EC–204 Basic Electronics

(April 2024 - July 2024 Session)

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
North-Eastern Hill University (NEHU)
(B.Tech. 2nd Semester)

Handout # 01

1 Introduction
The operation of electronic devices depends upon the motion of charged particles within
them. The motion of these particles depends on the structure and arrangement of atoms
in solids.
What is a Solid, anyway? Solid is one of the four fundamental states of matter along
with liquid, gas, and plasmaa . The molecules in a solid are closely packed together and
contain the least amount of kinetic energy. A solid is characterized by structural rigidity
and resistance to a force applied to the surfaceb . Unlike a liquid, a solid object does not
flow to take on the shape of its container, nor does it expand to fill the entire available
volume like a gas. The atoms in a solid are bound to each other, either in a regular
geometric lattice (crystalline solids, which include metals and ordinary ice), or irregularly
(an amorphous solid such as common window glass). Solids cannot be compressed with
little pressure whereas gases can be compressed with little pressure because the molecules
in a gas are loosely packed.
Further, a microscopic definition of solid : The atoms, molecules or ions that make up
solids may be arranged in an orderly repeating pattern, or irregularly. Materials whose
constituents are arranged in a regular pattern are known as crystals. In some cases, the
regular ordering can continue unbroken over a large scale, for example diamonds, where
each diamond is a single crystal. Solid objects that are large enough to see and handle
are rarely composed of a single crystal, but instead are made of a large number of single
crystals, known as crystallites, whose size can vary from a few nanometers to several
meters. Such materials are called polycrystalline. Almost all common metals, and many
ceramics, are polycrystalline.
In other materials, there is no long-range order in the position of the atoms. These solids
are known as amorphous solids; examples include polystyrene and glass.
Whether a solid is crystalline or amorphous depends on the material involved, and the
conditions in which it was formed. Solids that are formed by slow cooling will tend to be
crystalline, while solids that are frozen rapidly are more likely to be amorphous. Likewise,
the specific crystal structure adopted by a crystalline solid depends on the material involved
and on how it was formed.
Dictionary definition of Solids: Solid [singular noun] is a substance or object that is
hard; not a liquid or gas, for examples, Liquids become solids when frozen. Or it is an
object that has length, width and height, not a flat shape, for example, A cube is a solid.

1.1 Structure of Solids

A detailed study of X-ray scattering has revealed the fact that the most of the solids are
crystal-line in structure, that is, a solid consists of atoms or molecules which are arranged
in a periodic manner[6]. There is always some basic arrangement of atoms, which is
repeated throughout the entire solid material. Such an arrangement of atoms within a
solid is crystal lattice. And such solids are called crystalline solids. However, there
are some other solid materials which do not have crystalline structure and they are called
non-crystalline or amorphous solids. All metals and semiconductors like silicon and
germanium are crystalline materials while wood, plastic, paper, glass, quartz, rubber,
Bakelite are amorphous solid materials.

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 EC–204 Basic Electronics April 22, 2024

a
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/States of matter
b
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid

1.2 Classification of Solid Materials

1. Solids may be classified based on the type atomic order

a Monoatomic Gases: No order. Example: Argon gas

b Amophous materials: No long range order, but only short range order. Examples:
Amorphous Si, Glasses, Plastics
c Liquid crystals: Short order and long range order in small volumes. Example:
LCD Polymer
d Crystalline materials: Short and long rangne order
i Single crystals- examples: Si, Ge
ii Polycrystalline solids or polycrystal: Metals, compounds (for example, GaAs,
GaP, CdS, PbTe, InSb, InAs), alloys (GaAsx P1−x , Inx Ga1−x N, In1−x Gax As,
GaAs1−x Nx , Cdx Hg1−x Te) and most ceramics.

Figure 1: The range of crystalline order distinguishes single crystals, polycrystals

and amorphous solids. The figure shows how the periodicity of the atomic struc-
ture of each type of material compares.[source: https: // www. doitpoms. ac.
uk/ tlplib/ atomic-scale-structure/ printall. php ]

A crystal structure is nothing but the atomic arrangement of atoms[2]. In a

crystal, there is a regular arrangement of atoms in the form of points in space
called lattice points. If all the atoms in the lattice points are identical, the
lattice is called a Bravais lattice. A lattice is a mathematical abstraction and is
nothing but an infinite periodic/regular arrangement of geometric points in space
without any atoms[3]1 . Thus, a crystal lattice is a repeating three-dimensional
pattern [lattice] of atoms or group of atoms [basis] in a crystal. When the basis
of atoms or group of atoms is attached identically to every lattice point, the
resultant structure so formed is known as a crystal structure. All crystals can
be described in terms of a lattice and a basis[3]. Thus, we can write:

Lattice + Basis = Crystal structure

2. Solid materials may also be classified into three groups based on conductivity as:

a Conductors
Conductors are those materials which are good conductors of electricity because of
their large number of mobile charge carriers or free electrons which carry electric
current. When the temperature of a conductor is increased, its resistivity also
increases, meaning that conductors have positive temperature coefficient of resis-
tance. When a constant electric field, E, is applied to a conductor, the electrons
1
Lattice is purely imaginary geometric concept whose only requirement is that the infinite array of points
has periodicity in many informal discussions

Handout # 01 ECE, NEHU, Shillong 2 / 12

April 22, 2024 EC–204 Basic Electronics

would be accelerated and the velocity would increase indefinitely with time. But
due to collision of electrons, electrons loose energy and a steady-state condition
is reached where a finite value of drift velocity, vd , is attained.
b Insulators
Insulators are those materials which are bad conductors of electricity. They have
very high resistivity because of the fact that they no charge carriers or free elec-
trons to carry electric current.
c Semiconductors
Semiconductors are those materials who conductivities lie between conductors
and insulators. They have poor conductivity than conductors but higher than in-
sulators., Hence, they are neither good conductors nor good insulators. When the
temperature of a semiconductor is increased, its resistivity decreases or conduc-
tivity increases. It means that at higher temperature, a semiconductor conducts
better. Therefore, the semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of
resistance.
The conductivity of a semiconductor can be increased by adding a very small
amount of some particular materials, called impurities.

Summary [second class]: Solids may be classified based on their conductivities as

1. Conductors: When the temperature of a conductor is increased, its resistivity also

increases, meaning that conductors have positive temperature coefficient of resistance.

2. Insulators: They have very high resistivity because of the fact that they no charge
carriers or free electrons to carry electric current.

3. Semiconductors: When the temperature of a semiconductor is increased, its resistivity

decreases or conductivity increases. It means that at higher temperature, a semi-
conductor conducts better. Therefore, the semiconductors have negative temperature
coefficient of resistance.
Table 1: Conductivity and Resistivity of a Few Solids in Room Temperature[7]

Name of the materials Conductivity (S/m) Resistivity (Ωm) Classification

Silver 6.25 × 107 1.6 × 10−8
Copper 5.88 × 107 1.7 × 10−8 Conductors
7 −8
Aluminium 3.85 × 10 2.6 × 10

Germanium 1.54 6.5 × 10−1

Semiconductors
Silicon 5.0 × 10−4 2.0 × 103

Porcelain 3.33 × 10−10 3.0 × 109

Glass 5.88 × 10−12 1.7 × 1011 Insulators
Hard rubber 1.0 × 10−16 1.0 × 1016

Following is the few more semiconductor materials:

Classification Examples
Group IV Elements (Single Element Semiconductor) Si, Ge
Group III – V Elements (Compound Semiconductor) GaAs, InP, InSb, GaN, GaSb The
Group II – VI Elements (Compound Semiconductor) CdS, CdTe, CdSe, ZnO, ZnS
Alloys (Compound Semiconductor) Alx Ga1−x As, Gax In1−x As1−y Py
elemental semiconductor Silicon (Si) is preferred over another elemental semiconductor Ger-
manium (Ge) for the following reasons:

1. Higher temperature stability

2. Higher band gap

3. Lower leakage current (iv) Higher breakdown voltage

ECE, NEHU, Shillong Handout # 01 3 / 12

 EC–204 Basic Electronics April 22, 2024

4. Technically easier fabrication process than germanium

And the compound III–V semiconductor Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) is preferred over the
elemental semiconductor Silicon (Si) for the following reasons:

1. Higher temperature stability

2. Higher band gap

3. Higher cut-off voltage than silicon

Incidentally, there is one disadvantage; the fabrication of GaAs is technically more diffi cult
than that of silicon.

2 Classification of Solids based on Crystalline Struc-

tures
2.1 Crystal Structure
Atom: An atom is the basic unit of matter, consisting of a central nucleus composed
of protons and neutrons, surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The
nucleus is positively charged and contains most of the atom’s mass, while the electrons are
negatively charged and orbit the nucleus in shells or energy levels. Atoms are the building
blocks of all matter, and they combine to form molecules and compounds through chemical
bonding. Each element on the periodic table corresponds to a unique type of atom with
a specific number of protons in the nucleus, known as the atomic number. [An atom is
defined as the smallest unit that retains the properties of an element/The smallest part of
a substance that cannot be broken down chemically.]
Solids: Solid materials are classified on the basis of the arrangement of atoms:

1. Crystalline Solids: Depending on how atoms are arranged, it can further be dev-
ided into two categories:

(a) Single Crystal Solids: Materials in which the atoms are placed regularly in a
long range order. Example: Silicon, Germanium, etc.
(b) Polycrystalline Solids: Materials in which atoms are placed in a high degree of
short-range order and no long-range order with irregular orientation and size.
Example: GaP, Ceramic, etc.

2. Non-Crystalline Solids or Amorphous: Materials in which the atoms are placed

randomly are called amorphous. Example: Common window glass, polystyrene, etc.

Amorphous, polycrystalline, and single crystals are the three general types of solids.
The crystal structure is called the atomic arrangement of atoms[2]. In a crystal, there is a
regular arrangement of atoms in the form of points in space called lattice points. If all the
atoms in the lattice points are identical, the lattice is called a Bravais lattice. A lattice is
a mathematical abstraction and is nothing but an infinite periodic/regular arrangement of
geometric points in space without any atoms[3]a . Thus, a crystal lattice is a repeating
three-dimensional pattern of atoms or group of atoms in a crystal. When the basis of atoms
or group of atoms is attached identically to every lattice point, the resultant structure so
formed is known as a crystal structure. All crystals can be described in terms of a lattice
and a basis[3]. Thus, we can write:

Lattice + Basis = Crystal structure

A unit cell is a small portion of any crystal that could be used to produced the crystal. The
smallest unit cell that can be repeated periodically to form a crystal is called a primitive
cell.
a
Lattice is purely imaginary geometric concept whose only requirement is that the infinite array of
points has periodicity in many informal discussions

Handout # 01 ECE, NEHU, Shillong 4 / 12

 April 22, 2024 EC–204 Basic Electronics

3 Introduction to Semiconductor[1, 8]
Semiconductors comprise a group of materials that have their electrical conductivities
lying between metals and insulators. Furthermore, their conductivities can be modifi ed by
introducing controlled amounts of desirable impurities. Optical excitation and temperature
also affect their electrical conductivity. Semiconductors are of two types, namely elemental
semiconductors and compound semiconductors. Silicon and germanium are two common
elemental semiconductors. Elemental semiconductors are found in group IV of the periodic
table and are composed of single species of atoms. Compound semiconductors on the other
hand are made up of a combination of more than one single species of atoms. Some common
compound semiconductors are made up of either a combination of group III and group V
atoms (GaAs is the most common example) or a combination of group II and group VI
atoms (ZnS is a prominent example). Two group IV elements can also combine to form a
compound semiconductor. Table 2.1 lists some elemental and compound semiconductors.
More complicated ternary (Alx Ga1−x As) and quarternary (InGaAsP) compound semicon-
Growth and Crystal Properties of Semiconductors 35
ductors
Table 2.1 (a) The region of the periodic table where semiconductors occur;
(b) Elemental and compound semiconductors
3.1 Types of Solids
(a) II III IV V VI
There are three general types of36solids SolidBState depending
Electronic Devices upon
C the arrangementN of the constituent
atoms. The three types are crystalline/single, Al Si polycrystalline, P andS amorphous
at regular intervals in all the three dimensions.
Zn
crystal solids. Atoms are arranged Ga in arrangement
a regular ofmanner Ge As Se
This periodic atoms in a in a crystalline solid. A three-
crystal
Cd Ina lattice. Atoms can be arranged in Sb
dimensional repetition
(b)
of a certainis called basic pattern Binary
constitutes the solid. In Te a single crystal,
different forms in a lattice. The III–V Binary II–VI
distance between
the periodicity of the basic pattern
Elemental extends
IV compounds
atoms
throughout
and the relative compounds
the material.
orientation of the atoms compoundsThe b
periodicity of
the structure gets interrupted
Si can at
have SiC certain
different boundaries
forms. Every
AlP lattice in
consists polycrystalline
ofZnS a material.
a regular repetition of a fundamental unit called
These so called boundariesGe are acalled SiGe grain boundaries. AlAs ZnSe
unit cell. The entire crystal can be constructed Fig. 2.2 Two-dimensional
Specific grain sizes may vary from fromthisseveral Angstroms
unit cell. Figure
AlSb
2.2 shows an to infi ZnTe
macroscopic
nite dimensions. An
single crystal lattice
GaN CdS
interesting situation is one in two-dimensional
which the size array ofof lattice
the atoms.
grains within
GaP atom and is referred
the grain boundaries
CdSe to as a lattice point. Any
Each dot represents a particular
becomes comparable to the sizelattice of the point basic pattern.
can be translated GaAs
through a distance aCdTein one direction and a distance
The periodicity is completely absent b in a secondat this noncolinear
stage and direction
GaSbthe to material
create the two-dimensional
is now called lattice. There
amorphous.
is no need for the two translation InP directions to be perpendicular to each other. A
Figure 2(a) is a schematic two-dimensionalthree-dimensional lattice representation
can be created using of the three
translation in atypes of solids. A
third noncolinear
InAs
unit cell is a small volume of the directioncrystalthroughthat a distance
canc.InSb
Abegeneral
usedthree-dimensional
to reproduce lattice
thecanentire
be obtained crystal.
by a periodic repetition of a fundamental unit called a unit cell. A unit cell is thus
An unit cell is not a unique entity. A primitive unit cell is the smallest
a small volume of the crystal that reproduces the entire crystal through periodic
unit cell that
The periodicity is completely
can be repeated to form the lattice. absent
repetition. There In many at this
is nothing stage
cases, and the material
it isa more
unique about is now
convenient
unit cell as calledto use
shown schematically for aa unit
amorphous. Figure 2.1
cell that is not a primitive36cell. is a schematic
two-dimensional
Solid StateUnit
two-dimensional
lattice in Fig. 2.3. representation
cells may be chosen that have orthogonal sides, for
Electronic Devices
of the three
types of solids.
example, whereas the sidesat of a intervals
regular primitive cell
in all the three may
b2
dimensions. be non-orthogonal.
This periodic arrangement of atoms in a crystal
A
is called a lattice. Atoms can be arranged a2 in
different forms in a lattice. The distance between
b3
atoms and the relative
Grainb boundary B
Grainorientation of the atoms
can have different forms. Every lattice consists of a
a regular repetition of a fundamental unit called
a unit cell. The entire crystal can be constructed Fig. 2.2 DTwo-dimensional a3
b4
from this unit cell. Figure 2.2 shows an infinite single crystal lattice
two-dimensional array of lattice b atoms. a 4
1 C
Each dot represents a particular atom and is referred to as a lattice point. Any
lattice point can be translated througha1a distance a in one direction and a distance
b in a second noncolinear direction to create the two-dimensional lattice. There
is no need for the two translation directions
Fig. 2.3 to be perpendicular single
Two-dimensional to each other.
crystalA lattice showing
three-dimensional lattice can be created using translation in a third noncolinear
direction through a distance c. A general various possible
three-dimensional unit
lattice can cells
be obtained
Crystalline Polycrystalline
by a periodic repetition of a fundamental unit called a unit cell. A unit cell is thus
Amorphous
nic Devices The smallest
(a) a small volume of the (b) thatunit
crystal cell the
reproduces that
entirecan bethrough
crystal repeated
periodic periodically
(c) to form a crystal is
repetition.called
There is anothing unique about
primitive cell.a The
unit cell as shown schematically
primitive for a
cell is however not always a good unit cell
(a)
n all the three dimensions. to Fig. 2.1 a Threelattice.typesVery of solids
two-dimensional lattice in Fig. 2.3.
represent often a different choice of
ement of atoms in a crystal a unit cell leads to a better representation. A unit cell
b2
Atoms can be arranged in involving
A
a2 orthogonal directions b3 can, for example,
ttice. The distance between 2.3 Crystal Lattices B
lead to some simplifications. In general a unit cell can c
ve orientation of the atoms b be characterized by a set ofa3 three vectors—a, b, and
b4 D b
ms. Every lattice consists of aCrystalline materials consist c—whichb1 of amay
periodic
ora4 mayarrangement
not be orthogonal of the constituent
or equal in atoms.
C
f a fundamental unit called lengths a1 (Fig.some2.4). Aimportant
lattice pointcharacteristics
is indistinguishable
In this
e crystal can be constructed Fig. 2.2 Two-dimensional
section we will discuss of crystalline
a
from
Fig. 2.3another latticesingle
point
crystal if the displacement vector Fig. 2.4 A generalized
igure 2.2 shows an infinite materials.
single
(b)crystal lattice
Two-dimensional
betweenvarious (c)
possible unit cells
the two can
lattice
be represented by
showing
(d)
unit cell
y of lattice atoms. The smallest unit cell that can be repeated periodically to form a crystal is
called a primitive cell.rThe pa + qbcell+isshowever
= primitive c (2.1)
s a particular atom and is referred to as a 2.3.1 Unit
lattice point. AnyCell to not always a good unit cell

nslated through a distance a in one direction and a distance Figure

represent a lattice. Very often 2
a different choice
a unit cell leads to a better representation. A unit cell
of

near direction to create the two-dimensional We lattice.

will here
There focus involving
our attention on single
orthogonal directions can, forcrystals.
example, As outlined above, in a single
lead to some simplifications. In general a unit cell can c
o translation directions to be perpendicular to each other. A
crystal a basic pattern consisting
be characterized by a setof a single
of three vectors—a, atomb, and or ba group of atoms is repeated
ice can be created using translation in a third noncolinear c—which may or may not be orthogonal or equal in
lengths (Fig. 2.4). A lattice point is indistinguishable a
stance c. A general three-dimensional lattice can be obtained from another lattice point if the displacement vector Fig. 2.4 A generalized
n of a fundamental unit called a unit cell. A unit cell is thus between the two can be represented by unit cell

crystal that reproduces the entire crystal through periodic r = pa + qb + sc (2.1)

thing unique about a unit cell as shown schematically for a

ce in Fig. 2.3.

b2
A
a2 b3
B
ECE, NEHU, Shillong Handout # 01 5 / 12
D a3
b4
a4
 EC–204 Basic Electronics April 22, 2024
The Structure of Crystalline Solids 50 • Chapter 3 50/ •The
Chapter 3 /of The
Structure Structure
Crystalline of Crystalline Solids
Solids

(b) (c) (a) (a) (b) (b) (c) (c)

(a)
centered cubic crystal structure, (a) a hard-sphere unit cell representation, (b) a reduced- (b) Figure
Figure 3.1 For the 3.1 For
face-centered the face-centered
cubic cubic
crystal structure,
(c) structure,unit(a)cell
(a)crystal
a hard-sphere a hard-sphere unit (b)
representation, cell arepresentation,
reduced- (b) a
aggregate of many atoms. sphere unit cell, andsphere
(c) an unit cell, and
aggregate (c) anatoms.
of many aggregate of many atoms.
G. Moffatt, G. W. Pearsall, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. I, Structure, [Figure
[Figure (c) adapted from W. G.(c)Moffatt,
adaptedG.from W. G. Moffatt,
W. Pearsall, G. W. Pearsall,
and J. Wulff, and J.and
The Structure Wulff, The Structure
Properties and Properties
of Materials, of Materials, Vol. I, S
Vol. I, Structure,
Figure

roduced with permission of Janet M. Moffatt.] 3: Body  Centered Cubic (BCC) unit cell: the unit cell has 2 JohnReproduced
John Wiley & Sons, 1964. Wiley & Sons,
with1964. Reproduced
permission with
of Janet M.permission
Moffatt.] of Janet M. Moffatt.]

1
= × 8 + 1 atoms (groups of atoms)[9]
a repetitive three-dimensional pattern, in which each atom is bonded to its nearest- in a repetitive three-dimensional pattern,
8 in a repetitive three-dimensional pattern, in which each atominiswhich each
bonded to atom is bonded to it
its nearest-
eighbor atoms. All metals, many ceramic materials, and certain polymers form crystal- neighbor atoms. All metals, many ceramic materials, and certain polymers for
neighbor atoms. All metals, many ceramic materials, and certain polymers form crystal-
ne structures under normal solidification
3.4conditions.
Metallic ForCrystal
those thatStructures
do not crystallize,
• 53 linenormal
line structures under structures under normal
solidification solidification
conditions. For those conditions.
that do notForcrystallize,
those that do not c
is long-range atomic order is absent; these noncrystalline or amorphous materials are this long-range
this long-range atomic atomic
order is absent; order
these is absent; these
noncrystalline noncrystalline
or amorphous or amorphous
materials are ma
scussed briefly at the end of this chapter. discussed briefly atdiscussed
the end ofbriefly at the end of this chapter.
this chapter.
Some of the properties of crystalline solids depend on the crystal structure of the crystal structure crystal structure Someofofcrystalline
Some of the properties the properties solidsofdepend
crystalline
on thesolids depend
crystal on theofcrystal
structure the struct
aterial, the manner in which atoms, ions, or molecules are spatially arranged. There is material, the mannermaterial,
in which theatoms,
manner in which
ions, 3.4atoms,
or molecules ions,spatially
are
Metallic or molecules
Crystal
3.4 are
arranged.
Metallic
Structures spatially
There
Crystal is arranged
• Structures
53
n extremely large number of different crystal structures all having long-range atomic an extremely largean extremely
number large number
of different crystalof differentall
structures crystal
havingstructures
long-range all having
atomic long-ran
der; these vary from relatively simple structures for metals to exceedingly complex order;relatively
order; these vary from these vary fromstructures
simple relatively forsimple
metalsstructures for metals
to exceedingly to exceedingly
complex
nes, as displayed by some of the ceramic and polymeric materials. The present dis- ones, as displayed ones,
by some as displayed by some
of the ceramic andofpolymeric
the ceramic and polymeric
materials. The present materials.
dis- The pr
ssion deals with several common metallic crystal structures. Chapters 12 and 14 are cussion deals with cussion
several deals
common withmetallic
several crystal
common metallic Chapters
structures. crystal structures.
12 and 14Chapters
are 12 a
evoted to crystal structures for ceramics and polymers, respectively. devoted tofor
devoted to crystal structures crystal structures
ceramics for ceramics
and polymers, and polymers, respectively.
respectively.
When crystalline structures are described, atoms (or ions) are thought of as being When crystalline
When crystalline structures structures
are described, atoms are(or
described,
ions) areatoms
thought (or of
ions) are thought o
as being
lid spheres having well-defined diameters. This is termed the atomic hard-sphere solid spheres havingsolid spheres having
well-defined well-defined
diameters. This is diameters.
termed theThis is termed
atomic the atomic ha
hard-sphere
odel in which spheres representing nearest-neighbor atoms touch one another. An model representing
model in which spheres in which spheres representing atoms
nearest-neighbor nearest-neighbor atoms touch
touch one another. An one an
ample of the hard-sphere model for the atomic arrangement found in some of the example ofmodel
example of the hard-sphere the hard-sphere
for the atomic model for the atomic
arrangement foundarrangement
in some of the found in so
mmon elemental metals is displayed in Figure 3.1c. In this particular case all the atoms common elementalcommon
metals iselemental
displayed metals is displayed
in Figure 3.1c. In thisin particular
Figure 3.1c. In this
case particular
all the atoms case all
e identical. Sometimes the term lattice is used in the context of crystal structures; in lattice lattice are identical.
are identical. Sometimes the term Sometimes the term
lattice is used in thelattice is used
context in the structures;
of crystal context of in crystal stru
is sense lattice means a three-dimensional array of points coinciding with atom posi- this sense
this sense lattice means lattice means a three-dimensional
a three-dimensional array ofwith
array of points coinciding points
atom coinciding
posi- with a
ons (or(b)sphere centers). (c) (a) tions tions
(a) (or sphere centers).(b)(or sphere centers).
(b) (c) (c)
(a)
crystal structure, (a) a hard-sphere unit cell representation, (b) a reduced- Figure 3.2(b)
Figure
For 3.2 For the cubic
the body-centered body-centered
crystal structure, (a) a(c)
cubic crystal hard-sphere
structure, (a)unit
a hard-sphere
cell representation,
unit cell representation,
(b) a reduced- (b) a red
any atoms. sphere unit cell,sphere
and (c)unit
an aggregate
cell, and (c)
of an
many
aggregate
atoms. of many atoms.
[Figure (c) adapted
[Figure
from (c)
W. adapted
G. Moffatt,
from G.W.
W.G.
Pearsall,
Moffatt,and
G.J.W.
Wulff, The and
Pearsall, Structure andThe
J. Wulff, Properties
Structure
of and
Materials,
Properties
Vol. of
I, Structure,
Materials, Vol. I, Struct
Pearsall, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. I, Structure,
mission of Janet M. Moffatt.]
Figure 4: Face-Centered
  Cubic
3.3
John Wiley(FCC)
UNIT
& Sons,
John 3.3
CELLS
1964.
Wileyunit
& UNIT
Reproduced cell:
CELLS
Sons, 1964.
with Reproduced
permissiontheofwith
Janet unit
permission of cell
M. Moffatt.] has 4
Janet M. Moffatt.]
he atomic order in crystalline solids indicates that small groups of atoms form a repeti- The atomic order in crystalline solids
smallindicates
groups ofthat small groups of atoms form
1 1 The atomic order in crystalline solids indicates that atoms form a repeti-
= × 8 + ×
ve pattern. Thus, in describing crystal structures, it is often convenient to subdivide the
6 atoms
ructure into small repeat entities called unit cells. Unit cells for most crystal structures
(groups of atoms)[9] tive pattern. Thus, in
and corner
unit cell atoms
tive
and touch
pattern. Thus,
describing
corner
repeatone
structure atoms
crystalinstructures,
another
into touch
small
describingitcrystal
along
one
unitanother
repeat cube
is often
cells.diagonals,
entities along
called
structures,
convenient
cube
and
unit
it istooften
diagonals,
unit Unit
for cells. cell
convenient
subdivide
length
and
cells unit
for
the to sub
a and
cell crystal
most length
8 2
e parallelepipeds or prisms having three sets of parallel faces; one is drawn within the
unit cell structure
atomic
are
into
radius R
small
atomic
parallelepipedsareare
orrelated
radius
prisms
entities
Rhaving
through
called
are related
parallelepipeds three through
or prisms
sets
Unit
ofhaving
cells
three
parallel sets
faces;
most
of is
one
crystal
parallel
drawnfaces;
structures
withinone
theis drawn
sgregate
touchofone another along cube diagonals, and unit cell length a and
a= a=
spheres (Figure 3.1c), which in this case happens to be a cube. A unit cell is aggregate
aggregate of spheres of spheres
(Figure 3.1c), which(Figure
in this 3.1c), which intothis
case happens be case happens
a cube. A unittocell
be is
a cube. A
are related through Unit cell edge length
Unit cell edge length 4R 4R
for body-centered
for body-centered (3.4)

a=
√3 √3
A primitive cell is a unit cell that contains exactly one lattice point. For unit cubic cubic
4R 1tungsten,other
(3.4) Chromium, iron, Chromium,
tungsten,iron,
and several and metals
severallisted
otherinmetals
Tablelisted
3.1 exhibit
in Table a BCC
3.1 exhibit a
cells
√3 generally, lattice points that are shared by n cells are counted
structure. structure. as of the lattice points
Each BCC unit Each cell has
BCCeight ncell has
unit
corner atoms
eightand
corner
a single
atoms
center
andatom,
a single
which
center
is wholly
atom, which
con- is wholl
tungsten, and severalcontained
other metals in each
listed of those
in Table cells;
3.1 exhibit a BCC so for example : VMSE a tained
primitive
: VMSE cell;unit
within itstained within cell
therefore,
itsfrom in three
cell; therefore,
Equation 3.2,
fromthedimensions
Equation
number3.2,of atoms
the number
per BCCof atoms
unit cell
perisBCC unit

N=N + +N = Nof + them.+

Crystal Systems and
Crystal Systems and 1 N N N N
which has lattice points only at its eightUnitvertices
nit cell has eight corner atoms and a single center atom, which is wholly con-
isCells
Cells for Metals
Unit considered
for Metals to contain of each i
f c
i
f c

8 2 8 2 8
An alternative conceptualization is to consistently pick only one of the =n1 +lattice
ell; therefore, from Equation 3.2, the number of atoms per BCC unit cell is
0 +
8
= = +
points
21 0 + =
8 to
2

N = Ni + +
8 8
belongNf to Ncthe given unit cell (so the other n − 1 lattice points
The coordination
belong
Thenumber
coordination
to adjacent
for thenumber
BCC crystal
unit
for thestructure
BCC crystal
cells).
is 8; structure
each center is 8;
atom
eachhascenter
as atom h
2
Coordination 8 Number (CN): nearest neighbors
Video: nearest its eight
neighbors
corneritsatoms.
eight corner
Becauseatoms.
the coordination
Because thenumbercoordination
is less number
for is le

=1+0+ =2
Tutorial Video:Tutorial
BCC than for FCC, BCC thethanatomic
for FCC,packing
the atomic
factor packing
is also lower
factorforis BCC—0.68
also lower for
versus
BCC—0.68
0.74. versus
8 BCC Unit CellBCC Unit Cell
Calculations Calculations
8 z It is also possible
corners of a cube.
It is to
corners
Thisof
also
z
have
possible
is acalled
a unittocell
cube.the simple
This
have
thata consists
cubic
is called the
unit cellofthat
simple
(SC) crystal
atoms
cubic
consists
situated
structure;
of atoms
(SC) crystal
only atsituated
structure;
hard-sphere
the only
andhard-spher
n number for the BCC crystal structure is 8; each center atom has as reduced-spherereduced-sphere
models are shown, modelsrespectively,
are shown,inrespectively,
Figures 3.3ainand
Figures
3.3b. 3.3a
Noneandof the
3.3b. None
metallic elements
metallic
have elements
this crystalhave
structure
this crystal
because
structure
of its relatively
because oflow
itsatomic
relatively
packing
low atomic pa
s its eight corner atoms. Because the coordination number is less for factor (see Concept
factor Check
(see Concept
3.1). The
Check
only 3.1).
simple-cubic
The onlyelement
simple-cubic
is polonium,
elementwhich
is polonium,
is wh
C, the atomic packing factor is also lower for BCC—0.68 versus 0.74. considered to beconsidered
a metalloid to be
(orasemi-metal).
metalloid (or semi-metal).

The Hexagonal
TheClose-Packed
Hexagonal Close-Packed
Crystal Structure
Crystal Structure
ssible to have a unit cell that consists of atoms situated only at the
Not all metals Not haveallunit
metals
cellshave
with unit
cubiccells
symmetry;
with cubic
the symmetry;
final common the final
metallic
common
crystalmetallic c
. This is called the simple cubic (SC) crystal structure; hard-sphere and structure to bestructure
discussedtohasbeadiscussed
unit cell that
has aisunit
hexagonal.
cell thatFigure
is hexagonal.
3.4a shows
Figure
a reduced-
3.4a shows a red
models are shown, respectively, in Figures 3.3a and 3.3b. None of the y hexagonal close- sphere
hexagonal close- unit cellsphere
for this
unit
structure,
cell for this
which structure,
is termed hexagonal
which y close-packed
is termed hexagonal(HCP);
close-packed
an (HCP
s have this crystal structure because of its relatively low atomic packing assemblage of assemblage
packed (HCP) packed (HCP) several HCPofunit several
cellsHCP
is presented
unit cells
inisFigure 3.4b.1inThe
presented Figure
top 3.4b. 1
and bottom
The top and b
ept Check 3.1). The only simple-cubic element is polonium, which is 1 1
Alternatively, the
Alternatively,
unit cell for the
HCPunit
maycellbefor
specified
HCP mayin terms
be specified
of the parallelepiped
in terms of thedefined
parallelepiped
by the atoms
defined
labeled
by theAatoms labele
a metalloid (or semi-metal). through H in Figure
through
3.4a.HThus,
in Figure
the atom
3.4a. denoted
Thus, theJatom
lies within
denoted
theJunit
lies cell
within
interior.
the unit cell interior.

l Close-Packed Crystal Structure

x
ave unit cells with cubic symmetry; the final common metallic crystal x
scussed has a unit cell that is hexagonal. Figure 3.4a shows a reduced-
hexagonal
or this structure, which is termed (a) close-packed
A simple (HCP);
cubic unit an
cell. (b) Nearest neighbouring atoms of an atom
veral HCP unit cells is presented in Figure 3.4b.1 The top and bottom
within a crystal.
e specified in terms of the parallelepiped defined by the atoms labeled A
enoted J lies within the unit cell interior. Figure 5: CN of simple cubic unit cell is 6.

3.2 Crystal Directions and Planes (Miller Indices)[1, 3]

There can be a number of possibilities for choosing a unit cell for a given crystal structure.
As a convention, we generally represent the geometry of the unit cell as a parallelepiped

Handout # 01 ECE, NEHU, Shillong 6 / 12

April 22, 2024 EC–204 Basic Electronics

Table 2: The region of the periodic table where semiconductors occur.[1]

II III IV V VI
B C N
Al Si P S
Zn Ga Ge As Se
Cd In Sb Te
Table 3: Elemental and compound semiconductors.[1]

Elemental IV Compounds Binary III - V Compounds Binary II - VI Compounds

Si SiC AlP ZnS
Ge SiGe AlAs ZnSe
AlSb ZnTe
GaN CdS
GaP CdSe
GaAs CdTe
GaSb
InP
AnAs
InSb

with sides a, b, and c and angles α, β, and γ, as depicted in Figure 6(a). The sides a, b, and c
and angles α, β, and γ are referred to as the lattice parameters[3]. To establish a reference
frame and to apply three-dimensional geometry, we insert an xyz coordinate system. The
x, y, and z axes follow the edges of the parallelepiped and the origin is at the lower-left rear
corner of the cell. The unit cell extends along the x axis from 0 to a, along y from 0 to b,
and along z from 0 to c.
A vector, r, passing from the origin to a latice point can be written as
r = pa + qb + sc
⇒ r = pa + qb + sc
where p, q, and s are integers and are called Miller indices. Since the location of the origin
is arbitrary, we will let p, q, and s be positive integers for simplicity. The magnitudes of the
62 a(or a), Cb(or
vectors A P T Eb)
H62 R 1 and c(or
C H A P Tc)
∙ ELEMENTARY are
E RM ∙ Ethe
1 ATERIALS Slattice
CIENCE M
LEMENTARY constants
CATERIALS
ONCEPTS SCIENCEof the unit cell.
CONCEPTS

z z z z

Unit cell geometry Unit cell geometry Unit cell

c c Unit cell

zo zo [121] P [121]
P
α c α c
c β β O cb
O b y y
y xo xo y yo
a yo
γ a γ a
a a
a b
b x b x b
x x
(a) A parallelepiped is chosen to describe
(a) A parallelepiped is chosen to describe (b) Identification of a direction in a crystal. (b) Identification of a direction in a crystal.
(a) A parallelepiped
the geometry ofis chosen
the
a unit geometry
cell. toofthe
We line describe the
a unit cell. We (b) Identification of a direction in a crystal.
line the
x, y, and z axes
x, y, and z axes with the edges of the with the edges of the
geometry of a unit cell.
parallelepiped takingparallelepiped
the lower-lefttaking
rear the lower-left rear
corner as the origin.corner as the origin.

[001] [001] Figure 6 [111]

[111]

Semiconductor devices are generally fabricated [010]

on surfaces of semiconductor wafers (circular
[010]
[010] [010]
pieces of semiconductor crystals of varying sizes). –y –ay
–y –a Many properties of semiconductors
y are
a
also direction
[100]
dependent.
[100] A standard method of indicating
[110][110]
x a planes
[110]
x and directions in semicon-
[110]
ductors is, therefore,
[111] [111]
very useful. [111]
[111] [111]
[111]
[111] [111]
3.3 Determining Miller Indices ofthe Planes
(c) Directions in (c) Directions
cubic in the cubic crystal system.
crystal system.

A set of three integers [111] h, k, and l [111] shown within brackets [i.e., (hkl)] is generally used
to indicate a[111]
particular plane.
[111] These integers can be found using the following simple
[111] [111][111] [111]
Family of <111> Family of <111> directions
directions
procedure:
Figure 1.41 Figure 1.41

1. Determine the intercepts at corner

at the lower-left rear
ofofthe
the lower-left plane
rear
the cell. corner
The
with
unitofcell
the
the extendscrystal
cell. The cellaxes
unit the
along xextends
and
along express
axis from
them as
the x axis from
integral multiples 0
0 to a, along yoffrom to
basis along
0 to b,vectors.
a, from
and along z A
y 0 to and along
fromtranslation
b,0 to c. z from 0 to
of the plane with respect to the
c.
For Cu and Fe, the For Cu and
unit-cell Fe, the has
geometry unit-cell
a = bgeometry
= c, α = has
β =aγ == b90°,
= c,and
α =cubic
β = γ = 90°, and cubic
symmetry.
symmetry. For Zn, the unit cellFor
hasZn, the unit geometry,
hexagonal cell has hexagonal
with a = geometry,
b ≠ c, α =with = b ≠ c, α = β = 90°,
β =a90°,
and γ in
and γ = 120°, as shown = Figure
120°, as1.34d.
shown in Figure 1.34d.
In explaining crystalIn explaining
properties, crystal
we must properties,
frequentlywespecify
must frequently
a directionspecify
in a a direction in a
ECE, NEHU, Shillong crystal,
crystal, or a particular or aofHandout
plane particular
atoms. Manyplaneproperties,
# of atoms.
01 for Many properties,
example, for example, the elastic 7
the elastic / 12
modulus, electrical modulus,
resistivity,electrical
magneticresistivity, magnetic
susceptibility, etc., susceptibility,
are directional etc., arethe
within directional within the
crystal. We use thecrystal. We use
convention the convention
described here for described here for
labeling crystal labelingbased
directions crystal directions based
on three-dimensionalon geometry.
three-dimensional geometry.
 EC–204 Basic Electronics April 22, 2024

origin is permitted as long as the direction of the plane is maintained.

CHAPTER 1 The Crystal Structure of Solids

2. Find the reciprocals of the three integers obtained in step (1) and reduce them to
1.3.3 Crystal Planes and Miller Indices
the smallest set of integers maintaining their relationship [multiply them by the least
Since real crystals are not infinitely large, they eventually terminate at a surface.
common
Semiconductor devices denominator].
are fabricated Designate
at or near a surface, these
so the surface integers h, k, and l.
proper-
ties may influence the device characteristics. We would like to be able to describe
3.in Finally,
these surfaces labelSurfaces,
terms of the lattice. the plane
or planesas (hkl).
through
_ _However,
the crystal, can be if the indices can
_ be further reduced to
described by first considering the intercepts of the plane along the a, b, and c axes
small integers
used to describe the lattice. by dividing the indices by a highest factor or a
common number, this
process shall simplify the indices by removing a common factor or it shall reduce the
indices to the smallest integers. The operation simply generates a parallel plane which
is at a different distance from the origin of the particular unit cell being considered.
For example, the plane, (240), can be reduced to (120). Also (200) to (100). 1 . 3 Space Lattices
PLE 1.2 Objective: Describe the plane shown in Figure 1.6. (The lattice points in Figure 1.6 are
_ _ _
shown along the a, b, and c axes only.)

2c
1c

2b

2b
a
3a

Figure 1.6 | A representative crystal-

(a) (b) for
Figure 1.7 | Figure
lattice plane. Exercise Problem Ex 1.2.
■ Solution
Figure 7
From Equation (1.1), the intercepts of the plane correspond to p  3, q  2, and s  1. Now
write the reciprocals of the intercepts, which gives
Three planes that are commonly considered in_a cubic crystal are shown in Fig-
_
ure 1.8. The plane in Figure 1.8a is parallel to the b and c axes so the intercepts are
Example-1: Step - 1: A plane ( 3 2 shown
1 , __
__
1)
1 , __
1
in Fig.
given7(a) as p  has  , and s  .
1, qcoordinates, (3a, 0, 0),
Taking (0, 2b, 0)
the reciprocal, weand (0,the0,Miller indi-
obtain
Multiply by the lowest common denominator, which in this case isces 6, toas
obtain
(1, (2,
0, 3, 6).so
0), Thethe plane shown in Figure 1.8a is referred to as the (100) plane.
1c).
plane in Figure Using
1.6 is theto lattice
then referred as the (236)pointplane. Thevector,
integers arewe can
referred to aswrite
the them as
Miller indices. We will refer to a general plane as the (hkl) plane.
Again, any plane parallel to the one shown in Figure 1.8a and separated by an inte-
gral number of lattice constants is equivalent and is referred to as the (100) plane.
■ Comment r = 3a + 2b + 1c
One advantage to taking the reciprocal of the intercepts to obtain the Miller indices
We can show that the same three Miller indices are obtained for any plane that is parallel to the
one shown in Figure 1.6. Any parallel plane is entirely equivalent is thatother.
to any the use of infinity is avoided when describing a plane that is parallel to an axis.
where p = 3, q = 2 and s = 1 which If we correspond
were to describetoa plane
intercepts
passingof the plane.
through This
the origin equation
of our system, we would
■ EXERCISE PROBLEM
provides
Ex 1.2 Describe the latticeaplane
means
shown into find
Figure 1.7. everyobtainequivalent
[Ans. (211) plane] infinity as lattice
one or point
more ofinthethe three-dimensional
Miller indices after taking crystal.
the reciprocal of the
intercepts. However, the location of the origin of our system is entirely arbitrary and
Step - 2: We write the reciprocals of the intercepts,
so, by translating the origin towhich
anothergives
equivalent lattice point, we can avoid the use
    of infi nity in the set of Miller indices.
1 1 1 1 1 1 For the simple cubic structure, the body-centered cubic, and the face-centered
, , = , , cubic, there is a high degree of symmetry. The axes can be rotated by 90° in each
p q s 3 2 1
024.indd 6 12/11/10 9:46 AM

To reduce them into smallest set of integers

–c maintaining their relationships,
–c we find the –c

lowest common denominator, which in this case is 6. We now multiply it to the above
reciprocals to obtain the smallest set of integers as
   
1 1 1 1 1 1
6 × ,6 × ,6 × = 6 × ,6 × ,6 × = (2, 3, 6)
p q s 3 2 1
– –
b b
Step - 3: Where we have h = 2, k = 3 and l = 6. And the plane is denoted by (hkl) or
(236).
– – –
The plane referred by Fig. 7(b)a is then referred to as the (236). a
These smallest set of a
(a) (b) (c)
integers are referred to as Miller indices denoted by h, k and l. Thus, the plane under
consideration shall be referredFigure
to a 1.8 | Three lattice
general planeplanes: (a) (100)
as the (hkl)plane, (b) (110)
plane. plane,its
And (c) direction
(111) plane.
shall be denoted in Miller indices as [236].

Alternative way to look into: We take the intercepts p, q, and s of the plane on the
x, y, and z axes, respectively. If the plane passes through the origin, we can use another
convenient parallel plane, or simply shift the origin to another point. All planes that
have been shifted by nea29583_ch01_001-024.indd
a lattice parameter 7 have identical Miller indices.

Example-2: The answer is (211).

Handout # 01 ECE, NEHU, Shillong 8 / 12

 April 22, 2024 EC–204 Basic Electronics
64 CHAPTER 1 ∙ ELEMENTARY MATERIALS SCIENCE CONCEPTS

z
z intercept at ∞
b
Miller Indices (hkℓ):
1 1 1
(210)
c 1 1
2
x intercept at a/2
y
a
y intercept at b
x Unit cell
(a) Identification of a plane in a crystal

Figure 8
z
(010) (010)
z (010) (010) (001)

Example-3: Step - 1: We have the intercepts(010)

at
y
y
1
x s = ∞
p = , q = 1 and x
2 (100) z

(111)
Step - 2: Taking the reciprocal
(110) of the intercepts,
z
(110) we(111)
have
    y
1 1 1 1 1 1
, , = 1, , = (2,–y1, 0)
p q s 2
1 ∞ y
x

x
This set of numbers does not have fractions, so it is not necessary to clear–z fractions.
Hence, the Miller indices (hkl) are (210).(b) Various planes in the cubic lattice.
Figure 1.42 Labeling of crystal planes and typical examples in the cubic lattice.

Example-4: Describe the plane as shown in Fig. 8

We then clear all fractions, without reducing to lowest integers, to obtain a set
y z
of integers, say h, k, and ℓ. We then put these integers into parentheses, without
commas, that is, (hkℓ). For the plane in Figure 1.42a, we have
Intercepts xo, yo, and zo are 12 a, 1b, and ∞c.
Intercepts x1, y1, and z1, in terms of a, b, and c, are 21 , 1, and ∞.
1

Reciprocals 1∕x1, 1∕y1, and 1∕z1 are 1∕ 12 , 1∕1, 1∕∞ = 2, 1, 0.
2 , 1, 0
This set of numbers does
1

not have fractions, so
1
it
is not necessary to clear frac-
tions. Hence, the Miller indices
2 , 0, 1 (hkℓ) are (210). 2 , 1, 1
1

If there is a negative integer due to a negative intercept, a bar is placed across
2 , 1, 1
the top of the integer. Also, if parallel planes differ only by a shift that involves a
multiple number of lattice parameters, then these planes may be assigned the same
1
2 , 0, 0


Miller indices. For example, the plane (010) is the xz plane that cuts the y axis at −b.
x y
1

1


2 , 0, 0 2 , 1, 0

1


2 , 0, 1

z x
www.FreeEngineeringBooksPdf.com

(a) (b)

Figure 9

We have found from the diagram shown in Fig. 6 that intercepts with the crystal axes
1
are at p = , q = ∞ and s = ∞ as the intercept on the z−axis at ∞. Thus, every
2
equivalent lattice point in the three-dimensional crystal can be found using the vector
1
r = a + ∞b + ∞c
2
Now, taking the reciprocal of the intercepts, we get
   
1 1 1 1 1 1
, , = 1, , = (2, 0, 0)
p q s 2
∞ ∞
This set of numbers does not have fractions, so it is not necessary to clear fractions.
We CAN NOT further reduce these indices as the plane DOES NOT pass through any
lattice points. Hence, the Miller indices, (hkl), of the plane shown in Fig. 7 are (200) .
However, the indices can be further reduced to smaller integers by dividing
the indices by 2 resulting the Miller indices, (hkl), as (100) IN CASES where planes
pass through lattice points. Multiplying or dividing the indices by a common number
in order to simplify them by, for example, removing a common factor. This operation of
multiplication/division simply generates a parallel plane which is at a different distance
from the origin of the particular unit cell being considered.

ECE, NEHU, Shillong Handout # 01 9 / 12

 EC–204 Basic Electronics April 22, 2024

Example-5: Family of planes:

z z z

64 CHAPTER 1 ∙ ELEMENTARY MATERIALS SCIENCE CONCEPTS

(2, 0, 0)

yz (1, 0, 0)
y y
z intercept at ∞ (2, 0, 0)
b
Miller Indices (hkℓ):
1 1 1
x x 1
(210) x
c 1
2
x intercept at a
(a)/2 (b) (c)
y
a Figure 10
y intercept at b
x Unit cell
(a) Identification of a plane in a crystal
Example-6: Other examples are
z
(010) (010)
z (010) (010) (001)

(010)
y
y

x x
10 CHAPTER 1 The Crystal Structure of Solids (100) z

(a) (111)
z
(110)
c– –
(110) c (111) c–

–y x [111]
y

x
–z
– – –
(b)
b Various planes in the cubic lattice.
b b

Figure 1.42 Labeling of crystal planes and typical examples in the cubic lattice.
[100] [110]
–a –a –
a
(a)
We then clear all fractions,(b)without reducing to lowest integers, (c)
to obtain a set
of integers, say h, k, and ℓ. We (b)then put these integers into parentheses, without
commas,
Figure 1.10 | Three that is,and(hkℓ).
lattice directions planes:For the plane
(a) (100) planeandin[100]
Figure 1.42a,
direction, we have
(b) (110) plane and [110]
direction, (c) (111) plane and [111] direction.
Intercepts xo, yo, and zoFigure are 12 a, 11
1b, and ∞c.
Intercepts
1.4 | THE x1, y1DIAMOND
, and z1, in terms of a, b, and c, are 21 , 1, and ∞.
STRUCTURE
Directions in a latticeReciprocals
are 1∕x
determined
As already 1, 1∕y
stated, 1, and
using
silicon 1∕zmost
is the
the 1∕ 12 , 1∕1,
arecommon
1following 1∕∞ = 2,material.
procedure:
semiconductor 1, 0. Silicon is
referred to as a group IV element and has a diamond
This set of numbers does not have fractions, so it is not necessary crystal structure. Germanium
to clear frac-
1. Choose the basis is also a group
vectorsthewith IV element
a suitable and has the
origin. same diamond structure. A unit cell of the
tions. Hence, Miller indices (hkℓ) are (210).
diamond structure, shown in Figure 1.11, is more complicated than the simple cubic
If there is athat
structures negative
we haveinteger
considereddueuptotoathis
negative
point. intercept, a bar is placed across
2. Express the the
vector
top ofcomponents
the integer. for
Also, the
if particular
parallel planes
We may begin to understand the diamond lattice
direction
differby
only inbymultiples
a shift
considering thatofinvolves
the basis
the tetrahedral a
vectors. multiplestructure
numbershownof lattice parameters, then these planes may be assigned
in Figure 1.12. This structure is basically a body-centered cubic the same
Miller indices.
with fourFor example,
of the the plane
corner atoms (010)
missing. Everyis atom
the xzinplane that cutsstructure
the tetrahedral the y axis
has at −b.
3. Reduce the three integers
four nearestto their smallest
neighbors and it is thisvalues
structurewhile maintaining
that is the basic building the
blockrelationship
of the
diamond lattice.
between them.

4. Express the specific directionwww.FreeEngineeringBooksPdf.com

within square brackets, e.g., [abc].

3.4 Miller Indices of a Plane[1, 3]a

a/2
Since real crystals are not infinitely large, they eventually terminate at a surface. Semicon-
ductor devices are fabricated at or near a surface, so the surface properties may influence
the device characteristics. We would like to be able to describe these surfaces in terms of the
lattice. Surfaces, or planes through the crystal, can be described by fi rst considering the
intercepts of the plane along the a or a, b or b and c or c axes used
Figure 1.12 to
| Thedescribe
tetrahedral the lattice.
Miller indicesFigure
are1.11
used to specify directions and planes. structure
These of closest neighbors
directions and planes could
| The diamond structure. in the diamond lattice.
be in lattices or in crystals. The number of indices will match with the dimension of the
lattice or the crystal (for instance, in 1D, there will be 1 index, and there will be two indices

Handout # 01
nea29583_ch01_001-024.indd 10 ECE, NEHU, Shillong 10 / 12
12/11/10 9:46 AM
April 22, 2024 EC–204 Basic Electronics

for 2D, etc.).

Notations:

(i) (h,k,l) represents a point – note the exclusive use of commas

(ii) Negative numbers/directions are denoted with a bar on top of the number

(iii) [hkl] represents a direction

(iv) <hkl> represents a family of directions

(v) (hkl) represents a plane

(vi) {hkl} represents a family of planes

In any crystal, we don’t draw any plane passing through a origin. If it passes the
origin, the origin can be shifted and find the Miller indices after that.

Crystal structure from[1, 3]

ECE, NEHU, Shillong Handout # 01 11 / 12

 EC–204 Basic Electronics April 22, 2024

Crystal Structure from Semiconductor Physics and Devices 4/e

References
[1] Donald A. Neamen, Semiconductor Physics and Devices: basic principles, 4/e, McGraw-
Hill, 2003. (Cited on pages 5, 6, 7, 10, and 11)

[2] Debashis De, Basic Electronics, Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd, 2010. (Cited on
pages 2 and 4)

[3] Safa O. Kasap, Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, 4/e, McGraw-Hill, 2017.
(Cited on pages 2, 4, 6, 7, 10, and 11)

[4] D. Chattopadhyay, P. C. Rakshit, Electronics: Fundamentals and Applications, 17e,

New Age Publishers, 2022.

[5] Albert Malvino, David Bates, Patrick Hoppe, Electronic Principles, 9/e, McGraw-Hill,
2020.

[6] Satya Sai Srikant, Prakash Kumar Chaturvedi, Basic Electronics Engineering - Includ-
ing Laboratory Manual Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd., 2020. (Cited on page 1)

[7] Sanjay Sharma, Basic Electronics S. K. Kataria & Sons, 2012. (Cited on page 3)

[8] D. K. Bhattacharya, Rajnish Sharma, Solid State Electronic Devices, 2e Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 2013. (Cited on page 5)

[9] William D. Callister Jr., David G. Rethwisch Materials Science and Engineering - An
Introduction, 10e John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2018. (Cited on page 6)

[10] Robert F. Pierret, Advanced Semiconductor Fundamentals, 2e Prentice Hall Inc., 2002.

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