual change as we move down a group or across a period.
 Key physical properties such as melting points, boiling points, density, and enthalpy of fusion
and vaporization are influenced by electronic configuration. However, our focus lies primarily
on properties like atomic and ionic radii, ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, and
electronegativity.

1. Atomic Radii: The distance from the nucleus to the outermost electron shell defines atomic
radii, which can be covalent, van der Waals, or metallic.

 Covalent radii: Half the distance between nuclei of adjacent atoms in a single covalent
bond.

 Van der Waals radii: Half the internuclear distance between atoms of neighboring
molecules in a solid.

 Metallic radii: Half the distance between nuclei of adjacent atoms in a metallic crystal.

 Ionic Radii: The effective distance from the nucleus to the electron cloud for ions formed
from neutral atoms.
NOTE:
 Atomic radii decrease across periods due to increased effective nuclear charge and
increased down the groups owing to additional electron shells and shielding effect due to
which force of attraction decreases.
 Ionic radii follow the same trend as atomic radii, decreasing across periods and increasing
down groups.

2. Metallic Character: The tendency of an atom to lose an electron is called Metallic

Character.
Force of attraction ∝ 1/ Metallic character

- Metallic character increases when we go down the group because of force of attraction decreases. The
atom loose his electron easily.

- M.C decreases as we go across the period the force of attraction increases. so, the atom does not loose
electrons easily.