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CON T ENT S
AUGUST, 2023 / VOLUME XXII / ISSUE NO. 03
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Contents
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
AGRONOMY
1. Hydroponic Fodder Production: An
Alternative Solution for Scarcity of Feed................... 4
Roopa K Muttappanavar, Ragini Patil,
Geetha G P, and Deepa Kalappanavar
2. Organic Farming for Nutritional Security
and Sustainable Development.................................. 6
Gajjela Indira
3. Nutritional Composition and Health
Benefits of Millets..................................................... 9
Tusi Chakma
AGROMETEOROLOGY, REMOTE SENSING AND GIS
4. Empowering Agriculture through Digital
Image Sensing for Plant Phenotyping..................... 11
Rajat, Arjoo and Vinay
CROP PHYSIOLOGY
5. Physiological and Biochemical Markers of
Salinity Tolerance in Crop Plants............................ 13
Anil Jadhav, Shruti and Channabasava
6. Assimilate Partitioning and Distribution.................. 16
Anuradha Bishnoi
HORTICULTURE
7. Digital Twins: Pioneering a New Era of
Horticultural Advancement..................................... 18
Arjoo, Vinay and Rajat
8. From Nature’s Bounty to Exquisite
Delights: Unleashing the Captivating
Potential of Blood Fruit........................................... 21
Rajat, Arjoo and Vinay
9. Vegetable Crops: Special Horticultural Practices... 23
Kayalvizhi K, Divyabharathi V and Bhuvana. M
10. Java Tea: Indian Kidney Drink/Irrigation Therapy... 25
Dr. M. Bhuvan, Dr. K. Kayalvizhi
and Dr. V. Divyabharathi
11. Minisett Propagation Technique in
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)...................... 26
Dr. Meenakshi Badu
12. Climate Variables and their Impact on
Growth of Mango.................................................... 28
Sinchana Jain N. R.
13. Vertical Gardening with Ornamental
Vegetables: Unleashing Nature’s Elegance
in Breathtaking Spaces........................................... 30
Tushar Ghosh, Sanchita Ghosh
and Karishma Maherukh
PLANT BREEDING AND GENETICS
14. Alternative to Cry Genes: Insect-Resistant
Genetically Modified Crops..................................... 33
Lakshmi Gangavati
3 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
PLANT PATHOLOGY
15. Downy Mildew of Cucurbits: Etiology,
Symptomatology, Epidemiology and Management.. 35
Ganesh, H. S., and Kirankumar
16. Bacterial Biomolecules as Plant Protector
against Phytopathogenic Fungi............................... 38
Ms. Priyanka S. Patil and Dr. Nileema S. Gore
17. Induced Systemic Resistance by
Beneficial Microbes................................................ 39
Anbazhagan P and R. Oviya
18. PAMP Triggered Immunity: Basal Defense
in Plants.................................................................. 41
B. Rajyalakshmi, M. Gurivi Reddy
and K. Jaisimha Reddy
PLANT PROTECTION
19. Thrips Infection in Capsicum and Its Management.42
Anusha A
ENTOMOLOGY
20. Artificial Intelligence and Pest
Management: Pros and Cons.................................. 45
Arvind and Ritu Bhall
A GR ON OMY
1. Hydroponic Fodder Production: An
Alternative Solution for Scarcity of
Feed
ROOPA K MUTTAPPANAVAR, RAGINI PATIL, GEETHA G P, AND DEEPA
KALAPPANAVAR
Senior Research Fellow, REWARD Project, Dept. Soil Science, UAS, Dharwad-580005
Livestock plays an important role in the nutritional
and livelihood security of small and marginal
farmers. In comparison to the 2012 livestock
census, the country’s livestock population has
increased to 535.78 million with a growth rate
of 4.63 per cent (Livestock census, 2019). The
scarcity of fodder and land allocation for the
cultivation of green fodder led to reduction in the
livestock productivity. Also, fodder production is
constrained further with the changing climate
due to erratic distribution of rainfall. The failure
4 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
21. Insect-Inspired Robotics......................................... 47
Ritu Bhall and Arvind
22. Pests and Diseases of Silkworm and their
Management........................................................... 51
Mr. Akash V. More
SERICULTURE
23. Host Plants of Eri Silkworm.................................... 53
G. Swathiga and S. Ranjith Kumar
EXTENSION EDUCATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
24. Gender Issues in Agriculture................................... 56
Katta Sravan Naga and Parimala Kumar
25. Publishing Social Science Research
Findings: Need and Its Importance......................... 58
Vikas Chowhan, Rakesh Bhatthad and S. Ragunath
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
26. Biodegradable Plastic and Biodegradation............. 61
Dr. Shraddha A. Dilpak
ANIMAL NUTRITION
27. Azolla: A Nutritious and Sustainable
Unconventional Feed.............................................. 63
Khwairakpam Ratika and Rajkumar James Singh
22545
of dual crops (food and fodder purpose) is
increasing as they are becoming vulnerable to
vagaries of weather and aggravating the problem
of fodder crisis. These problems can be coping
with a new alternative tool of producing green
fodder for farm animals through hydroponics
technology.
The word hydroponics has been derived
from the Greek word ‘water working’ (Hydro
means ‘water’ and ponic means ‘working’) and
it is a technology of sprouting grains or growing
Agronomy
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
plants without soil in the presence of water and
proper nutrients. Hydroponic technology is an art
and science of growing crops without soil in the
presence of water and proper nutrients, which
is more advantageous than the conventional
method of fodder production. A hydroponic
system has ‘No Role of the Soil’. Hydroponics,
aquaponics, aeroponics, and substrate culture
are all forms of agriculture carried out without
using soil. One of these hydroponic approaches
is rising in popularity due to its effective resource
management and crop production. Besides
vegetables, speciality and commercial crops,
hydroponic systems can also be used to grow
fodder crops. The roots are supplied with
highly soluble nutrient solutions in a controlled
environment that contain crop specific nutrient
components at the proper concentration with
balanced pH and EC.
Hydroponically grown fodders are rich in
vitamins, minerals, enzymes and about 85 to 90
per cent digestible protein. Sprouting of grains
increases the enzymatic activity, total protein and
changes amino acid profile, increase in sugars,
crude fibre, certain vitamins and minerals, but
decrease starch and increases simple sugars.
Hydroponic fodder is grown inside a greenhouse
or in a shaded net within a short period of
approximately eight to ten days, even up to 14
days in case of maize to get higher production.
The basic components of a hydroponics
system include a growth tray, a reservoir, a
timer, a regulated submersible pump, a delivery
system, an air pump, an air stone to oxygenate
the nutrient solution and grow lights (Natural
or artificial) at the appropriate intensity. In
hydroponics, a whole artificial agricultural area
that is cut off from the outside environment can
be built, simultaneously shielding the plants from
both summer and winter weather extremes.
The fodder grown hydroponically looks like a
20-25 cm mat consisting of roots, seeds and
stems. The several aspects of hydroponics
include; constructions, cultivation procedure,
precautions, benefits and pitfalls.
Construction of a Hydroponic System
Bamboo logs, iron rods, or plastic pipes can be
used to build a semi-controlled environment
(Cheap greenhouse) which can then be covered
with shade net or gunny sacks. It must be close
to the livestock shed because doing so makes it
simple to utilise. Ventilation is made possible via
a small opening between the side walls and roof.
Medium- sized trays (1.5 x 3.0 ft) made of sturdy
plastic and strong enough to support the weight
of the feed can be stored on a three to four racks
made of bamboo, plastic or metal. Create 15 to
Agronomy
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
20 tiny holes in tray on one side, maintain this
side of the rack slightly slanted and add a thin
drainage line beneath the sloped side of the rack
to allow water to properly drain out.
Cultivation Procedure in Hydroponic System
Hydroponics fodder production process includes
seed storage, cleaning, sterilization, soaking of
seeds for better germination, sowing, racking,
periodical spraying of water and harvesting.
The seeds should be dried and stored in air
tight containers. Best quality seeds that are
unbroken and disease-free have to be used by
soaking the seeds for five minutes in water and
remove floating lightweight seeds. Sterilization
of seeds is done by soaking them in 0.1 per cent
bleach solution (Sodium hypochlorite) or 1-2 per
cent hydrogen peroxide solution for one hour.
Sterilized seeds should be soaked in the water in
the 1:2 proportion (Seeds: Water) in a container
for 4- 24 hours depending on the hardness of the
seed coat. After that, place them in a gunny bag
and wait for them to sprout (About 24 hours).
Spread out the sprouted seeds equally on trays
after transferring them from gunny bags, then
set the trays on the rack. Using watering cans
or a sprinkler system, water the sprouting seeds
every day.
Precautions to be Taken in Hydroponic Fodder
Production
 Seeds treated with fungicide and pesticides
are not recommended.
 Need to change water after every three days
to prevent microbial infestation.
 Cleanliness, washing, and cleaning should
be practised to prevent microbiological
infection.
 Sprouts and mould grow in a warm and wet
environment. Mouldy growth will reduce
live weight performance and palatability
of fodder. To reduce mould growth mix 20-
25 g of baking soda or 20 g of Potassium
bicarbonate into 3.78 liters of water and
Spray onto the seeds and infested plant
parts.
 We must use superior seeds.
 Use of green shed net is crucial for optimum
aeration and illumination.
 Clean the tray thoroughly before using it,
and make sure all the holes are clear of
obstructions.
 Water should be given after every two hours
in hot weather and every four hours in cold
weather which preserves moisture. Avoid
storing the feed in the trays for longer than
5 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
nine days since the feed’s nutritional content
gradually starts to decline and fibre begins
to form.
 The height of the rack and the distance
between its two layers must allow for simple
and practical handling.
Advantages of Hydroponics
 There will be no incidences of soil-borne
disease resulting in a reduced need for
pesticides, insecticides and herbicides.
 It needs less water (2-5 % of water) than the
conventional method and the water can be
recycled.
 Only 1.5-2 litre of water is enough for one kg
hydroponic fodder production compared to
73, 85 and 160 litres of water to produce one
kg green fodder of barley, alfalfa, and rhodes
grass under conventional field condition,
respectively. (Rachel Jemimah et al., 2015).
 It takes short duration (8-12 days) to develop
from seed to fodder over conventional
fodder production (45 days to grow).
 Requires less cost of production i.e., Rs. 2.5/
kg of fodder.
 This technology promotes marginal land
usage.
 Fodder can be produced year-round even
under natural calamities, land constraints,
labour shortage along with an enhanced
nutritive value having higher crude protein
content and rich source of vitamin A, E, C
and thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, biotin, free
folic –carotene, βacid, anti-oxidants like
minerals and also a good source of bioactive
enzymes, minerals and essential fatty acids.
2. Organic Farming for Nutritional
Security and Sustainable Development
GAJJELA INDIRA*
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture & Technology, Meerut, U.P.
*Corresponding Author Email: indiragajjela@gmail.com
Organic agriculture is a holistic production
management system that avoids use of synthetic
fertilizers, pesticides and genetically modified
organisms, minimizes pollution of air, soil and
6 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
Pitfalls of Hydroponics
 Technical expertise and significant initial
investment are essential for commercial-
scale cultivation.
 Good quality water source is must.
 Water-borne illnesses can easily transfer
from one plant to another plant in a
hydroponics system.
 Technical aspects like pH, EC, the
concentration of a nutrient solution, room
CO2-O2 balance, water quality maintenance,
temperature, light intensity and duration,
ventilation and repair of hydroponic systems
require skilled labours.
 This is a feasible system where electricity is
not an issue since it is energy-consuming.
Conclusion
Hydroponic fodder production is highly efficient,
cost effective and sustainable method of
producing high quality feed for livestock. It has
a profitable application in intensive, small scale
livestock situations with higher value outputs,
where land and alternative feed costs are higher.
With the selection of right crops, equipment
and proper monitoring, hydroponic systems
can provide faster growth and higher yields
as compared to traditional farming methods.
Additionally, hydroponic fodder production can
reduce water usage and minimize the need
of pesticides and other agro chemicals which
make it an environmental friendly option. The
low-cost hydroponic production unit will help
Indian farmers to alleviate the fodder scarcity
problem faced due to lack of land, labour and
water resources. Hence, hydroponic fodder
production is a viable, profitable and resource
efficient technology.
22553
water, and optimizes the health and productivity
of interdependent communities of plants,
animals and people. The soil in India is bestowed
with various types of naturally available organic
Agronomy
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
nutrient resources that aid in organic farming
(Adolph and Butterworth, 2002; Reddy,
2010; Deshmukh and Babar, 2015). The term
“agriculture” is used in its wider sense to include
crop/livestock systems, organic aquaculture and
organic harvesting of non-timber forest products.
Agricultural “products” include food, fibres
and medicinal and cosmetic raw materials.
Finally, “organic agriculture” is not just about
production. It includes the entire food supply
chain, from production and handling, through
quality control and certification, to marketing
and trade. In the market place, the organic claim
requires certification, and related products are
distinguished by an organic label. Organic labels
are obtained through third party certification
and grower group guarantee systems, both of
which provide valid verification of compliance
with organic OFS/2007/5 3 standards. Those
farming systems that actively follow organic
agriculture principles are considered organic,
even if the agro-ecosystem or the farm is not
formally certified organic. However, the non-
use of external agriculture inputs does not in
itself qualify a system as “organic”, especially
if this results in natural resource degradation
(such as soil nutrient mining). Therefore, organic
agriculture includes both certified and non-
certified food systems.
To provide clarity on the organic claim,
organic agriculture is governed by detailed
standards and lists of allowed and prohibited
substances. In addition, the organic community
has adopted four overriding principles for organic
agriculture.
 Principle of Health: organic agriculture
should sustain and enhance the health of
soil, plant, animal and human as one and
indivisible.
 Principle of Ecology: organic agriculture
should be based on living ecological systems
and cycles, work with them, emulate them
and help sustain them.
 Principle of Fairness: organic agriculture
should build on relationships that ensure
fairness with regard to the common
environment and life opportunities.
 Principle of Care: organic agriculture
should be managed in a precautionary and
responsible manner to protect the health and
well-being of current and future generations
and the environment.
These principles are currently being
translated by IFOAM into international
benchmark standards that will allow diverse
pathways towards achieving organic agriculture
objectives. Organic agriculture can be described
Agronomy
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
as “neo-traditional food system”, as it uses
scientific investigation to improve traditional
farming practices anchored in multicropping
systems, natural food preservation, and storage
and risk aversion strategies that have traditionally
secured local food needs. The main principles
and practices of organic food production are
to inspire and enhance biological cycles in the
farming system, keep and enhance deep-rooted
soil fertility, reduce all types of pollution, evade
the application of pesticides and synthetic
fertilizers, conserve genetic diversity in food,
consider the vast socio-ecological impact of
food production, and produce high-quality food
in sufficient quantity (IFOAM, 1998). According to
the National Organic Programme implemented
by USDA Organic Food Production Act (OFPA,
1990), agriculture needs specific prerequisites
for both crop cultivation and animal husbandry.
To be acceptable as organic, crops should
be cultivated in lands without any synthetic
pesticides, chemical fertilizers, and herbicides
for 3 years before harvesting with enough buffer
zone to lower contamination from the adjacent
farms. Genetically engineered products, sewage
sludge, and ionizing radiation are strictly
prohibited. Fertility and nutrient content of soil
are managed primarily by farming practices,
with crop rotation, and using cover crops that are
boosted with animal and plant waste manures.
Pests, diseases, and weeds are mainly controlled
with the adaptation of physical and biological
control systems without using herbicides and
synthetic pesticides. Organic livestock should
be reared devoid of scheduled application
of growth hormones or antibiotics and they
should be provided with enough access to the
outdoor. Preventive health practices such as
routine vaccination, vitamins and minerals
supplementation are also needed (OFPA, 1990).
The fundamental goal of organic farming
is to develop enterprises that are sustainable
and harmonious with the environment. This
harmonious relationship makes organic farming
a key player in achieving nutritional security
and sustainable development. The very basic
approach to organic farming for the sustainable
environment includes the following (Yadav,
2017):
1. Improvement and maintenance of the
natural landscape and agro-ecosystem.
2. Avoidance of overexploitation and pollution
of natural resources.
3. Minimization of the consumption of non-
renewable energy resources.
4. Exploitation synergies that exist in a natural
ecosystem.
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 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023

5. Maintenance and improve soil health by of the natural resource, adoption of an export-
stimulating activity or soil organic manures oriented production system, sound infrastructure,
and avoid harming them with pesticides. active participation of government, and private-
6. Optimum economic returns, with a safe, public sector will be helpful to make revamp
secure, and healthy working environment. economic sustainability in agriculture (Soumya,
2015).
7. Acknowledgement of the virtues of
indigenous know-how and traditional To fully harness the potential of organic
farming system. farming, however, concerted efforts are needed
from all stakeholders. The scientific community
From a nutritional perspective, organic
must continue to innovate and research to further
farming offers immense benefits. Numerous
refine organic farming techniques, improving
studies have shown that organically grown food
efficiency, and yield. Policymakers must create
has more nutrients-vitamins, minerals, enzymes,
an enabling environment for organic farming to
and micronutrients-than commercially grown
thrive, including regulations that recognize and
foods because the soil is nourished and managed
promote organic farming, financial incentives
with sustainable practices. The evidence
for organic farmers, and measures to encourage
demonstrates that organic crops contain
the consumption of organic products. Policy
significantly more vitamin C, iron, magnesium,
intervention is crucial in promoting organic
and phosphorus and significantly less nitrates,
farming. Policies need to support research
a toxic compound, than conventionally grown
and development, capacity building, market
crops.
development, and consumer awareness. The
Beyond just nutrients, organic farming can Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) and
contribute significantly to food security, which the National Programme for Organic Production
is a fundamental aspect of nutritional security. (NPOP) are steps in the right direction. However,
We are all aware that food security is not just more needs to be done.
about quantity but also quality. Organic farming,
Farmers, as the custodians of our agricultural
by banning the use of synthetic pesticides and
lands, play a critical role. The shift to organic
fertilizers, produces food with fewer pesticide
farming may be challenging, but the long-term
residues. Additionally, organic farming practices
benefits for the health of their lands, the quality
lead to products with fewer food additives
of their products, and the sustainability of their
and contaminants, which have been linked to
livelihoods are considerable. Farmers should be
numerous health problems, including heart
provided with adequate training and support to
disease and cancer.
make the transition to organic farming practices.
From a sustainability standpoint, The transition may not be easy, but the long-term
organic farming offers a viable solution to benefits for the health of their lands, the quality
the environmental degradation caused by of their products, and the sustainability of their
conventional farming methods. Organic farming livelihoods are considerable.
practices enhance biodiversity, foster cycling
Stakeholders must also play their part.
of resources, promote ecological balance, and
Businesses, NGOs, and consumers all have a
conserve biodiversity. Organic farmers use
role in promoting organic farming. Businesses
techniques such as crop rotation, green manure,
can create demand by sourcing organic products
compost, and biological pest control to maintain
and advocating for organic practices in their
soil productivity, control pests, and manage
supply chains. NGOs can support organic farming
weeds. Organic farming also contributes to
through advocacy, research, and providing direct
mitigating the greenhouse effect and global
support to farmers. Consumers can drive change
warming through its ability to sequester carbon
with their purchasing choices, creating a market
in the soil. Many organic practices, such as
for organic products and incentivizing more
returning crop residues to the soil, using cover
farmers to transition to organic farming.
crops and rotations, and avoiding synthetic
fertilizers, enhance soil organic matter content Yet, we must also recognize the barriers
and improve carbon sequestration. to organic farming. These include high cost
of organic foods, the lower yields compared
It promotes the sustainable use of resources,
to conventional farming, and the lack of
including water. By improving soil structure
understanding about what organic farming
through organic matter additions, organic
truly entails. We must work collaboratively to
farming increases the soil’s water holding
address these barriers, to make organic farming
capacity, thus improving crop resilience during
an accessible and viable choice for all farmers,
drought conditions. Implementation of a strategy
and organic foods an affordable choice for all
encompassing food security, generation of rural
consumers.
employment, poverty alleviation, conservation

8 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03 Agronomy

Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
Moreover, the potential of organic farming
extends beyond nutrition and sustainability.
Organic farming can also contribute to
sustainable economic development. By reducing
dependency on purchased inputs, organic
farming can improve farmers’ net income and
contribute to rural development. Organic farming
also offers opportunities for agro-tourism, further
diversifying income opportunities for rural
communities.
Conclusion
Organic farming is not just a niche or a trend;
it is an urgent necessity for nutritional security
and sustainable development. As we continue
to face the challenges of climate change,
population growth, and malnutrition, the need
for a sustainable, resilient, and health-promoting
food system becomes increasingly clear. Organic
farming is a significant part of the solution. Let
us remember that we are not simply farming
for today, but for the generations to come.
Our choices now will determine the health of
our planet and its inhabitants in the future. In
embracing organic farming, we choose a path of
resilience, sustainability, and health. We choose
a future where our farming practices nourish
the earth, instead of depleting it. We choose a
future where our food systems promote health,
instead of disease. We choose a future where
every individual has access to safe, nutritious
food. This is the future that we envision. This is
3. Nutritional Composition and Health
Benefits of Millets
TUSI CHAKMA
SMS (Plant Protection), KVK North Tripura, Panisagar, Tripura
Introduction
Millets are small seeded cereals and they are an
important source of food for millions of people,
especially those who live in hot, arid regions of
the world. Millets are one of the cereal crops that
can withstand drought and is preferred because
of its productivity and short growing season in
dry, arid regions therefore, they are often referred
as “coarse grain” or “poor people’s crop”. Major
millets are sorghum and pearl millet and small
millet includes finger millet (Eleusine coracana),
foxtail millet (Setaria italica), proso millet or
Agronomy
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
the future that we must work towards.
References
Adolph, B., Butterworth, J. (2002). Soil fertility
management in semi-arid India: its role in
agricultural systems and the livelihoods of poor
people. Natural Resources Institute, UK.
Deshmukh, M.S., Babar, N. (2015). Present status
and prospects of organic farming in India.
European Academic Research, 3: 4271–4287.
International Federation of Organic Agriculture
Movements (IFOAM). (1998). The IFOAM basic
standards for organic production and processing.
General Assembly, Argentina, November, IFOAM,
Germany. Organic Food Production Act of 1990
(U.S.C) s. 2103.
Organic Foods Production Act of 1990, Pub. L. No.
101–624, §§ 2101- 2123, 104 Stat. 3935 (codified
at 7 U.S.C.6501–6522).
Reddy S.B. (2010). Organic farming: status, issues
and prospects—a review. Agricultural Economics
Research Review, 23: 343–358.
Soumya, K. M. (2015). Organic farming: an
effective way to promote sustainable agriculture
development in India. IOSR Journal Humanities
and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), 20: 31–36,
e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279- 0845. www.
iosrjournals.org.
Yadav, M. (2017). Towards a healthier nation:
organic farming and government policies in
India. International Journal of Advance Research
and Development, 2: 153–159.
22560
white millet (Panicum miliaceum), barnyard
millet (Echinochloa spp.), kodo millet (Paspalum
scrobiculatum) and little millet (Panicum
sumatrense) About one-sixth of all food grains
produced are millet grains, which play a
significant role in India’s food grain economy.
In India, eight millets species (Sorghum, Pearl
millet, Finger millet, Foxtail millet, Kodo millet,
Proso millet, Barnyard millet and little millet) are
commonly cultivated under rain fed conditions
(Rao et al., 2017). In India, Karnataka is the
major producer of millets. Millets are food with
9 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
high nutritive value, non-glutinous, non-acid free
forming food having nutraceutical properties
and are regarded as the least allergic and most
easily digestible grains. The millet grains are
a good source of fibre, low in glycemic index,
easy to digest, and gluten-free for persons with
celiac disease, a common illness caused on by
consuming cereal proteins.
Nutritional Composition
Millets are a valuable source of nutrients such
as vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre, proteins,
and carbohydrates. Millet is a highly nutritious
food containing 7-12% protein, 2-5% fat,
65-75% carbohydrates and 15-20% dietary
fibre and phytochemicals (Rao et al., 2017).
Phytochemicals, such as dietary fibre and
polyphenols, are present in high concentrations
in the edible millet kernel (0.2–0.3%). Millets
are a rich source of essential amino acids, with
the exception of lysine and threonine but are
relatively high in sulphur containing amino acids
methionine and cysteine (Singh et al., 2012).
Protein content is about the same as other grains,
but the amount of carbohydrates is less. About
65% of the millet grain consists of carbohydrates.
In the milled grains, carbohydrate consists of
free sugars (2–3%), non-starchy polysaccharides
(15–20%), and starch (60–75%). The free sugars
found in millet ranges from 1-1.4% with sucrose
(0.3-1.2%) being the predominant sugar, among
the free sugars, glucose, fructose, sucrose and
raffinose are prominent (Malleshi et al., 1986).
Finger millet contains the highest carbohydrate
content of 72.05 g/100g among all the millets
which is followed by proso millet at 70.4 g/100g,
barnyard millet at 68.8 g/100g, pearl millet at
67.0 g/100g, kodo millet at 66.6 g/100g, and small
millet at 65.55 g/100g (Bhatt et al., 2022). Protein
is the second essential component in millet.
Pearl millet has a protein content of around
11.6%, which is higher than the 7.2% found in
rice, 11.5% in barley, 11.1% in maize, and 10.4%
in sorghum (Jha et al., 2013).
Important vitamins like thiamine, riboflavin,
folic acid, and niacin are also abundant in
millet grains (Vidyavati et al., 2004). Detectable
amounts of other fat-soluble vitamins, namely D,
E and K, also found in millets. Pearl millet has
the highest niacin content than all other cereals.
Kodo millet is rich in vitamin B, especially niacin,
pyridoxine and folic acid. In general, millets
and sorghum are great sources of B-complex
vitamins.
Small millets are more nutrient-dense
compared to fine cereals. Millets have a high
mineral content including calcium, iron,
potassium, and magnesium. Magnesium and
10 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
phosphorus are both abundant in millets where,
magnesium can reduce the effects of migraines
and heart attacks, and phosphorus which is an
important mineral for energy production and an
important component of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) (Badau et al., 2005; Liang et al., 2010; Devi
et al., 2014). Millets have comparable or even
higher total dietary fibre (TDF) than other cereals
and are a good source of both soluble and
insoluble dietary fibre. Finger millet (18.6%) and
pearl millet (20.8%) contain more total dietary
fibre than sorghum (14.2%), wheat (17.2%), and
rice (8.3%). (Kamath et al., 1980)
Health Benefits of Millets
1. Cardiovascular Diseases: Being rich sources
of magnesium, millets help in reducing
blood pressure and risk of heart strokes
especially in atherosclerosis. Additionally,
the potassium included in millets acts as a
vasodilator, lowering blood pressure and
lowering the risk of cardiovascular disease.
2. Millet’s high fiber content slows digestion
and releases sugar into the bloodstream
at a more even pace. This aids diabetics in
avoiding potentially dangerous blood sugar
rises that cause glucose to circulate into the
urine, known as glucosuria.
3. Millets contain dietary fiber and phyto-
nutrients which help effectively in the
prevention of colon cancer. Millets’ high
fibre content also aids in the eradication of
conditions like constipation, excessive gas,
bloating, and cramps.
4. Millets are rich in Anti-oxidants. The body’s
free radicals are neutralized by the high
concentration of antioxidants in millet,
which can cause cancer and it helps to
clean up toxins from the body such as those
in kidney and liver.
5. Millets are gluten free and therefore excellent
option for people suffering from celiac
diseases. A digestive disorder called celiac
disease harms the small intestine, which is
triggered by eating food containing gluten.
6. Millets are high in fibre, which helps rapidly
to satisfy hunger and prevents overeating
and also helps in weight management diets.
Tryptophan, a particular amino acid found in
ragi, reduces hunger and aids in regulating
weight.
7. Millets are an excellent source of
phytochemicals with phytic acid, which
reduces blood cholesterol levels.
8. Alkaline nature of Pearl millet maintains
stomach pH by neutralizing acidity and
decreases the impact of stomach ulcers or
Agronomy
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
prevents their occurrence.
References
Badau, M.H., Nkama, I., Jideani, I.A. (2005). Phytic
acid content and hydrochloric acid extractability
of minerals in pearl millet as affected by
germination time and cultivar. Food Chem.,
92(3):425–435.
Bhatt, D., Fairos, M., Mazumdar, A. (2022). Millets:
Nutritional composition, production and
significance: A review. Pharma Innovation J., SP-
11(7): 1577-1582
Devi, P.B., Vijayabharathi, R., Sathyabama, S.,
Malleshi N.G., Priyadarisini, V.B. (2014). Health
benefits of finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.)
polyphenols and dietary fiber: a review. J. Food
Sci. Technol., 51(6):1021-40. doi: 10.1007/s13197-
011-0584-9.
Hadimani, N.A. and Malleshi, N.G. (1993) Studies
on milling, physicochemical properties, nutrient
composition and dietary fiber content of millets.
J. Food Sci. Technol., 30: 17-20.
Jha, A., Tripathi, A.D., Alam, T., Yadav, R. (2013).
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
Process optimization for manufacture of pearl
millet-based dairy dessert by using response
surface methodology (RSM). J. Food Sci. Technol.,
50(2):367–373. doi: 10.1007/s13197-011-0347-7.
Kamath, M.V., Belavady, B. (1980). Unavailable
carbohydrates of commonly consumed Indian
foods. J. Sci. Food Agric., 31:192-202.
Liang, S., Yang, G., Ma, Y. (2010). Chemical
characteristics and fatty acid profile of foxtail
millet bran oil. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 87:63-67.
Rao, B.D., Bhaskarachary, K., Arlene Christina,
G.D., Sudha Devi, G., Tonapi, V.A. (2017).
Nutritional and Health benefits of Millets. ICAR_
Indian Institute of Millets Research (IIMR),
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, PP-112.
Singh, K.P., Mishra, A., Mishra, H.N. (2012). Fuzzy
Analysis of Sensory Attributes of Bread prepared
from millet based composite flours. LWT-Food
Science Technology, 48:276-82.
Vidyavati, H.G., Begum, M.G., Vijayakumar, J.,
Gokavi, S.S., and Begum, S. (2004). Utilization of
finger millet in preparation of Papad. J. Food Sci.
Technol., 41(4): 379-382.

AG RO M E T E O R O LO GY, R EMOT E SEN SING AND G IS

22562

4. Empowering Agriculture through

Digital Image Sensing for Plant
Phenotyping
RAJAT1*, ARJOO2 AND VINAY3
1
M.Sc. Research Scholar, Department of Horticulture (Fruit Science), Chaudhary Charan
Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India
2
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Horticulture (Fruit Science), Maharana Pratap
Horticultural University, Karnal, India
3
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Business Management, Chaudhary Charan Singh
Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India
Corresponding Author’s mail ID- rajatpuniadevigarh@gmail.com

Introduction as being time-consuming, expensive, and

Plant phenotyping entails a comprehensive
assessment of diverse intricate attributes in
plants, encompassing growth, development,
tolerance, resistance, architecture, physiology,
ecology, yield, and fundamental quantitative
parameters (IPPN, 2020). However, conventional
phenotyping tools suffer from drawbacks such
potentially causing damage during specific
stages of plant development. To address
these limitations, plant phenomics can be
employed within controlled environments,
such as greenhouses, glasshouses, and field
conditions. Notably, environmentally-controlled
greenhouses and glasshouses feature automated
procedures that monitor and record ambient

Agrometeorology, Remote Sensing and GIS 11 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
factors, such as temperature, relative humidity,
light, and water content. These controlled
settings provide an optimal environment for
precise plant phenotyping (Basak et al., 2019;
Omari et al., 2020).
Moreover, plant phenomics relies on
essential tools and techniques. Utilizing
imaging and image processing methods with
illumination sources ranging from visible to
near-infrared, nondestructive plant phenotype
image datasets can be acquired. These methods
have substantially improved accuracy, increased
throughput, and generated high-dimensional
phenotype data, thereby enabling the modeling
and prediction of plant growth and development
(Golzarian et al., 2011).
Image Acquisition for Plant Phenotyping
Image acquisition for plant phenotyping can
be accomplished using a manual approach or
through automation. In the manual method, a
standard camera is mounted on a tripod at an
optimal distance from the plant to minimize
perspective distortion. Pre-processing can further
reduce any remaining distortion. The plant is
FIG 1: High-throughput image analysis pipeline HTPheno for top view
(A-F) and side view (G-L) images, Source: Hartmann et al, 2011
3. Object Extraction Display: Extracted
plant objects are visually displayed for
inspection and verification, allowing users
to assess segmentation accuracy and make
adjustments if necessary.
4. Morphological Operations: Morphological
operations, like dilation or erosion, refine
object boundaries, remove noise, and
improve analysis accuracy.
5. Compilation of Analysis Results: The
pipeline compiles analysis results for
all plants into a structured table format,
consolidating quantitative measurements
12 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
placed on a table in front of a uniformly colored
wall, with light sources above and on both sides
for suitable illumination (Hartmann et al., 2011).
Automating the image acquisition process
with sensors, cameras, and robotic systems
allows for high-throughput data collection,
reduced human error, and standardized imaging
protocols for consistent and reliable analysis of
plant traits at various growth stages.
Efficient Image Processing Workflow for High-
Throughput Plant Phenotyping
Image processing pipeline for high-throughput
plant phenotyping involves the following key
steps (refer to Figure 1):
1. Region Definition: The pipeline starts
by defining regions of interest within the
captured images, identifying specific areas
for plant analysis.
2. Object Segmentation: Object segmentation
separates plants from the background or
unwanted elements in the image, ensuring
only plant objects are considered for
analysis.
and derived traits for further analysis and
comparison.
6. Visualization of Processing Steps:
Processing steps for each plant are visualized
as an image stack, presenting a series of
images depicting different stages of analysis,
providing a comprehensive overview of the
workflow.
By image (Fig 1.) processing pipeline, high-
throughput plant phenotyping platforms can
efficiently process large volumes of plant images,
extract relevant information, and present results
in a structured manner for further analysis and
Agrometeorology, Remote Sensing and GIS
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
interpretation.
Advancements in Imaging Technology for
Precise Plant Phenotyping
Imaging technology is a vital component of plant
phenotyping, enabling non-destructive and high-
throughput analysis of plant traits. This overview
highlights commonly used imaging technologies
in plant phenotyping:
1. RGB Imaging: Captures images using
standard color cameras, providing visual
appearance information for analyzing color,
size, shape, and canopy coverage traits.
2. Multispectral Imaging: Captures images in
multiple discrete wavelength bands beyond
the visible spectrum, facilitating analysis of
specific plant characteristics like chlorophyll
content, leaf nitrogen levels, water stress,
and disease detection.
3. Hyperspectral Imaging: Captures images
across a wide range of narrow and
contiguous wavelength bands, offering
detailed spectral information for in-depth
analysis of biochemical and physiological
traits, e.g., crop disease detection, nutrient
status assessment, and stress monitoring.
4. Thermal Imaging: Captures infrared
radiation emitted by plants, correlating
with their temperature. Useful for detecting
temperature variations, identifying stress
conditions, and assessing water use
efficiency.
5. 3D Imaging: Utilizes techniques like stereo
vision, structured light, or time-of-flight
C R O P P H Y SIOLOGY
5. Physiological and Biochemical Markers
of Salinity Tolerance in Crop Plants
ANIL JADHAV1*, SHRUTI 2 AND CHANNABASAVA2
1
Ph. D Scholar, Department of Crop Physiology, CoA, UAS Raichur, Karnataka
2
Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, CoA, UAS, Raichur, Karnataka
*Corresponding Author Email: djanil10020@gmail.com
Introduction
The major problem in soils classified as saline
Crop Physiology
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
cameras to capture depth information of
plant structures. Enables measurement of
plant height, biomass, branching patterns,
and canopy architecture.
6. Fluorescence Imaging: Captures light
emitted by plants in response to excitation
with specific wavelengths. Provides insights
into photosynthetic activity, stress responses,
and nutrient status.
The integration of these imaging technologies
enhances the precision and efficiency of plant
phenotyping, advancing research in agriculture
and plant sciences.
References
Basak, J. K., Qasim, W., Okyere, F. G., Khan, F., Lee,
Y. J., Park, J., & Kim, H. T. (2019). Regression
analysis to estimate morphology parameters of
pepper plant in a controlled greenhouse system.
Journal of Biosystems Engineering, 44, 57-68. 2.
Golzarian, M. R., Frick, R. A., Rajendran, K., Berger,
B., Roy, S., Tester, M., & Lun, D. S. (2011). Accurate
inference of shoot biomass from high-throughput
images of cereal plants. Plant methods, 7, 1-11. 3.
Hartmann, A., Czauderna, T., Hoffmann, R., Stein,
N., & Schreiber, F. (2011). HTPheno: an image
analysis pipeline for high-throughput plant
phenotyping. BMC bioinformatics, 12(1), 1-9. 4.
IPPN (International Plant Phenotyping Network),
(2020). Plant phenotyping. Accessed in https://
www.plantphenotyping.org/ on 06 June 2023. 5.
Omari, M. K., Lee, J., Faqeerzada, M. A., Joshi, R.,
Park, E., & Cho, B. K. (2020). Digital image-based
plant phenotyping: a review. Korean Journal of
Agricultural Science, 47(1), 119-130. 6.
22542
is the high concentration of soluble salts as
Cl−, SO4−, and sometimes NO3−, and in lower
proportion low-solubility salts, such as CaSO4
13 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
and CaCO3. In this case, exchangeable Na+
and soil clay dispersion are not a problem;
therefore, saline soils maintain the structure of
aggregates, and water permeability is good]. In
sodic soils, Na+ is the major problem because
high amounts of this cation along with low EC
result in soil dispersion. Clay dispersion occurs
when the electrolyte concentration decreases
below its flocculation value.
These soils have weak structural stability and
low hydraulic conductivity (HC) and infiltration
rate (IR). These poor physical properties result
in decreased crop productivity caused by poor
aeration and reduced water supply. Historically,
sodic soils were often called black alkali soils
because sodium causes the dispersion of organic
matter and dissolution of humic substances,
which remain on the surface of the land resulting
in a dark colour. Saline–sodic soils present
both high soluble salts and exchangeable Na+.
The soil maintains the aggregation with high
electrolyte concentration. However, if soluble
salts are leached out, usually Na+ becomes a
greater problem since the soil pH rises above 8.5,
and the soil aggregates can be dispersed.
Soil salinity is a problem that is spreading
globally and is projected to increase in future
climate change scenarios. Salinity problems
occur under all climatic conditions and can
result from both natural and human‐induced
actions. However, saline soils are more frequent
in arid and semi‐arid regions, where rainfall is
insufficient to meet the water requirements of
the crops and leach mineral salts into the root‐
zone. Recent estimates of the global extent of
soil salinization are not available. However, it
is reasonable to assume that, since the data
gathering in the 1970s and 1980s, salinization
expanded and newly affected areas most
probably exceed the areas restored through
reclamation and rehabilitation.
Physiological and Biochemical Markers
The changes at molecular, physiological,
morphological level under salinity stress have
similar trends (either increase or decrease) for
the crop plants
 From physiological parameters, the
chlorophyll content, RWC, electrolyte
leakage, stomatal conductance, water
potential, proline, glycine betaine changes
in plants are commonly detected under salt
stress.
 Physiological and biochemical markers
examine chlorophyll content, accumulation
of proline, sucrose, stress protectants,
membrane stability and hormones content.
14 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
 These physiological markers, especially
hormonal, polyamine and proline changes
in plants are important to increase salt
tolerance of plants.
 For example, such can be boosted by
exogenous treatments with hormones,
glycine betaine, proline, polyamines.
Biochemical markers are proteins produced
by gene expression. Isozymes, allozymes,
proteins and secondary metabolites are
successful biochemical markers. Such markers
are related to the variation in the protein and
amino acid banding pattern
Hormone Regulation of Salinity Tolerance
 ABA is an important phytohormone whose
application to plant ameliorates the effect of
stress conditions. It has long been recognized
as a hormone which is up regulated due to
soil water deficit around the root.
 Salinity stress causes osmotic stress and
water deficit, increasing the production of
ABA in shoots and roots.
 The accumulation of ABA can mitigate the
inhibitory effect of salinity on photosynthesis,
growth and translocation of assimilates.
 The positive relationship between ABA
accumulation and salinity tolerance has
been at least partially attributed to the
accumulation of K+, Ca2+ and compatible
solutes, such as proline and sugars, in
vacuoles of roots, which counteract with the
uptake of Na+ and Cl−.
 ABA is a vital cellular signal that modulates
the expression of a number of salt and water
deficit-responsive genes.
ABA-Dependent and -Independent Pathway
in Rice Under Normal and Salinity Stress
Conditions
Role of Plant Hormones and ABA-Mediated
Responses in Salinity Stress
Plant Hormone Signal Transduction
Pathways
In plants, various signal transduction pathways
and cross-talks work together under severe
biotic or abiotic stress conditions. These
responses are mediated by the interactions
of several plant hormones. Plant growth
and development, cellular differentiation,
and cellular metabolisms are regulated and
controlled by the phytohormones. It also plays a
vital role in recognizing the signal from various
environmental conditions such as salinity,
drought, osmotic, cold and heavy metal, etc.
Crop Physiology
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
Pandiyan Muthuramalingam et al., (2022)
There are nine important phytohormones
available; auxins (AUX), ABA, cytokinins
(CK), brassinosteroids (BRs), ethylene (ET),
gibberellins (GA), jasmonic acid (JA), salicylic
acid (SA), and strigolactones (SL) have been
tangled in diverse plant differentiation processes
and to abiotic stresses adaptive responses.
Earlier studies reported that a few signaling
molecules from the light and plant hormone
pathways allow the photoreceptors to affect
plant growth and yield. In addition, the output of
plant hormone signaling involves alterations in
the expression dynamism of several candidate
players, many of which act as a decisive response
in cell expansion and division. For example,
phytohormones derived from polyunsaturated
fatty acids, namely jasmonates (JA, its precursors
and derivatives), are involved in biotic and abiotic
stresses, including salinity stress conditions. It
is an important immunity hormone involved in
various signal transduction pathways, along with
gene networks, regulatory proteins, signalling
intermediates, catalytic enzymes, and other
bio molecules which defend the cells from the
Crop Physiology
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
harmful effects of abiotic stress
Conclusion
 Salinity tolerance mechanism involves many
complex responses at cellular, metabolically,
physiological, biochemical, and molecular
levels in crop plants.
 Understanding the osmotic and ionic
stress mechanisms is an alternative path to
developing salt-resistant plants. In addition,
these studies also suggest the identification
of salt-tolerant/responsible genes which
enables plants to survive and withstand
saline stress conditions
References
Muthuramalingam, P., Jeyasri, R., Rakkammal, K.,
Satish, L., Shamili, S., Karthikeyan, A., Valliammai,
A., Priya, A., Selvaraj, A., Gowri, P. and Wu, Q.S.,
2022. Multi-Omics and Integrative Approach
towards Understanding Salinity Tolerance in
Rice: A Review. Biology, 11(7) p.1022.
15 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
6. Assimilate Partitioning and Distribution
*ANURADHA BISHNOI
Assistant Scientist-Fruit Breeding, CCSHAU RRS Bawal, Rewari
*Corresponding Author Email: anuradhabishnoi@hau.ac.in
Assimilate Partitioning and Distribution
In higher plants, leaves function as the principal
site of resource acquisition by utilizing the
free energy captured in photosynthesis for the
reductive assimilation of oxidized forms of carbon
and nitrogen into carbohydrates and amino acids,
respectively. Photosynthate are subsequently
partitioned to the many heterotrophic tissues
of the plant with as much as 80 per cent of the
carbon acquired in photosynthesis is transported
in the plant’s vascular system to the import
dependent organs. Sucrose is the principal
metabolite in this scheme of resource allocation
as it is the major end product of photosynthetic
carbon metabolism and, in majority plants; it
is the predominant form of carbon transported
to the heterotrophic tissues. This systemic
distribution of photosynthate is known as
‘assimilate partitioning,’ a crucial process
associated with plant growth and productivity.
Source A source of organic material
is a region in which organic materials are
synthesized. example leaf, root, tuber, or tuber
during development.
Sinks Any non-photosynthetic organ
or an organ that does not produce enough
photosynthate to meets its own needs. Example
root, seed, fruit, root tuber and tuber during
developing.
Leaves are the most important organ for
photosynthesis, in which light energy is captured
by green plants ( mainly by the chlorophyll in
leaves) and used to synthesize reduced carbon
compounds from CO2 and water. Photosynthesis
produces carbohydrates for growth and energy
and photosynthates constitute up to 90% of a
plant’s dry matter and both growth and cropping
depend on a ready supply of carbohydrates and
nutrients.
Source and Sink Relationship
The terms source and sink in relation to the
transportation of organic molecules in the
phloem of plants.
16 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
22556

Sosurce Translocation Sink
Source = Photosynthesis (PS), Sink
= Growth and development
Food conduction may be in any required
direction unlike the water conduction which is
unidirectional process. Pressure flow/ mass flow
hypothesis of food/ sucrose translocation – given
by E. Munch (1930). This is the most accepted
theory of food conduction in plants. According to
it food translocations occurs in between source
and sink in order of turgor pressure gradient i.e.
high turgor pressure to low turgor pressure.
Phloem loading/ sucrose loading at
source- it is an active process helped by carrier
molecules. At source due to phloem loading
concentration of sieve cells increase, results
in increase in osmotic pressure and water will
moves from nearby xylem into sieve cells results
in increase in turgor pressure and increase in
water potential. It is establishing a higher T.P.
at source and sieve tubes. Sucrose moves from
source in sieve tubes towards sink from high T.P/
High water potential to towards the low T.P./Low
water potential.
Phloem unloading/ sucrose unloading at
sink – it is an active process helped by carrier
molecules. At sink sucrose is unloaded results in
decrease in O.P., it results in exit of water into
nearby xylem leads to decrease in T.P. and water
potential of phloem. In sink cells the unloaded
sucrose is either changed into starch or
consumed, to maintain low O.P. and continuous
unloading.
So, the process of sucrose loading at source
and unloading at sink continues. This turgor
pressure difference will maintain and water will
continue to move in at source and out at sink.
According to evidences of modern research
phloem conduction is an active process and it
required metabolic energy in phloem cells.
Passive V. Active Transport
Passive Transport
Movement down the electrochemical gradient
From a more positive electrochemical potential
Crop Physiology
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
to a more negative electrochemical potential
Active Transport
Movement against electrochemical gradient
From a more negative electrochemical potential
to a more positive electrochemical potential
Path of Water Absorption
Soil solution → Root hairs → Epidermis → Cortex
→ Endodermis → Pericycle cells → Protoxylem
→ Metaxylem
The path of water from root hair to cortex,
may be apoplastic or symplastic. Casparian
strips blocks the apoplast, thus water must pass
through passage cells via symplast.
Symplast A sustainable living path is known
as symplast. This is the living passage. The
movement of water from cell to cell through
plasmadesmata is called symplastic path in
plant.
Crop Physiology
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
Apoplast
This is nonliving path in plants. Watered cell wall,
intercellular space and xylem cavity associate
together to form apoplast
Assimilate Partitioning
Assimilate supply is dependent on
photosynthesis. The distribution of assimilate
determines the amounts and patterns of plant
growth and yield. Translocation dependent
on developmental state of the plant. Transport
direction and volume depend on sink position
and relative attraction strength. 90% of sap solute
molecules are carbohydrate that travel at a speed
of about 50-100 cm/h. Sucrose is main form of
translocation. Partitioning within a tree is not a
genetically programmed process, but a result
of the unique combination of competing organ
and their relative abilities to compete for limited
carbohydrates. The degree of competition among
various sinks depends on the organ activity and
distance from the carbohydrate source.
Partitioning Priorities and Sink Competition
Herbaceous crop plants accumulate
photosynthates in source leaves during the
photoperiod and evacuate them during night,
leaving the leaf “empty” toward morning.
Competition for photosynthate is evident among
different organs (e.g., fruit-shoot) as well as
among individual units of the same type of organ
(e.g., fruit-fruit). In citrus, the spring flush gives
rise to vegetative shoots, leafy inflorescences, and
pure, leafless inflorescences. Shoot elongation
and leaf expansion occur mostly before anthesis
and fruit set; direct competition is thus prevented.
Moreover, leafy inflorescences reveal higher
17 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023

rates of fruit set and persistence, indicating that provision of photosynthate, hormones, or some
the leaves support the reproductive organs by other mechanism.

The leaves close to developing fruits exhibit
increased photosynthetic capacity as compared
to the remaining leaves of the tree. The calyx
has significant photosynthetic capacity, so in the
cape gooseberry, the green calyx that completely
covers the fruit during its development plays an
important role in the production and translocation
of carbohydrate during the first 10-20 days of fruit
development.
Acknowledgment: I am thankful to AICRP-
AZF and CCSHAU Hisar for giving me opportunity
to work in ICAR Scheme on arid zone fruit crops.

H O R T ICULT UR E

22531

7. Digital Twins: Pioneering a New Era of

Horticultural Advancement
ARJOO1*, VINAY2 AND RAJAT3
1
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Horticulture (Fruit Science), Maharana Pratap
Horticultural University, Karnal, India
2
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Business Management, Chaudhary Charan Singh
Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India
3
M.Sc. Research Scholar, Department of Horticulture (Fruit Science), Chaudhary Charan
Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India
*Corresponding Author Email: aarzoodhundwal@gmail.com

Introduction are undergoing a significant transformation

towards industrialization. Greenhouses are
Given the critical challenges related to food evolving into high-tech factories characterized
security, food safety, sustainability, and health, by large-scale production and extensive
greenhouse horticulture production processes

18 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03 Horticulture

Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
utilization of technology. This shift entails
intensive monitoring and control of business and
production processes, facilitated by advanced
systems and sensors. These systems encompass
a range of functionalities, including climate
management, irrigation, fertigation, lighting,
crop monitoring, disease scouting, harvesting,
internal transportation, sorting, and packaging.
Consequently, greenhouse horticulture is
transitioning into a smart and data-driven
industry, as emphasized by Zude-Sasse et al., in
2016. This trajectory has been further accelerated
by the rapid advancements in information and
communication technology (ICT), such as
cloud computing, Internet of Things (IoT), big
data, machine learning, augmented reality, and
robotics. (Kamilaris and Prenafeta-Boldú, 2018
and Tzounis et al., 2017).
In the realm of smart and data-driven
greenhouse horticulture, growers are empowered
to remotely monitor and control operations using
real-time digital information, eliminating the
need for direct on-site observation and manual
tasks. They receive timely alerts regarding
anticipated issues and can assess the greenhouse
situation from the convenience of their desk
or smartphone by accessing a comprehensive
digital representation of the plants or equipment
in question. Additionally, growers can simulate
the effects of corrective and preventive actions
on the digital twin, enabling informed decision-
making. Subsequently, chosen interventions
can be executed remotely, and the digital
twin serves as a means to verify the resolution
of the anticipated problem. This intelligent
management cycle is expected to become
increasingly autonomous, reducing the need for
manual intervention by the grower (Hemming
et al., 2020). In essence, every object within the
greenhouse, ranging from plants and containers
to greenhouse sections and equipment, can
be virtualized and controlled remotely. The
utilization of Digital Twins serves as a powerful
catalyst for this progression (Pylianidis et al.,
2021 and Verdouw et al., 2021).
Digital Twins operate by replicating the real-
life object’s state and behavior throughout its
lifespan within a virtual environment (Boschert
and Rosen, 2016 and Grieves and Vickers, 2017).
By incorporating advanced data analytics such as
machine learning and prediction models, Digital
Twins enable the simulation of changes in their
physical counterparts. Depending on the specific
purpose, virtualized objects in greenhouse
horticulture can range from individual plant
genetics to an entire greenhouse or even the
complete value chain.
Horticulture
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
Digital Twins in Horticulture
Greenhouse horticulture, characterized by its
reliance on living and perishable products, is
subject to a range of variables including weather,
diseases, soil conditions, seasons, and climate,
resulting in a diverse and variable production
landscape. To mitigate these risks, growers have
turned to indoor production in greenhouses,
creating a controlled environment that optimizes
climate, fertigation, light, and moisture.
However, achieving cultivation goals in such an
environment requires continuous evaluation and
adjustment of strategies, as uncertainties related
to weather, pests, quality deterioration, and
energy management persist. A promising solution
lies in the use of Digital Twins, which empower
producers to promptly respond to anticipated
deviations and simulate interventions using real-
world data. Furthermore, with the expansion of
greenhouse horticulture in recent years, manual
monitoring of the cultivation process in high-
volume production has become impractical.
This challenge is further amplified by the scarcity
of green labor, individuals with horticultural
expertise and experience.
Digital Twins offer a viable solution to
address these challenges by eliminating
inherent limitations related to location, time,
and human observation (Verdouw et al., 2021).
With the adoption of Digital Twins, greenhouse
horticulture can transcend physical boundaries,
enabling remote and automated execution,
monitoring, control, and coordination of
greenhouse operations by various stakeholders
(Fig. 1). This facilitates the separation of
physical flows from the informational aspects of
horticultural processes. Moreover, Digital Twins
can incorporate additional information that may
be imperceptible or inaccurately perceived by
human senses, such as sensor and energy data,
as well as data from other information providers,
including weather data.
Furthermore, in the context of greenhouse
horticulture, Digital Twins not only serve as
representations of current conditions of objects
such as plants and greenhouses, but they also
possess the capability to analyze past states
and simulate future behaviors, such as crop
growth and expected yields. Consequently,
when appropriately synchronized, Digital Twins
applications have the potential to support
growers and other stakeholders in decision-
making processes and empower them to take
immediate action in the event of anticipated
deviations, allowing for remote control of
greenhouse operations. By incorporating
intelligence, Digital Twins can capture the
implicit knowledge held by experienced
19 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
horticultural experts and continuously learn from
data. This not only reduces the reliance on highly
skilled employees but also enhances overall
FIG 1: Digital Twin concept in greenhouse horticulture, Source: Natasja et al., 2022.
In horticulture, there are several types of
Digital Twins that can be employed to enhance
different aspects of the industry. Some of the key
types of Digital Twins in horticulture include:
 Plant Digital Twins: These Digital Twins
focus on representing and simulating the
growth, development, and behavior of
individual plants. They integrate data from
various sources such as environmental
conditions, nutrient levels, and genetic
information to provide insights into plant
health, productivity, and response to
different cultivation practices.
 Greenhouse Digital Twins: These Digital
Twins model and simulate the entire
greenhouse environment, including physical
structures, climate control systems, and
cultivation practices. They enable growers
to optimize resource allocation, monitor
and control environmental conditions, and
simulate the impact of different management
strategies on crop growth and quality.
 Crop Digital Twins: These Digital Twins
focus on representing entire crop systems,
including multiple plants or crop varieties,
and their interactions with the environment.
They provide a holistic view of the crop
performance, allowing growers to evaluate
different scenarios, predict yields, optimize
resource allocation, and make informed
decisions regarding planting strategies,
disease management, and harvesting
schedules.
 Supply Chain Digital Twins: These Digital
Twins extend beyond the production phase
and encompass the entire horticultural
supply chain. They model and simulate
20 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
production performance, including optimizing
yields and ensuring high-quality outputs at the
most opportune moments.
the movement of produce from farms
to markets, considering factors such as
transportation logistics, storage conditions,
quality monitoring, and consumer demand.
Supply Chain Digital Twins can help optimize
logistics, minimize waste, and ensure timely
delivery of fresh and high-quality produce.
 Decision Support Digital Twins: These
Digital Twins focus on assisting growers
and other stakeholders in decision-making
processes. They integrate data from various
sources, analyze historical trends, and
simulate different scenarios to provide
recommendations for crop management,
resource allocation, risk assessment, and
operational planning. Decision Support
Digital Twins enable informed decision-
making and help optimize overall
horticultural operations.
These are just a few examples of the different
types of Digital Twins in horticulture. The specific
type and functionality of Digital Twins can vary
depending on the specific needs and goals of
horticultural operations.
References
Boschert, S. and Rosen, R (2016). Digital Twin—The
Simulation Aspect. 10.1007/978-3-319-32156-1_5.
Grieves, M. and Vickers, J (2017). Digital Twin:
Mitigating Unpredictable, Undesirable Emergent
Behavior in Complex Systems. 10.1007/978-3-
319-38756-7_4.
Hemming, K., Kasza, J., Hooper, R., Forbes,
A., Taljaard, M. (2020). A tutorial on sample
size calculation for multiple-period cluster
randomized parallel, cross-over and stepped-
wedge trials using the Shiny CRT Calculator. Int
Horticulture
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
J Epidemiol, 1;49(3):979-995.
Kamilaris, A., and Prenafeta-Boldú, F.X (2018). Deep
learning in agriculture: A survey. Computers and
Electronics in Agriculture, 147, 70-90.
Natasja, A.V., Verdouw, C. and Tekinerdogan, B
(2022). Digital Twins in greenhouse horticulture:
A review. Computers and Electronics in
Agriculture, 199, 107183.
Pylianidis, C., & Osinga, S. and Athanasiadis, I.
(2021). Introducing digital twins to agriculture.
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 184,
105942.
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
Tzounis, A., Katsoulas, N., Bartzanas, T.,
Constantinos Kittas (2017). Internet of Things
in agriculture, recent advances and future
challenges. Biosystems Engineering, 164, 31-48.
Verdouw, C., Tekinerdogan, B., Beulens, A.,
Wolfert,S (2021). Digital twins in smart farming.
Agricultural Systems, 189, 103046.
Zude-Sasse, M., Fountas, S. and Gemtos, T., Abu-
Khalaf, N (2016). Applications of precision
agriculture in horticultural crops. European
Journal of Horticultural Science,81, 78-90.

22533

8. From Nature’s Bounty to Exquisite

Delights: Unleashing the Captivating
Potential of Blood Fruit
RAJAT1*, ARJOO2 AND VINAY3
1
M.Sc. Research Scholar, Department of Horticulture (Fruit Science), Chaudhary Charan
Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India
2
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Horticulture (Fruit Science), Maharana Pratap
Horticultural University, Karnal, India
3
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Business Management, Chaudhary Charan Singh
Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India
Corresponding Author’s mail ID- rajatpuniadevigarh@gmail.com

Haematocarpus validus (Bakh. f. ex Forman),
commonly known as Blood Fruit, is a
tropical fruit-bearing species belonging to
the Menispermaceae family. This species is
characterized by its liana growth habit, where it
climbs on large trees within its natural habitat.
The fruits of Haematocarpus validus are typically
borne in clusters, which hang directly on the
stems of the plant. It is found to be distributed
in India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Singapore,
Pakistan and Thailand (Singh and Bedi 2016).
In India, it is naturally distributed in Tripura,
Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim,
West Bengal and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
In most of the regions where it is naturally
grown, fruits of this species are being relished by
the local masses for sweet–sour blood red pulp,
and hence the local names khoon phal or rakta
phal, literally meaning blood fruit (Bohra et al.
2018). Blood fruit is known to be a good source
of iron and ß-carotene, while the anti-nutritional
factors are meager in it (Singh et al. 2014). In the
Northeastern Indian states, the species is valued
ethno-botanically for preparation of beverages,
dyeing local handicrafts and also in medicines
(Singh and Bedi 2016; Bohra et al. 2018).
The fruits exhibit climacteric characteristics,
undergoing a notable color transformation from
green to a deep red hue as they ripen.
According to Singh et al., 2012
Haematocarpus validus (Bakh. f. ex Forman)
flowers typically bloom during the mid-August
to September period. Over time, these flowers
develop into fruits and undergo the ripening
process from March to May (Momin et al., 2018).
The local name for this fruit is khoonphal, as
depicted in Figure 1. Among the local tribes
residing in the Northeastern part of India, the
blood fruit is widely recognized and utilized for
its medicinal properties.
It is believed to have properties such as blood
purification, treatment for jaundice, anemia,
itching conditions, and heart diseases, as
documented by Rahim et al., 2015. Additionally,
the fruit is known for its abundant polyphenol
content and remarkable antioxidant properties,
as highlighted in studies by Sasikumar et al. 2020

Horticulture 21 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03

 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
and Sasikumar and Deka, 2018.
Blood fruit (Haematocarpus validus (Miers.) Bakh. f.
ex Forman) Source: Bohra et al, 2020
The blood fruit (Haematocarpus validus)
offers several opportunities for value addition.
Here are some potential value-added products
and applications associated with blood fruit:
1. Juice and Beverages: Blood fruit can be
processed into juices, nectars, and other
beverages. Its sweet-sour blood-red pulp
can create unique and flavorful drinks with
high nutritional value. These products can be
marketed as natural and healthy alternatives
to traditional fruit juices.
2. Jams and Preserves: The pulp of blood fruit
can be utilized to make jams, jellies, and
preserves. The rich color and distinct flavor
of the fruit can enhance the appeal of these
products, appealing to consumers looking
for unique and exotic spreads.
3. Functional Foods: Blood fruit can be
incorporated into various functional food
products, such as fruit bars, smoothies,
yogurt, and desserts. The high iron and
β-carotene content, coupled with the
antioxidant properties, make it an attractive
ingredient for health-conscious consumers.
4. Cosmetics and Personal Care: The natural
pigments and antioxidant properties of
blood fruit can be utilized in cosmetics
and personal care products. Extracts or oils
derived from the fruit can be incorporated
into skincare formulations, lip balms, hair
care products, and natural colorants.
5. Nutraceuticals and Dietary Supplements:
Blood fruit’s nutritional profile, including its
iron and ß-carotene content, makes it suitable
for the development of nutraceuticals and
dietary supplements. Extracts or powders
can be processed and encapsulated for use
in supplements aimed at addressing iron
deficiency and supporting overall health.
22 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
6. Dyeing and Textiles: The vibrant red color
of blood fruit can be used as a natural dye
for textiles and handicrafts. This application
can promote sustainable and eco-friendly
practices in the textile industry.
7. Traditional Medicine: Blood fruit has a
history of use in traditional medicine for its
purported medicinal properties. Research
and development efforts can focus on
exploring the potential therapeutic benefits
of the fruit, leading to the development of
herbal medicines and natural remedies.
The main constraints in the value addition
of blood fruit include limited awareness and
market demand, seasonal availability, processing
and storage challenges due to its low shelf life. It
is important to conduct further research, quality
control, and market analysis to determine the
feasibility and commercial viability of these
value-added products derived from blood fruit.
References
Bohra P, Waman AA, Basantia D, Devi HL, Reang
E. Domestication and conservation efforts in
Haematocarpus validus (Miers.) Bakh. f. ex
Forman (Menispermaceae): an underutilized
fruit species and natural colourant. Curr Sci.
2018;115:1098–1105.
Bohra, P., Waman, A. A., Roy, T. K., & Shivashankara,
K. S. (2020). Blood fruit (Haematocarpus validus
(Miers.) Bakh. f. ex Forman): a novel source of
natural food colourant. Journal of food science
and technology, 57(1), 381–389.
Momin, K.C., A.N. Sangma, C.P. Suresh, Y.S. Singh,
and S.R. Rao. 2018. Blood fruit [Haematocarpus
validus (Miers) Bakh. f. ex Forman]–A potential
nutraceutical and therapeutic fruit plant. Int. J.
Minor Fruits, Med. Aromat. Plants 4(1):44–49.
Rahim, M.A., M.J.M. Khatun, M.M. Rahman, M.M.
Anwar, and M.H. Mirdah. 2015. Study on the
morphology and nutritional status of Roktogota
(Haematocarpus validus)- An important
medicinal fruit plant of hilly areas of Bangladesh.
Int. J. Minor Fruits, Med. Aromat. Plants 1(1):11–
19.
Sasikumar, R., and S.C. Deka. 2018. Influence
of thermosonication treatments on bioactive
compounds and sensory quality of fruit
(Haematocarpus validus) juice. J. Food Process.
Preserv.
Sasikumar, R., M. Das, and S.C. Deka. 2020. Process
optimization for the production of blood fruit
powder by spray drying technique and its quality
evaluation. J. Food Sci. Technol.
Singh, B., Bedi, Y.S. 2016. Rediscovery, Taxonomic
History and Extended Enumeration of
Haematocarpus validus Bakh.f. ex Forman
(Menispermaceae) to Indo-Myanmar Biodiversity
Hotspot. Natl. Acad. Sci. Lett. 39, 383–387.
Horticulture
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
Singh, D.R., S. Singh, K.M. Salim, and R.C.
Srivastava. 2012. Estimation of phytochemicals
and antioxidant activity of underutilized fruits of
9. Vegetable Crops: Special Horticultural
Practices
KAYALVIZHI K1, DIVYABHARATHI V2 AND BHUVANA. M3
1
Teaching Assistant (Horticulture), Institute of Agriculture, Kumulur
2,3
Senior Research Fellow (Horticulture), Institute of Agriculture, Kumulur
Training
In general, green house grown vegetables such
as tomato, capsicum etc. are taller than the
field grown vegetables. Wires are used in the 3.
training system. Plants require support from an
early stage. There are various ways of supporting
plants with the use of galvanized horizontal wires
at a height of 6-8 feet from the ground. Plants
are twisted clockwise round the string, without
damaging the growing point. There are several 4.
methods of training of plants as follows.
1. Vertical training: It is a commonly used
training method, most probably used for
almost all vegetables. The plants are allowed
to reach the horizontal wires before being
stopped.
2. Arch: vertical training is frequently used in
amateur circles on any system of short-term
Vertical Training Arch
Layering S- Hook system
5. Layering: The plants are initially trained
vertically, being completely detached when
Horticulture
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
Andaman Islands (India). Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr.
63(4):446–452.
22540
culture. In long term crops, the plants can
be arched over the wires that can be grown
continuously.
V – Training: When the plants are grown
so closely, that plants will be trained out
alternatively in different directions (ie. ‘V’
shape). It is most probably used in straw
bale culture. These planting types, vertical
training can also be done.
S-hook system: The 16 – gauge S-hooks
set 14 inches apart and the plants being
supported by so many hooks along and
dropped a hook as the season progresses,
so that the plants are progressively layered.
Wires or plant hooks are desirable to avoid
the bottom truss trailing on the growing
medium. At the ends of the rows the plants
are turned on to the next row.
V-training
Lateral training
they reach the horizontal wire, and layered
usually at the stage where lower trusses are
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 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
picked and where the ripening trusses are
kept well above growing medium level.
6. Lateral training: The plants are trained at an
angle of 35 -40°, wide mesh or polypropylene
netting being a useful supporting medium
for accomplishing this without a deal of
string manipulation.
Training in Cucurbits
Cucurbits such as bittergourd, snake gourd, bottle
gourd, ribbed gourd etc. are trained in pandal.
Pandals have to be erected at a height of 1.8 to
2.5 m height using bamboo stakes and G.I. wire.
Instead of bamboo stakes, concrete pillars and
stone pillars can also be used. Initially, slender
bamboo stakes of 2 m length can be planted in
the centre of the pits and the cucurbit vines are
tied with these thin bamboo poles using banana
fibre. These vines are trained along the bamboo
stakes to reach the pandal.
Pruning
Pruning of lower leaves and all lateral shoots,
allowing one single stem gives healthy stem with
productive flowers. In most of the vegetables,
the old and pest and disease affected parts may
be removed. In tomato, pruning of lateral shoots
is commonly referred to as removal of “suckers”.
It is better to have one main stem in greenhouse
tomato for fruit bearing. It will produce larger,
more uniform, and higher quality fruit. The
suckers should be removed once in a week will
control the growth. There are various pruning
methods commonly followed in vegetables as
follows
1. Side shoot removal: Removal of side shoot
or suckers is done at young plants.
2. Removal of lower leaves: The matured un
useful leaves, which shows yellowing may
be removed. Some cases, the lower leaves
of up to 3 feet may be removed.
3. Stopping may be done at final stage of the
crop. This is done by removing the main
growing tip at the height of the top wire.
Truss Hooking in Tomato
Bending or ‘kinking’ of peduncles of tomato
inflorescences when fruits are growing
significantly reduces fruit yield. Trusses supported
by hooks tied around the peduncle of the truss
and secured to the main stem, to prevent kinking
and yield loss.
Disbudding
Disbudding or removal of flower bud is a kind
of pruning. In indeterminate type of tomatoes
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under protected cultivation, flower formation
and fruiting occur throughout the year. In the
early growing stage, young fruits face more
competition with new flower clusters, leaves
and branches (suckers). Thus, flower thinning
or disbudding is followed to reduce competition
for food source and yield loss in tomato and
capsicum.
Pinching
Pinching or tip removal is a kind of pruning
followed in vegetable crops to induce lateral
branch formation. Pinching reduces apical
growth and increases lateral growth and induces
bushy formation of the plant. In moringa pinch
off the seedlings when they are about 75 cm in
height to facilitate more branching. Pinching of
main shoots on 80thday after sowing also will
increase yield of fruits.
Pollarding
Pollarding is a pruning system involving the
removal of the upper branches of a tree, which
promotes the growth of a dense head of foliage
and branches. Perennial moringa trees are often
pollarded to encourage lateral bud release and
new shoot growth for leaf production.
Ratooning
Ratooning is the agricultural practice of
harvesting a crop by cutting most of the above-
ground portion but leaving the roots and the
growing shoot apices intact so as to allow the
plants to recover and produce a fresh crop in
the next season. In brinjal grafted plants were
pruned after 6 months to obtain ratoon crop,
that can be maintained upto 4 months. Six
months old bhendi crop can also be pruned
leaving 20 cm above ground level to get ratton
crop. Cut back the moringa trees at 90 cm from
ground level after the harvest is over. In another
4 – 5 months, plants will again come for harvest.
Ratoon crops can be taken for 3 years. Apply the
fertilizer dose of 45:15:30 g NPK/plant, within a
week after cutting back along with 25 kg of FYM
or compost every year.
Blanching
Blanching refers to covering of curds in
cauliflower. A curd of flower is pure white. It
is necessary to protect curd from sunlight to
maintain white colour. The curd is covered with
leaves of cauliflower and tied with thread until
harvest.
Horticulture
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22541

10. Java Tea: Indian Kidney Drink/

Irrigation Therapy
DR. M. BHUVAN1, DR. K. KAYALVIZHI2 AND DR. V. DIVYABHARATHI1
1
Senior research fellow, Institute of Agriculture, TNAU, Kumulur, Trichy 621 712
2
Teaching Assistant, Institute of Agriculture, TNAU, Kumulur, Trichy 621 712

Orthosiphon aristatus, commonly known as

cat’s whiskers or Java tea, is a plant species in
the family Lamiaceae. The plant is found mainly
throughout southern China, Indian Subcontinent,
South East Asia, Tropical Queensland and
Australia. It is used as medicinal herb in Southeast
Asian Countries and Western countries. It is
known as kumis kucing in Indonesia, misai
kucing in Malaysia and poonai meesai in tamil.
Java Tea better known as ‘Indian Kidney drink’.
It also finds its name in different ancient Indian
and Egyptian medicare systems.
The products java tea is well marketed
through pharmacies and supermarkets in Europe
and South East Asian countries. The decoction
of java, which is popularly known as Java tea,
is believed to improve health and also used in
the treatment of kidney or bladder inflammation,
gout, and diabetes. For Agricultural prospects
this plant has a great internal demand and export
potential too. It also is used in landscaping to
attract bees, butterflies and hummingbirds to its
nectar.

Plant Description
It is a perennial herb grow up to a height of 1
metre with attractive flowers. The leaves are
arranged oppositely in pairs. In addition, the most
attractive part of the plant is white to purple
upright slender flowers with long stamens. Cat
whiskers is the nickname to the plant because
of its four long stamens from each flower. Two
cultivars one having pink flowers and other with
white flowers are more prevalent. However, the
white flowered has best diuretic (kidney related)
properties whereas the purple one suits for
gardening purpose.
Medicinal Properties
Varieties The major chemical components in java tea
 Orthosiphon aristatus var. aristatus - most of such as Orthosipol, lipophilic flavonoids, and
species range Rosmarinic acid. It also contains diterpenes,
saponins, eupatorium, 4’- tetramethoxyflavone,
 Orthosiphon aristatus var. velteri Suddee &
sinensetin, cirrhotic acid, and monoterpenes. It
A.J.Paton – Vietnam
is often valued as miraculous drink for kidney
stones. Moreover, it is also beneficial for diabetic

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 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
and high Blood Pressure patients. The tea helps
to aid kidneys in removing nitrogenous wastes
and can cure some malfunctions too. Java tea
might increase the loss of body water through
the urine (diuretic effect), stop spasms, reduce
swelling, and help fight bacteria. This means
it is taken along with lots of fluids to increase
urine flow. It is also used for bladder and kidney
disorders, including bacterial infections and
kidney stones; liver and gallbladder problems,
including gallstones; gout; and achy joints
(rheumatism). Java tea has great antibacterial
and antifungal properties.
Cultivation of Java Tea Plant
It is a tropical plant and can also be cultivated at
sub-tropical regions.
Propagation
Propagation is usually done by cuttings and also
through seeds from the plant.
Sowing Time
Seeds: Spring, Cuttings: late monsoon.
By seeds
Collect the seeds from healthy and mature
flowers after it begins to wilt. Sow the seeds in
11. Minisett Propagation Technique in
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)
DR. MEENAKSHI BADU
Assistant Professor (Horticulture), Faculty of Agriculture, Sri Sri University, Cuttack-
754006, Odisha, India
*Corresponding Author Email: badumeenakshi@gmail.com
Cassava (Manihot esculenta), also called as
tapioca, manioc, mandioca or yuca, tuberous
tropical edible plant of the family Euphorbiaceae.
It is a main source of food to the starving masses
especially of the developing countries across
the globe. Cassava is considered as the future
food crop as regards to its biological efficiency
coupled with ability to sustain under changing
climate especially during drought and to grow
well in marginal soils. However, the aberrant
weather conditions in the present scenario
create unavailability of good planting material
for cassava cultivation. In such situations,
minisett cassava cultivation is a good option for
26 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
well prepared field for commercial cultivation.
For home use you can sow it in backyard garden
which will establish itself easily.
By cuttings
Cuttings are the most preferred forms since the
chance of mortality is low. Take 15-20 cm long
softwood cuttings but ensure a bud in each
cutting. Now, prepare the field within partial
shade and make a hole for each cutting. Insert
the cuttings in each hole and take care of soil
moisture level regularly.
Java Tea
Java Tea is a popular drink among health
enthusiasts and has a good medicinal value. Java
tea leaves smell like mint. Its taste is woody. The
aroma is quite earthy. Urinary tract and kidney
related problems are one of the most common
cases to observe in healthcare institutions. The
condition is more worsening due of adoption of
unhealthy life style. This plant can act as a easy
home remedy and prevention cause for renal
problems. The procedure for making java Tea is
same as for other teas. Firstly, collect the full-size
grown leaves but not overmatured ones to make
tea. Then, dry the leaves in shade and let it wilt
for some days. Finally, it is ready to make tea.
22555
rapid multiplication of planting material. The
minisett technique is a good option for rapid
multiplication of cassava planting materials
for the production of rooted cuttings especially
for the contingent planting in aberrant rainfall
conditions and uncertainty in the rain fall
pattern. The irregular weather condition makes
the rain-fed cultivation of cassava risky due
to poor seedling establishment on account of
drying of setts. Under such conditions where
the crop growing period is short, cassava can be
cultivated by nursery planting. In conventional
planting method of cassava, 10 to 12 node setts
are used while in minisett propagation, basically
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Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
two or four node cuttings are used as planting
material. Planting materials constitute about 40%
of the total cost of cultivating cassava. It becomes
a burden for the farmers when cassava is grown
as raw material for the industrial processing.
Cassava setts are used for propagation and have
poor shelf life. As majority of the farmers are using
their own planting materials, they are forced to
buy setts during planting season at excessive
prices. Therefore, CTCRI has developed this
minisett technique for rapid multiplication along
with low cost of cultivation.
Preparation of Mini Setts
For producing minisetts, first step is selection
of mature, disease-free stems (preferably those
obtained from meristem culture). In a study
conducted at CTCRI to standardize the optimum
size of minisett planting material in cassava,
three sizes of nodal cuttings: single node, two
node and three nodes were tested under three
spacings. Single node cutting was significantly
inferior to the other two for all factors studied.
The two node and three node minisetts were on
par for all growth and yield parameters. Since
the minimum number of nodes required was
the essential criteria for optimization of minisett
size, two node minisetts has been standardized
as the optimum size for rapid production of
planting materials in cassava. Minisetts are
prepared from healthy by making two node
cuttings using a sharp hack saw. Top one-third
portion is usually discarded in the traditional
system however in minisett technique, the
whole stem is used. When tip cuttings are taken,
it is advisable to place them in water so as to
prevent dehydration. The stem just below the
growing tip is very tender with prominent axillary
buds. Hence from this portion, cuttings with four
nodes are taken instead of two as the later may
dry up very fast. During the course of minisett
preparation, sufficient care should be taken such
that no damage is caused to the axillary buds.
The woody stock at the base is discarded. About
50 to 70 minisetts could be prepared from a stem.
The following are different types of minisetts
made from a cassava plant
 Tip portion minisett
 Four node minisett, from the top tender
portion
 Two node minisett, from the matured
(woody) portion
Flow- Chart
Disease-free stems → Two node cuttings
→ Sprouting in nursery beds → Roguing of
unhealthy plants → Transplanting in main field
Horticulture
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
→ Healthy crop with high multiplication ratio
Shade Net House
The shade net house should be ideally located
on a flat field and the soil should be well drained
and devoid of stones and pebbles, preferably
near a water source. Since the minisetts ought to
be free of any diseases and pests, it is essential
to raise them in a protected environment. A
shade net house of 30 x 7 m dimension would
be ideal. The structural frame work comprises
of GI- B class pipe with a flat roof and drooping
sides. The shed is covered with shade net of 35
per cent shade. Studies revealed that 35 per cent
shade is the optimum to regulate and limit the
plant growth in the desired level, since higher
shade would prompt etiolating crop growth. The
roof as well as sides of the net house should be
totally covered so as to ensure protection from
insects and pests. Provision for one or two doors
should also be given.
Nursery Raising and Cultivation Practices
Site, preferably near a water source for the
nursey. Shade net house of 35% shade is ideal
for germination and growth of minisetts. Raised
beds of convenient length and mix the soil with
fine sand. Width should be made in such a way
that; intercultural operations can be operated
easily. For planting in a hectare of area, 145 m2 of
nursery area is required. Raised beds of size 1m
width, convenient length and 20 cm height are
ideal. A spacing of 5cm is provided between two
rows. Roguing of cassava mosaic virus infected
plants should be done as soon as such symptoms
are appeared, to keep the nursery disease free.
Weekly spray of any systemic insecticide is
recommended for controlling whiteflies, vector
of cassava mosaic virus.
The minisetts are ready for transplanting
after 3- 4 weeks of planting. Main field should be
thoroughly prepared before transplanting. 12.5 t/
ha. of FYM should be added. Ridges of height 30
cm are taken at a spacing of 45 cm between the
ridges. Plant’s establishment takes a week time.
NPK @ 50:50:50 Kg/ha. need to applied after one
month of establishment along with intercultural
27 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
operations. A second dose of 50:50 Kg of N:K are
applied a month after the first application along
with second weeding.
Harvesting and Yield
Plants get maturity after 7-9 months’ time
depending upon the variety. On harvest, around
60,000 cassava stems and 75-80 t of tubers could
be obtained. If this technique is followed further,
12. Climate Variables and their Impact on
Growth of Mango
SINCHANA JAIN N. R.
PhD Research Scholar, Division of Fruit Crops, ICAR-IIHR, Bengaluru
Climate variables are the various climatic factors
such as temperature, rainfall, humidity, sunlight,
and wind that collectively shape the prevailing
weather conditions in a particular region. All
these variables have a direct and indirect impact
on the growth, flowering, fruiting, and overall
productivity of mango trees. The timing, duration,
and intensity of these variables during critical
stages of mango growth can significantly impact
the factors such as pollination, fruit set, fruit
quality, and disease incidence. Understanding
the association between climate variables
and mango cultivation is crucial for optimizing
management practices and establishing
solutions to mitigate possible climate change
hazards.
Temperature
Mango thrives well in warm and humid climates,
with optimal temperature ranges between 24°C
and 27°C. Temperature has an impact on many
physiological processes in mango, including
photosynthesis, respiration, and flowering.
Extreme temperatures, such as frost or high
heat, can have a detrimental effect on growth,
flowering, and fruit drop. Day temperature of
30ºC and night temperature of 25ºC is required
for vegetative growth induction, whereas 15ºC
day and 10ºC night temperatures are critical for
floral induction. Low temperature after a period
of drought has been encountered to be beneficial
for floral induction. Temperature below 15
°C during flowering, increase the proportion
of staminate flowers while high temperature
enhances hermaphrodite flowers. Besides
28 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
then 70 ha. can be planted in the next generation
by using this planting material.
Conclusion
Multiplication ratio by this method is 1:60 against
traditional sett planting 1:10. Reduce the cost
of planting materials by 30-40% and highly
economical for seed producer-farmers.
22558
low temperature during floral morphogenesis
period which commence well in advance of
flower emergence is critical for the proportion of
hermaphrodite flowers in mango. Temperature
also has a negative impact on inflorescence
size and flower count per inflorescence. High
temperatures may also improve fruit quality
due to stress-induced synthesis of secondary
chemicals, some of which have nutritional value
either.
Mango malformation is severe in the north-
west region, where temperatures range between
10-15°C (winter) before flowering. The disease
is mild between 15-20°C, sporadic between
20-25°C, and non-existent above 25°C. During
February-March flowering, around 60% of the
panicles in Neelum were affected, however
the same plant had only 4-5% deformity during
off-season flowering in June, when the average
minimum and maximum temperatures were
higher than those in February-March. As a result,
as the temperature rises, the occurrence of
malformation decreases. The ideal temperature
for Anthracnose to occur and spread is between
25-35℃. A maximum temperature of 35°C is
critical in the powdery mildew epidemic.
Light and Humidity
Light has a positive influence on mango flowering
as floral induction requires the exposure of
mature leaves to ample amount of light. Higher
light intensity improves skin color and fruit quality
in colored varieties. It also has a good influence
on fruit size due to enhanced photosynthesis.
High humidity levels, paired with ample sunlight,
Horticulture
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
create congenial conditions for photosynthesis
and promote vegetative growth. Excess
humidity, on the other hand, can contribute to
an increase in the disease incidence, particularly
fungal infections. Moist environments, high
relative humidity, and frequent rains favor
the development of anthracnose disease.
Continuous wet weather during flowering
causes serious blossom blight. Relative humidity
above 95% for 12 hr is essential for infection and
development of C. gloeosporioides on mango
fruit. High relative humidity (over 90%) and
temperatures between 25 and 30°C promote the
development of the pathogen causing bacterial
canker in the field.
Rainfall
For optimum growth and development, mango
trees require a well-distributed and adequate
amount of rainfall. Rainfall during June to
October and rainless dry weather from 2nd
fortnight of October onwards is much beneficial.
Inadequate rainfall can result in water stress,
affecting the tree’s vigor, leaf development, and
fruit quality. Excessive rainfall and water logging
on the other hand, lead to root rot, nutrient
leaching, and increased susceptibility to fungal
diseases. Rainfall during the pre-flowering and
blooming periods causes flowering to be delayed
and increases vegetative growth. Cloudy weather
during flowering causes substantial flower drop,
owing to an increase in the population of plant
hoppers. Drought has an indirect positive effect
on floral induction by promoting early growth
cessation and vegetative rest required for floral
induction. Flowering was found more dependent
on moisture stress, which takes place earlier than
unstressed trees. In tropical conditions flowering
occurs after a period of drought. Rains at fruit
maturity are beneficial for the improvement of
fruit size and quality.
Wind
Wind is an often-overlooked climate variable
that can affect mango trees. While calm breezes
help with pollination and air circulation, severe
winds can inflict physical damage to the tree,
breaking branches and causing fruit drop.
Adequate wind movement is necessary during
Horticulture
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
the flowering period to ensure successful
pollination and fruit set. When mango trees are
exposed to tremendous wind, the movement
can lead to mechanical stress on the branches,
resulting in premature shedding of young
fruits. Gentle air circulation can aid in reducing
humidity levels around the fruit, minimizing
the risk of fungal diseases and improving fruit
coloration. However, excessive wind can cause
physical damage to the fruit, leading to scarring,
abrasions, or blemishes.
CO2 Concentration
Higher CO2 concentrations promote
photosynthesis and may consequently improve
fruit quality. Increased shoot and root growth
can enhance vegetative growth, resulting in
higher and more vigorous trees. This can result
in increased fruit production and yield. Fruit
produced in higher CO2 concentrations have
a higher fruit dry mass, owing primarily to an
increase in pulp dry mass. Increased CO2 levels
can result in larger fruit size and more sugar
content, making mangoes sweeter. Excess CO2
concentrations, on the other hand, may have a
negative impact on the flavor and scent of the
fruit.
Several minor diseases that are favored
by higher humidity and rain, such as red rust,
blossom blight, leaf spots, and fruit rots, may
diminish as a result of the decreased rain pattern.
On the other hand, diseases such as mango wilt
and decline may become more prevalent as
temperatures rise and the atmosphere becomes
dryer. In recent years, there has been an increase
in the prevalence of mango wilt, which may
represent a problem in the near future.
Conclusion
The predicted climate for the end of the 21st
century will be warmer and wetter with 3.3°C for
temperature and an 11% increase in precipitation
over the last 20 years of the twentieth century.
The increase in temperature and precipitation
will not be uniform across seasons. As a result,
adopting contemporary agricultural practices
and producing climate-resilient cultivars helps to
sustain these difficulties.
29 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023

22564

13. Vertical Gardening with Ornamental

Vegetables: Unleashing Nature’s
Elegance in Breathtaking Spaces
TUSHAR GHOSH1, SANCHITA GHOSH2* AND KARISHMA
MAHERUKH1
1
Research Scholar, Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Faculty of Horticulture,
Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, WB- 741252
2
Subject Matter Specialist (Horticulture-Floriculture), KVK, Samastipur-I, RPCAU, Pusa,
Bihar- 848113
*Corresponding Author Email: sanchita.ghosh@rpcau.ac.in

Where Vertical Gardening Meets Ornamental with ornamental vegetables and discuss its
Vegetables benefits, suitable plants, and essential tips to
create a thriving vertical vegetable garden.
Vertical gardening is one type of urban gardening
that involves growing plants in a horizontal
arrangement, such as on walls, fences, or
trellises in a variety of ways. While commonly
associated with flowering plants and herbs,
vertical gardening can also be used to cultivate
ornamental vegetables. It has gained significant
popularity in recent years due to its ability to
maximize space and create stunning visual
displays. Vertical gardens offer incredible
versatility as they can be installed in virtually any
location, allowing plants to thrive in unexpected
urban environments such as subway stations
or other heavily frequented areas where
horizontal space is scarce. The living nature of
vertical gardens presents intriguing potential for
integrating greenery into our urban landscapes
(Sharma, 2015).
Ornamental vegetables are edible plants
that possess aesthetic qualities, making them
suitable for both decorative and culinary
purposes. Ornamental vegetables and landscape
design share a harmonious symbiosis (Fetouh,
2018). This innovative approach to gardening
with ornamental vegetables not only adds
aesthetic appeal to your outdoor or indoor space
with its colourful foliage, interesting textures, or
unique shapes but also promotes sustainability
by growing edible plants in a limited area. For a
person with a low to medium income, cultivating
ornamental vegetables in an aesthetic way not
only enhances the beauty of their home but also
provides a valuable source of nutrition for the
household (Koley et al., 2014). In this article, we
Fig 1: Artistic view of ornamental vegetables-
will explore the concept of vertical gardening
embedded vertical garden

30 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03 Horticulture

Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
Motive of Vertical Vegetable Gardening
 To promote healthy eating and sustainable
practices, while also fostering a sense of
personal fulfilment and environmental
protection.
 Incorporating ornamental vegetables into
landscape design can elevate gardens with
distinctive and health-enhancing ornamental
elements, offering economic advantages as
well.
 Enhancing food security by cultivating
diverse and unique vegetable varieties not
commonly found in the market.
 Increasing the aesthetic appeal and
beautification of spaces through the
integration of ornamental vegetables.
 Maximizing space utilization by engaging in
productive gardening practices.
Popular Ornamental Vegetables for Vertical
Gardens
In urban areas, available spaces are optimized
by creating vertical green walls using ornamental
vegetables. There are many vegetables that
possess both ornamental and edible qualities,
making them suitable for ornamental purposes
in small spaces where traditional food gardens
may not be feasible. Here we will briefly discuss
some ornamental vegetables that are suitable for
a vertical garden.
1. Swiss Chard: With its vibrant, multi-
coloured stalks and large, glossy, distinct
ribbed leaves, Swiss chard thrives well in
vertical structures. ‘Bright Lights’, a variety of
Swiss Chard, displays a range of vivid stem
colours, including yellow, orange, pink, and
red. Chard tolerates cold weather and frost
as well as hot summer days.
Fig 2: Cabbages suitable for vertical garden: 2a- Red cabbage, 2b- Ornamental cabbage, 2c- Chinese cabbage
Horticulture
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
2. Kale: Purple kale’s ruffled leaves and deep
purple hue create a striking visual contrast
in vertical gardens, making the entire
vegetative plant look like a large flower. It is
a cold-hardy plant that adds a pop of colour
during the colder months.
3. Cherry tomato: The indeterminate vines
of cherry or pear tomatoes continue to
spread throughout the season, with terminal
clusters of ovals to round fruits. Dwarf
indeterminate plants are naturally small
but set fruit throughout the growing season.
Cherry tomato varieties like ‘Sungold’, ‘Black
Cherry’, ‘Gardener’s Delight’ can be planted
in vertical gardens as they have a gorgeous
decorative look.
4. Ornamental Peppers: The number of sweet
and hot pepper cultivars with ornamental
value has increased substantially in recent
years. The dark green foliage of sweet
peppers contrasts with fruit colours such
as lilac, green, white, brown, orange,
yellow, and red. The ‘Black Pearl’ variety
has perfectly round black peppers on dark
purple foliage. Peppers need full sun and
consistent moisture for best production and
colour development.
5. Cabbages: Ornamental cabbage displays
a range of vibrant colours in its foliage,
including shades of pink, purple, white, and
green. The colours intensify as the weather
turns colder. There are also red cabbages,
which can serve as visually appealing
bedding plants. Their vibrant reddish-purple
leaves have a captivating glow on sunny
days. Chinese cabbage, also called celery
cabbage, forms a tight head of crinkled
light green leaves, which can create very
attractive display.
31 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023

6. Purple Cauliflower: The deep, rich purple

inflorescence of ‘Valentina’ variety of
cabbage is attractive as well as nutritious.
As the plant matures, the colour intensifies,
transforming it into a captivating focal point.

Fig 4: Green and purple lettuce

Fig 3: Purple cauliflower

7. Broccoli: It has lime-green florets that
intricately spiral, resembling a mesmerizing
fractal pattern. Its distinctive shape and
vibrant colour render it a captivating and
enchanting addition to any garden.
8. Beans: Scarlet runner beans are grown for
their showy red flowers, but the pods are
also edible. Runner beans can be grown Fig 5: Parsley
on a trellis and provide shade for a patio or
12. Amaranth: This dramatic and uncommon
porch. There are also bush bean varieties
annual plant can be incorporated into
like ‘Royal Burgundy’ and ‘Royalty’ with
ornamental vegetable gardens. It’s strikingly
ornamental characteristics that bear dark-
large, pointed, rounded, or feathery heads
purple pods.
come in shades of orange, red, or green, and
9. Asparagus: Unlike green asparagus, these its bold foliage at the top may also display
ornamental vegetables have a striking these vibrant colours.
purple colour, making them visually enticing.
The purple spears of ‘Purple Majesty’ and Tips for Successful Vertical Vegetable
‘Purple Passion’ varieties of asparagus add Gardening
an unusual colour and form to the vertical
garden. 1. Selecting the Right Structure: Choosing
the appropriate structure is crucial for a
10. Lettuce: Lettuce cultivars with curly leaves,
successful vertical garden. Consider factors
red coloration or deeply lobed foliage are
such as available space, weight-bearing
in demand as ornamental vegetables.
capacity, and the specific needs of your
‘Revolution’ variety of lettuce has loose
chosen ornamental vegetables. Options
foliage with deep red colour.
include trellises, vertical planters, pallet
11. Parsley: It is a hardy biennial, generally gardens, and wall-mounted containers.
grown for its flavourful, dark green leaves
2. Providing Adequate Support: Most
that can fit very well in the vertical garden. Its
ornamental vegetables require support as
leaves are rich source of vitamin C, vitamin A
they grow vertically. Install trellises, stakes,
and iron.
or cages to support plants and prevent them
from collapsing or becoming tangled. As the
plants grow, gently tie them to the support
structure using plant ties or soft twine.

32 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03 Horticulture

Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
3. Ensuring Proper Sunlight: Ornamental
vegetables generally require at least six
hours of direct sunlight per day. Position
your vertical garden in a location that
receives adequate sunlight. If growing
indoors, consider using artificial grow lights
to provide the necessary light intensity.
4. Soil and Watering Requirements: Choose
a well-draining potting mix rich in organic
matter for your vertical vegetable garden. It
should retain moisture while allowing excess
water to drain away. Regularly monitor
soil moisture levels and water accordingly,
ensuring that the soil remains consistently
moist but not waterlogged.
5. Fertilization and Maintenance: Regularly
fertilize your vertical vegetable garden to
provide essential nutrients to the plants. Use
organic fertilizers or compost to promote
healthy growth. Prune the plants as needed
to maintain their shape and encourage
bushier growth.
Design Ideas for Ornamental Vegetable-
Embedded Vertical Gardens
1. Colourful Plant Combinations: Experiment
with different colour combinations to create
visually appealing displays. Pair plants with
contrasting foliage colours, such as purple
kale with bright green lettuce or rainbow
chard with white-stemmed spinach.
2. Vertical Herb Walls: Combine ornamental
vegetables with herbs to create a functional
and visually striking vertical herb wall. Herbs
like basil, thyme, and mint not only enhance
P L A N T B R E E D ING AND G ENET IC S
14. Alternative to Cry Genes: Insect-
Resistant Genetically Modified Crops
LAKSHMI GANGAVATI
Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, University of Agricultural
Sciences, Dharwad
With the introduction of genetic engineering,
agriculture has undergone a significant
transformation thanks to the creation of improved
insect-resistant crop types that have insect pest
Plant Breeding and Genetics
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
the aesthetic appeal but also provide fresh
flavours for your culinary endeavours.
3. Succulent Vertical Gardens: Incorporate
succulents with ornamental vegetables to
create an intriguing mix of textures and
shapes. Pair trailing succulents like string of
pearls (Senecio rowleyanus) with upright-
growing vegetables like rainbow chard for
an eye-catching contrast.
Conclusion
Vertical gardening with ornamental vegetables
offers a unique and sustainable way to beautify
your living spaces while enjoying the benefits
of home-grown produce. By utilizing vertical
structures, selecting suitable plants, and
following essential care tips, you can create
a thriving garden that enhances the aesthetic
appeal of your surroundings. Embrace the
concept of vertical gardening and explore the
world of ornamental vegetables to transform
your space into a green oasis.
References
Fetouh, M. I. (2018). Edible landscaping in urban
horticulture. Urban Horticulture: Sustainability
for the Future, pp. 141-173.
Koley, T., Kumar, P., Sharma, P. and Koley, T. K.
(2014). Ornamental vegetable Gardening: A new
way to explore aesthetic at home. Floriculture
Today, pp. 30.
Sharma, P. (2015). Vertical Gardens-An Innovative
Element of Green Building Technology. In
Proceedings of the Internal Conference
(GYANODAY 2015). Greater Noida, India. 42.
22563
resistance. Genes for insect resistance have
primarily been obtained from the bacterium
Bacillus thuringiensis. Plants with insect
resistance have been bred using cry genes from
33 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
Bacillus thuringiensis. These genes (Andrews
et al., 1987) encode resistance to Lepidoptera,
Coleoptera, and Diptera insect pests. As a result,
several commercial genetically modified (GM)
crops with pest resistance were created and are
currently being grown. The two first GM types
were Bollgard cotton, which expressed Cry1Ac,
and Syngenta’s Attribute maize, which expressed
Cry1Ab. A variety of insect-resistant GM cultivars
of various crops are currently grown all over the
world, with the exception of India, where only Bt
cotton can be grown.
However, certain serious Bt technology
drawbacks have prompted researchers to look
for different transgenic approaches. The first of
them is the possibility that transgenic Bt crops
will cause insects to develop tolerance to Cry
poisons. A few of the pests that were targeted
have already developed a natural resistance to
the Bt crops. After 7 years of culture, Pectinophora
gossypiella in India has demonstrated resistance
to the gene Cry 1 Ac.
The very particular actions of several Cry
toxins are the second factor driving the search
for Bt substitutes. However, no Bt toxins that
may be employed to control sucking pests like
aphids, bugs, hoppers, or mirids are presently
available on the market. Aphids and hoppers are
significant cereal pests and disease vectors, and
mirids and stinkbugs are significant secondary
pests of Bt cotton in some regions. As a result,
there has been a long-running quest for Bt Cry
toxin substitutes that can be added to transgenic
plants. Protease inhibitors (PIs), alpha-amylase
inhibitors, lectins, and vegetative insecticidal
proteins (VIPs) are those whose development
is the most advanced of these. Commercial
production of CpTI (Cowpea Trypsin Inhibitor)-
expressing crops has been going on in China.
Two barley proteinase inhibitors were
expressed in tomato, and there was a reported
endogenous protective response and increased
resistance to Tuta absoluta. Only 56% of the larvae
fed on tomato transgenic plants co-expressing
both proteinase inhibitors reached the adult
stage, and their weight was significantly reduced.
Adults that had just emerged had deformed
wings and had lower fecundity. By activating the
expression of the tomato endogenous wound
inducible Proteinase inhibitor 2 (Pin2) gene,
increasing the formation of glandular trichomes,
and changing the emission of volatile organic
chemicals, the barley proteinase inhibitors
boosted plant defence.
The low level of Vigna radiata plant defensin
1 (VrPDF1) in mung bean seeds was encouraged
to increase the level, and as a result, greater
bruchid resistance and higher alpha-amylase
34 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
inhibition were seen in mung bean. Resistance
to aphids was developed in Brassica juncea
through effective genetic transformation and the
creation of fusion gene constructs with lectin
and protease inhibitor genes.
B. thuringiensis secretes many insecticidal
exotoxins in addition to the well-known crystal
(Cry) proteins, which are endotoxins generated
in the spores. The vegetal insecticidal protein
(VIP) 3A, which has been bred into cotton to
guard against lepidopteran pests, is the most
well-known and closest to commercialization.
VIPs do not require to be solubilized in the insect
stomach before acting, unlike Cry proteins.
Although they do not bind to the same receptors
as Cry proteins, VIP3A has been demonstrated
to be equally effective against Cry1Ac-resistant
strains of Heliothis virescens.
“Toxin complex” or tc genes are widespread
among Gram-negative bacteria. The best known
of these are the toxins produced by Photorhabdus
luminescens, a bacterium which is symbiotic
with entomopathogenic Heterorhabditis spp.
nematodes. The bacteria and nematodes
enter the host insect’s hemolymph, where
the bacteria secrete their toxins and kill the
insect. Avidin from chicken egg white and
streptavidin from the bacterium Streptomyces
avidiniii are two examples of biotin-binding
proteins (BBPs) that have been found to be
considerably harmful to insect pests of many
different orders. The development of many of
the novel insecticidal proteins and plant defence
proteins mentioned is still in its infancy. To better
understand how these findings relate to the
application of new technology on farms, more
study is required. There should be more farm
trials undertaken. Scientists and policymakers
should carefully evaluate the dangers of GMOs
in emerging nations. To address the worries of
nongovernmental organisations that oppose the
technology, a trial and safety assessment system
must be formed.
TABLE 1. List of identified conferring resistance to insects in
transgenic crops
Plant defensins Pests Target crop
Cowpea trypsin Scripophaga incertulas Rice
inhibitor (L)
(CpTI+Cry 1 Ac) Otiorhynchus sulcatus Strawberry
(C)
Lacanobia oleracea (L) Potato
Sitotraga cerealella (L) Cauliflower
Lepidopteran pests cotton
Soybean trypsin Nilaparvata lugens Rice
inhibitor
Plant Breeding and Genetics
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
Plant defensins Pests Target crop
Snowdrop lectin Nilaparvata lugens Rice
Aphis gossypii Cotton
Myzus persicae Tobacco
Leaf and bulb Lipaphis erysimi Indian
lectins from garlic mustard
P L A N T PAT HOLOGY
15. Downy Mildew of Cucurbits: Etiology,
Symptomatology, Epidemiology and
Management
GANESH, H. S., AND KIRANKUMAR
University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur, Karnataka 584 104
*Corresponding Author Email: ganig027@gmail.com
Introduction
Cucurbits are important vegetable crops grown
in India, tropical and subtropical regions of
the world. India is the centre of origin of many
cucurbitaceous vegetables, where the cucurbits
are capable of thriving and performing well
even under the drought or higher temperature
conditions. Cucurbits contain almost all essential
nutrients like, carbohydrate, protein, vitamins,
minerals, sugar and other nutrients that required
for good health of humans. In Karnataka mainly
cultivated cucurbits are cucumber, gherkins and
melons. Cucurbits share about 5.6 per cent of
total vegetable production in India and according
to FAO estimate, cucurbits were cultivated on
about 42 lakh ha with average productivity of
10.2 t/ ha (Anno., 2019).
Cucurbits are prone to various diseases
caused by a large number of pathogens such as
fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes which
causes economic losses in the sense of production
and export. Among these, downy mildew caused
by the pathogen Pseudoperonospora cubensis is
one of the most important foliar diseases causing
significant yield losses in cucurbits, valued more
than 246.2 million doller per annum in USA alone
(Savory et al., 2011). First time downy mildew
Plant Pathology
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References
Andrews, R. W., Fausr, R., Wabiko, M. H., Roymond,
K. C., Bulla, L. A., 1987, Biotechnology of Bt: a
critical review. Biotechnol. Tech., 6: 163-232.
Bakhsh, A., Khabbazi, S. D., Baloch, F. S., Demirel,
U., Caliskan, M. E., Hatipoglu, R. and Ozkan,
H., 2015, Insect-resistant transgenic crops:
retrospect and challenges. Turk. J. Agric. For.,
39(4): 531-548.
22537
disease in cucurbits was reported from Cuba
in 1868. Since from 1868 to till date, this disease
causes more serious threat to the cultivation of
cucurbits worldwide. In India downy mildew on
cucurbits was first reported at Pusa in 1918 (Butler
et al., 1918). In southern India it was identified in
Coimbatore, (Tamil Nadu) (Ramakrishna et al.,
1952).
Downy mildew, a foliar disease caused by the
Oomycete Pseudoperonospora cubensis is one
of the most destructive pathogens of cucurbits.
In 1903, Rostowzew presented observations of
infected cucumbers in Russia. Cucurbit downy
mildew was reported in Japan in 1927 and has
subsequently spread to most countries where
cucurbitaceous crops are grown. Cucurbit
downy mildew is distributed widely throughout
the world.
Taxonomy and Morphology
Pseudoperonospora cubensis is the type species
of the genus Pseudoperonospora, which includes
five accepted species: P. cubensis, P. humuli,
P. cannabina, P. celtidis and P. urticae (Choi et
al., 2005). Pseudoperonospora species have
true sporangia that germinate via cytoplasmic
cleavage to produce zoospores whereas
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species of Peronospora have sporangia that abaxial surface of the leaves. Lower leaves of
germinate directly via a germ tube. Mycelium the plant are infected first later infection spreads
of P. cubensis consisted of hyaline, branched, to upward causing defoliation, stunted growth,
irregular, non-septate hyphae, from the hyphae, poor fruit development and the entire plant looks
sporangiophores arose on the undersurface burnt appearance. Finally, the lesions expand,
through stomata. shrivels and cause death of the leaf surface
Mycelium of P. cubensis consisted of hyaline, (Haveri et al., 2019).
branched, irregular, non-septate hyphae,
from the hyphae, sporangiophores arose on
the undersurface through stomata. Five to six
sporangiophores arise from each stoma. These
sporangiophores measured from 200-300 m in
length, and 5-9 m in breadth. Sporangiophores
branched at 2/3rd of its growth dichotomously at
acute angle, tip of the branches was pointed and
bore single sporangium, whereas they measured
180-400 m in length and dichotomously branched
in their upper 1/3rd growth (Dixon, 1980).
Sporangia were hyaline when immature, then
turned to smoky to grey or purplish and in mass
greyish black, ovate or ellipsoid, with a small,
hyaline papilla at free end, and measured 23-30
x 16-20 m in diameter. Zoospores measured 10-
12 m in diameter (Fig.1)

FIG. 2: Symptoms of downy mildew on different

FIG. 1: Morphology of Pseudopernospora cubensis
(A) Sporangia and Sporangiopore (B) Oospore in leaf
tissue
Symptoms and Signs
The disease is recognized by small, pale green
to greasy looking angular or rectangular spots
on upper surfaces initially (Fig.2). Later, these
patches turn into chlorotic to bright yellow
colour with eponymous downy appearance on
cucurbits observed at organic farm institute, UAS
Raichur during 2021
Distribution and Epidemiology
Downy mildew of cucurbits is widely distributed
on its crop hosts in the genera like, Cucumis,
Cucurbita, Citrullus and Luffa. The disease
evidently has its widest distribution, in all the
continents on Cucumis (cucumber), Citrullus
(melons) and cucurbit crops. It is somewhat

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Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
less widely distributed in Asia, Africa, America
and common in Austria and pacific region, but
absent in Europe. On Citrullus (watermelon)
distribution is wide in the America. On Luffa
(ridge gourd), the disease is widely spread only
in South-East Asia, with occasional records in
warm countries (Palti, 1974).
Neelima (2016), during Kharif 2012 and
2013, carried out roving survey and surveillance
to assess the prevalence of downy mildew
disease in ridge gourd in major growing areas of
Karnataka. The results revealed that the average
downy mildew disease intensity was highest in
Belagavi district (57.01%) followed by Dharwad
(55.89%), Bagalkote (52.4%) and Haveri districts
(48.24%) of Karnataka.
The epidemiology of this pathogen depended
greatly on environmental conditions. Among the
epidemiological factors, temperature, relative
humidity and rainfall are most important ones.
Initially infected leaves serve as a source of
inoculum for neighbouring leaves and plants.
In a crop, spores are spread by wind and water
droplets during rain or overhead irrigation. Wet
and relatively warm weather is favorable for the
disease spread. The presence of water on leaves
is essential for infection. Optimal temperature
ranges between 18°C and 23°C. Under such
conditions life cycle lasts only 3–4 days and
unprotected plants can be almost completely
destroyed within several days. This fungus
tolerates well even high temperatures above
30°C without loss of viability.
Fungicidal Resistance
Fungicides remain integral part for the control
of downy mildew in cucurbits due to the lack
of sufficient resistance in cultivars or effective
cultural strategies. For many decades, multi-site
contact fungicides were the only compounds
available for the control of downy mildews.
Within the last 30 years, chemical control
of downy mildews has undergone dramatic
changes with the detection and introduction
of single site fungicides such as cymoxanil
(1976), fosetyl-Al 1977), phenylamides (1977–
1983), propamocarb (1978), CAAs (1992–2005)
and QoIs (1996–2000). During the last several
decades, many new fungicides effective against
cucurbit downy mildew have been introduced
to the market. These newer fungicides are
mostly single-site inhibitors in the metabolism
pathway of the pathogen and thus bear a high
risk of development of resistance to them.
There are numerous reports about a rapid
increase of fungicide-resistant populations and
sub populations of P. cubensis under selection
pressure from different fungicides. Current
Plant Pathology
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recommendations for dealing with fungicide
resistance include the use of diverse fungicides
and plant defence inducers as well within an
integrated disease management programme
that also utilises a facet of non-chemical
practices, such as more resistant cultivars,
weather forecasts, epidemiological studies,
disease monitoring etc.
Management
Host plant resistance is considered as most
practically, feasible and an economical method
of plant disease management. Understanding
the mechanism of resistance and also host plant
resistance through slow mildew are important
components in the disease management, when
vertical resistance in the varieties is not at all
available. Identification of resistant genotypes or
varieties and exploration of sources of resistance
in cucurbits is very much essential for an effective
and ecofriendly management of downy mildew.
Recently, an attempt was done in identifying
resistance source for downy mildew disease
in different genotypes in cucumber at IIHR,
Bengaluru. Nearly, forty-one genotypes were
screened under natural and artificial condition
using detached leaf assay. Genotype IIHR-
438 and Cucumis metuliferus L. showed field
resistance with an average disease incidence
of 17.66 (PDI) and 17.46; AUDPC of 772.24 and
764.48, respectively compared to 73.12 PDI
and AUDPC of 3096.64 in highly susceptible
genotype of IIHR-389. Hence, it can be utilized in
breeding program to develop resistant cultivar in
cucumber against Pseudoperonospora cubensis
under tropical conditions of India.
Currently, disease management depends
heavily on multiple applications of systemic
fungicides that can effectively control the
disease and protect yield when applied in a
timely manner. The P. cubensis belongs to the
group of ‘the highest risk pathogens’ with high
evolutionary potential and thus employment
of regular fungicidal use encourages the
development of resistance in the pathogen (Urban
and Lebeda, 2006) increases the production cost
and detrimental to the environment. Further,
like all obligate plant pathogens, P. cubensis
can survive and reproduce on living plant tissue
or foliage during crop cycle and overwinter
via oospores in absence of crop (Cohen et al.,
2011). Thus, employment of biological agents
and development of IDM will be suitable option
to address the pathogen overwintering structure
oospores for effective disease management.
Reference
Anonymous, 2019, Horticultural statistics at a
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glance.
Butler, E. J., 1918, Fungi and bacterial diseases in
plants. Periodical expert book agency D-42, vivek
vihar, Delhi, pp.311-314.
Choi, Y. J., Hong, S. B. and Shin, H. D., 2005,
Are-consideration of Pseudoperonospora
cubensis and P.humuli based on molecular and
morphological data. Mycol. Res., 109(1): 841-848.
Gurushanthappa, H., 1990, Studies on downy
mildew of cucurbits with special reference to
ridge gourd (Luffa acutangula Roxb.) caused
by Pseudoperonospora cubensis (Berk. and
Curt.) Rost. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Univ. Agr. Sci.,
Dharwad (India).
Neelima, M., 2016, Studies on epidemiology
and management of downy mildew
16. Bacterial Biomolecules as Plant
Protector against Phytopathogenic
Fungi
MS. PRIYANKA S. PATIL AND DR. NILEEMA S. GORE
Institute of Biosciences & Technology, MGM University, Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar
(Maharashtra) – 431001.
Bacterial biomolecules are diverse compounds
produced by bacteria that play various roles
in their biology and interactions with the
environment. Generally, these molecules are
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acid
and secondary metabolites in nature. From
which several bacterial biomolecules can act
as antifungal agents for plant protection. These
biomolecules can help prevent or control fungal
infections in plants. Here are some examples:
1. Pyrrolnitrin and Prodigiosin: Pyrrolnitrin
is a natural antifungal compound produced
by various bacterial species, including
Pseudomonas fluorescens and Burkholderia
cepacia. It has been shown to have activity
against a range of plant pathogenic fungi,
including Fusarium and Rhizoctonia
species. Serratia plymuthica, produces
antifungal compounds such as prodigiosin
and pyrrolnitrin. Pyrrolnitrin is pigment in
inature.
2. DAPG (2,4-Diacetylphloroglucinol): DAPG
is a phenolic compound produced by certain
strains of Pseudomonas fluorescens. It
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pseudoperonospora cubensis (berk. and curt.)
rostow in ridge gourd. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Univ.
Agr. Sci., Dharwad (India).
Ramakrishnan, T. S., Srinivastav, K. V. and Sundaram,
N. V., 1952, Addition to the fungus of Madras XIII.
Proc. Indian. Acad. Sci., 36:85-95.
Rostowzew, S. J., 1903, Beitraege zur Kenntnis der
Peronosporeen. Flora 92(2): 405-433.
Savory, E. A., Granke, L. L., Ocampo, L. M. Q.,
Varbanova, M., Hausbeck, M. K. and Day, B.,
2011, The cucurbit downy mildew pathogen
Pseudoperonospora cubensis. Mol. Pl. Pathol.,
12(3): 217–226.
Zhang, Y. J., Qin, Z. W. and Zhou, X. Y., 2006, Study on
the over-wintering of cucumber downy mildew
in Heilongjiang province of China. 376-376.
22547
exhibits antifungal properties against several
soil-borne pathogens, including Fusarium
and Pythium species. It helps protect plant
roots from infection.
3. Iturins, surfactins, and fengycins: Iturins
are lipopeptides produced by bacteria such
as Bacillus subtilis. These biomolecules
exhibit broad-spectrum antifungal activity
against various plant pathogens, including
Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, and Botrytis species.
4. Siderophores: Siderophores are small
molecules produced by bacteria to scavenge
and sequester iron, which is essential for
fungal growth. By depriving fungi of iron,
siderophores inhibit their growth and
can act as antifungal agents. Examples of
siderophores produced by bacteria include
pyoverdines and pyochelins produced by
Pseudomonas species.
5. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): Some
bacteria emit volatile organic compounds
that have antimicrobial activity, including
antifungal properties. These VOCs can
inhibit the growth and development of
Plant Pathology
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
fungal pathogens. Examples of VOCs with
antifungal activity include those produced by
Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas species.
6. Phenazines: Phenazines are redox-active
secondary metabolites produced by bacteria
such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and
Streptomyces species. Some phenazines,
like pyocyanin and phenazine-1-carboxylic
acid (PCA), exhibit antifungal activities
against plant pathogenic fungi.
7. Hydrolytic enzymes: Bacteria produce
hydrolytic enzymes that can degrade fungal
cell walls or cell membrane components.
Enzymes like chitinases and glucanases can
break down chitin and glucan, which are
major components of fungal cell walls.
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8. Antibiotics: Bacteria can produce
antibiotics that have antifungal properties.
These antibiotics can inhibit the growth
and development of plant pathogenic
fungi. Examples include streptomycin and
kasugamycin produced by Streptomyces
species.
These bacterial biomolecules can be used
as biocontrol agents to protect plants from fungal
diseases. They can be applied as seed treatments,
soil amendments, or foliar sprays to prevent or
suppress fungal infections in agriculture and
horticulture. However, their effectiveness may
vary depending on the specific plant-pathogen
system and environmental conditions.

22552

17. Induced Systemic Resistance by

Beneficial Microbes
ANBAZHAGAN P1 AND R. OVIYA2
1
Assistant Professor, Imayam Institute of Agriculture and Technology, Kannanur, Affiliated
to Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Thuraiyur, Trichirapalli – 621 106
2
Assistant Professor, Dhanalakshmi Srinivasan University, Samayapuram, Deemed
University, Trichirapalli – 621 112
*Corresponding Author Email: anbupatho17@gmail.com

Introduction The Plant Immune System and Induced

The plant rhizosphere microbiota is divided Resistance
into two types viz., plant growth promoting
rhizobacteria (PGPR), plant growth promoting
fungi (PGPF) can enhance the plant growth
and improve plant health. Van peer et al.,
(1991) showed that colonization of carnation
rhizosphere by Pseudomonas fluorescens
WCS417r lead to an enhanced level of resistance
against infection by the wilt pathogen Fusarium
oxysporum. Wei et al., (1991) also demonstrated
the same mechanism in cucumber where
he reported that colonization of beneficial
Pseudomonas and Serratia PGPR strains in
rhizosphere lead to significant reduction in
disease symptoms caused by Colletotrichum
orbiculare. This popular article provides an
overview and molecular mechanism involved
in the onset and expression of induced systemic
resistance triggered by PGPF and PGPR.
In plant immune system pattern recognition
receptors are present on the cell membrane
mainly to detect the conserved common
microbial compounds such as Pathogen
Associated Molecular Pattern (PAMP) and MAMPs
Microbe Associated Molecular Pattern (MAMP).
Plants also respond to endogenous plant derived
signals that arise from damage caused by various
fungal and bacteria plant pathogens called
Damage Associated Molecular Pattern (DAMP).
Pattern recognition receptors act as first
line defense mechanism which impedes the
potential pathogenic microorganism’s invasion.
The successful pathogen overcomes this basal
line defense and produce enormous virulence
factors to cause disease. Correspondingly, the
plant acquired second line defense mechanism
in which resistance proteins NB-LRR receptor
proteins mediate recognition of virulent effector
proteins produced by the pathogen resulting in
effector triggered immunity (ETI). ETI is usually

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accompanied by the programmed cell death
at the site of infection and involves one or
more long distance signals that multiplied and
propagated in the undamaged plant parts. This
well characterized form of pathogen induced
resistance is commonly known as Systemic
Acquired Resiatnce. In 1960, Ross coined the
term Systemic Acquired Resistance.
Pathogen Induced Systemic Acquired
Resistance Signaling
SAR is characterized by the increased levels of
salicyclic acid. SAR is often accompanied by the
coordinate activation of pathogenesis related
proteins. Among the various PR proteins studies,
PR 1 is used as the best characterized genes and
used as a marker for SAR. For propagating SAR
at distal tissues lipid transfer protein DEFECTIVE
INDUCEED RESISTANCE (DIR1) is likely to act as
chaperone for the mobile transfer of SAR signals.
Several metabolites are involved in long-distance
SAR signaling, including the methyl ester of
SA (MeSA), the diterpenoid dehydroabietinal
(DA), a glycerol-3-phosphate (G3P)-dependent
factor, azelaic acid (AzA), and pipecolic acid
(Pip). In systemic tissues FLAVIN-DEPENDENT
MONOOXYGENASE 1 (FMO1), possibly amplify
long-distance signals originating from primary
leaves.
SAR signaling at downstream is regulated
by NONEXPRESSOR OF PR genes in a induced
cells. In non-induced cells NPR 1 is sequestered
in the cytoplasm as an oligomer through
intermolecular disulfide bonds. SA facilitated
the monomerization of NPR1, after which
translocates it to the nucleus. In induced cells,
NPR1 interacts with members of TGA family
of transcription factors together with WRKY
transcription factors, bind to the SA responsive
defense genes, resulting in their activation. For
proper functioning of NPR1, NPR1 protein is
degraded by proteosome in order to allow new
NPR 1 proteins to reinitiate the transcription
cycle. Recently NPR1 paralogs NPR3 and NPR4
were identified and showed different affinity
towards binding with SA. NPR3 and NPR4 act as
adaptors of CULLIN 3 (CUL3) ubiquitin E3 ligase
to mediate NPR1 degradation. It was proposed
that at high SA levels NPR3 mediated the
degradation of NPR1 at high SA levels resulting in
programmed cell death during ETI. At low levels
of SA NPR4 stablizes the NPR1 resulting in the
activation of PR gene expression and PTI.
Hormonal Regulation in Induced Systemic
Resistance by Beneficial Microbes
Hoffland et al., (1995) observed that Fusarium
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oxysporum in radish was effectively controlled
by P. fluorescens WCS417r without accumulation
of PR proteins that are characteristic of SAR. Van
loon and baker concluded that ability to activate
an SA independent pathway is common for
beneficial microbes and occurs in broad range
of plant species. Here the induced systemic
resistance is triggered by SA dependent pathway
and systemic acquired resistance is triggered by
SA dependent.
Beneficial Microbes Triggering the Systemic
Acquired Resistance
Even though many beneficial microorganisms
triggering defense response through an SA
independent pathway few beneficial microbes
employ defense response through SA dependent
pathway. For instance, PGPR P. fluorescens P3
gene over expressing the SA biosynthesis gene
cluster of P. aeruginosa PAO1 was demonstrated
to elicit SA-dependent SAR. Rhizobacteria
mediated SA production is often not released
in the rhizosphere but incorporated into SA
moiety-containing siderophores during the iron-
limiting conditions to improve uptake of ferric
iron (Fe3+), which makes SA unavailable for
triggering the SAR pathway.
Npr1: A Common Regulator of Systemic
Acquired Resistance and Induced Systemic
Resistance
NPR1 involved in JA/ET dependent ISR pathway
triggered by P. fluorescens WCS417r and many
other PGPR and PGPF. In SAR, NPR1 act as
transcriptional coactivator of SA responsive
PR genes whereas in case of rhizobacteria
mediated ISR functions without activating PR
gene. Besides in SA mediated signaling NPR1
was directly connected to a nucleus whereas JA/
ET signaling NPR1 is accumulated at cytosol. Co
activation of both SAR and ISR lead to enhanced
defensive ability of the plants against the invading
pathogens. In the roots of Arabidopsis thaliana
roots were highly expressed with following
genes NPR1, NPR3 and NPR4 suggesting a role in
regulation of root associated immune response.
Microbial Elicitors of Induced Systemic
Resistance
ISR involved in long-distance signaling
mechanism that in rhizobial and mycorrhizal
symbiosis accounted for auto regulating
the colonization density of the symbionts.
The elicitors of ISR-inducing PGPR focused
on the involvement of lipopolysaccharides
(LPS) and the iron-regulated metabolites
pyoverdin and SA. The other ISR elicitors have
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been identified, including antibiotics, such
as 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG) and
pyocyanin, flagella, N-acyl homoserine lactones,
iron regulated siderophores, and biosurfactants.
The volitilomics results also revealed that, organic
compounds, such as 2R,3R-butanediol produced
by B. subtilis GB03 and a C13 volatile emitted by
Paenibacillus polymyxa, were demonstrated to
elicit ISR.
Conclusion
The beneficial microbes can able to produce
MAMPs and elicitors that can trigger ISR. The
most common feature of ISR is that the local
suppression of root immune responses is a
common feature of ISR eliciting beneficial
microbes and colonize the roots. The ISR inducing
PGPF and PGPR can elicit JA/ET dependent
signaling pathway as well as SA dependent SAR
pathway. The important feature of systemic
immunity is enhancing the basal defense rather
than activating the resistance in host plants.
Besides the plants also have some mechanism
to enrich their surface with microbiome with
beneficial microbes that provide protection
against diseases. Disease suppressive soils
18. PAMP Triggered Immunity: Basal
Defense in Plants
B. RAJYALAKSHMI1, M. GURIVI REDDY2 AND K. JAISIMHA REDDY3
1
Ph. D Scholar, Plant Pathology, S. V. Agricultural College, Tirupati, ANGRAU, Guntur
2
Assistant Professor, Plant Pathology, S. V. Agricultural College, Tirupati, ANGRAU, Guntur
3
Teaching Associate, Agronomy, Agricultural College, Mahanandi, ANGRAU, Guntur
PAMP triggered immunity (PTI) is a type of basal
immune response exhibited by plants when they
detect pathogen-associated molecular patterns
(PAMPs) or Microbe-associated molecular
patterns (MAMPs) from the micro-organisms.
PAMPs or MAMPs are conserved molecular
structures that are unique to certain groups of
pathogens, such as bacteria, fungi and viruses.
Further, pathogens can cause damage to plant
tissues via cell-wall-degrading enzymes and
toxins, which releases plant cell wall fragments,
extracellular ATP and nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (NAD). These plant-derived
molecules can act as damage-associated
molecular patterns (DAMPs) to trigger immune
responses.
Plant Pathology
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amended with beneficial microbes promote
plant health as well as suppressing the pathogen
activities.
References
Van Peer R, Niemann GJ, Schippers B. 1991. Induced
resistance and phytoalexin accumulation
in biological control of Fusarium wilt of
carnation by Pseudomonas sp. strain WCS417r.
Phytopathology 81:728–34.
Wei G, Kloepper JW, Tuzun S. 1991. Induction
of systemic resistance of cucumber to
Colletotrichum orbiculare by select strains
of plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria.
Phytopathology 81:1508–12.
Hoffland E, PieterseCMJ,Bik L, Van Pelt JA. 1995.
Induced systemic resistance in radish is not
associated with accumulation of pathogenesis-
related proteins. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol.
46:309–20
Pieterse, C.M., Zamioudis, C., Berendsen, R.L.,
Weller, D.M., Van Wees, S.C. and Bakker, P.A.,
2014. Induced systemic resistance by beneficial
microbes. Annual review of phytopathology, 52,
pp.347-375.
22554
PAMPs are recognized by the receptors
present on the surface of the plants and are
called as PRR- Pattern Recognition Receptors.
Once a PAMP is detected, the PRRs initiate a
signaling cascade that leads to the activation of
defense responses. These responses can help
prevent the spread of pathogens and limit the
damage caused by infection. This is called as PTI
- PAMP Triggered Immunity.
Characteristic Features of PAMPs
These are highly conserved in microbes.
 Found in wide range of microbes, pathogens
and non-pathogens alike.
 These are essential for microbial fitness and
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survival.
 Do not evolve rapidly
Characteristic Features of PRRs
 They sense the non-self-molecules only
(foreign molecules).
 They do not function without foreign
molecules.
 They are extremely sensitive (activated at
small concentration of foreign molecules).
 They are often associated with kinases.
 They are often succumbed to “powerful”
pathogen secretions (effectors).
Here are some examples of PAMPs
recognized by PRRs - Flagellin Flg 22- FLS2 (PRR),
Bacterial lipopolysaccharides, Chitin- CeBiP and
CERK1 (PRR), Oligogalacturonides- WAK.
1. Flagellin: Flagellin is a protein component
of bacterial flagella. Plants possess pattern
recognition receptors called flagellin-
sensitive receptors (FLS2), which specifically
recognize bacterial flagellin or its derived
peptides. Recognition of flagellin by FLS2
activates signaling pathways that lead to the
activation of defense responses in plants.
2. Bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS): LPS
is a complex molecule found in the outer
membrane of Gram-negative bacteria.
P L A N T P R OT ECT ION
19. Thrips Infection in Capsicum and Its
Management
ANUSHA A
Ph. D Scholar Plant Pathology, Dept. of Plant Pathology, College of Horticulture,
Bengaluru
*Corresponding Author Email: anushagowda1289@gmail.com
Capsicum also called as bell pepper with scientific
name Capsicum annum var grossum Sendt is the
most important crop in the Solanaceous group
of vegetables. It is known for its variety of uses.
Capsicum is a global vegetable grown in open
field and protected structures such as polyhouse
and net houses. The protected structures are
preferred as they provide good humidity and
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Although LPS primarily triggers immune
responses in animals, some evidence
suggests that plants also possess receptors
capable of recognizing bacterial LPS or its
derivatives.
3. Chitin: Chitin is a polysaccharide found in
the cell walls of fungi. Plants have receptors
called chitin elicitor receptor kinase proteins
(CERKs) that can recognize chitin fragments.
Activation of CERKs triggers immune
signaling, leading to defense responses
against fungal pathogens.
4. Oligogalacturonides (OGs): OGs are
fragments of pectin, a component of plant
cell walls. When plant cell walls are degraded
by pathogens, OGs are released and can act
as PAMPs. Plants possess receptors, such as
the wall-associated kinase (WAK) proteins,
that can recognize OGs and initiate defense
responses.
Conclusion
PTI is considered as the first line defense against
pathogens in plants. It is effective against a broad
range of pathogens because PAMPs are essential
structures found in many types of pathogens.
However, some pathogens have evolved
mechanisms to evade or suppress PTI, allowing
them to cause disease.
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acts as barrier for the entry of pest. Being one of
most important commercial crops, it is attacked
by several pests of economic importance. Over
35 species of insect and mite pests are reported
as pests of pepper and the major being the
thrips. These thrips are found feeding on leaves,
flowers and fruits. Severity of thrips damage is
also due to the vectoring of viruses. These thrips
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are tiny (0.5 – 14 mm) slender cigar shaped
insects of the family Thripidae belonging to the
order Thysanoptera, the name which indicates
its typical fringed wings, which are incapable
of conventional flight and they exploit fling and
clap mechanism. The thrips have asymmetric
body plan unlike hemipterans and also known
for their hemimetabolic life cycle.
Most thrips complete their life cycle from
egg to adult stage in two to three weeks. The
duration varies with the host and with abiotic
factors such as temperature and humidity. The
warmer weather conditions help them complete
many generations in a season. Adults usually
emerge from pupae in the soil or leaf litter, and
move to the young leaves and flowers of the
host plant, where they lay their eggs in the green
tissue in an incision made with the ovipositor.
The thrips rasp and pierce the surface
of the plant with their mouth parts, there by
epidermal cells are punctured. Then they add
the digestive juices and suck up the fluids that
seep from the wounds. The young and tender
tissues are preferred for feeding. This results
in abnoramalities such as distortion, upward
curling and discolouration of leaves. The infested
fruits show discolored flecking. As the plant part
grows, so do the damaged regions, leaving the
silvery streaks. Thrips transmit viruses belonging
to at least four virus groups, viz., ilarviruses,
machlomoviruses, alphacarmoviruses and
orthotospoviruses and are sole vectors of tospo
virus. These thrips can damage the crops severly
by vectoring the viruses such as tospo in a
persistent manner. Thrips can readily move long
distances floating with the wind or transported
on infested plants, and exotic species are
periodically introduced. Among different thrips
species, the most common thrips observed on
capsicum are Frankliniella occidentalis, Thrips
palmi, Scritothrips dorsalis, T. tabaci and Thrips
parvispinus.
Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande)
F. occidentalis, also known as western flower
thrips (WFT) has spread from western North
America to several places of world such as
Europe, Africa, Australia and Asia. Adults
are yellow to light brown in color. Male and
females can be distinguished based on size
and color; females are large and dark in color
while males are small and lighter in color. On
the plant, this thrips causes damage on leaves,
flowers and developing fruits by feeding and
egg deposition. In addition, F. occidentalis is
capable of transmitting at least five types of
tospoviruses. TSWV acquisition by F. occidentalis
is a developmental-stage dependent process,
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AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
with the first instar larval stage considered as
the most susceptible phase. The plants infected
with these viruses are characterized by necrotic
spots, wilting and ring spots on leaves and fruits
resulting in severe yield losses.
Thrips tabaci
Thrips tabaci is also referred as onion thrips, as
it is commomnly found in onions. This thrips
species is found to have yellow to yellowish
brown coloured body of length 1 to 1.3 mm. The
fringed wings look unbanded and dirty grey in
colour. These reproduce by parthenogenesis and
can complete its life cycle within 19 days. Thrips
tabaci is the first vector identified for tomato
spotted wilt virus.
Scirtothrips dorsalis
S. dorsalis also known as chilli thrips or yellow
tea thrips. It is a polyphgous insect pest attacking
more than 100 reported host belonging to 40
different families of plants. It is native to Indian
sub-continent. Larvae of S. dorsalis are creamish
white to pale in colour. The adults are pale
yellow in color with black, feathery wings and
dark spots forming incomplete stripes on the
top of the abdomen. The puncturing by the
S. dorsalis results in sandy paper lines on the
epdermis of young tender leaves followed by
eventual crinkling. In chilli it results in “Chili
leaf curl” which is called as “Murda” and at high
infestation rates plant damage can be similar as
that caused by broadmites. In chilli, it is solely
responsible for 61 to 74 per cent yield loss.
Therefore, it is referred as chilli thrips. Apart from
direct damage, it is found to vector around seven
plant viruses viz., chilli leaf curl virus, peanut
necrosis virus, peanut yellow spot virus, tobacco
streak virus, watermelon silver mottle virus,
capsicum chlorosis virus and melon yellow spot
virus. This thrips species is also favoured dry
conditions than moist rainy periods.
Thrips parvispinus
Thrips parvispinus, is popular as black thrips.
It is a member of “Thrips orientalis group”
is a widespread pest species of quarantine
importance and designated as one of the pest
species of South East Asia. It is an invasive insect
species from Indonesia and in India it was first
reported by Tyagi et al., in 2015 on a papaya in
Bengaluru, Karnataka. It has now become a
major pest on chilli and capsicum in India. It
has also been reported to infest beans, eggplant,
papaya, pepper, potato, shallot, and strawberry.
Unlike other thrips, black thrips draws more
attention since its infestation increased during
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heavy rainfall of North East monsoon. Thrips
parvispinus (Karny) in Southern India is mainly
colonizing in reproductive parts i.e., flowers and
causing huge damage.
Thrips palmi
Thrips palmi Karny is known commonly as
the melon thrips. The adults are pale yellow in
colour and relatively smaller than Scirtothrips
dorsalis. Adults and nymphs feed by sucking the
cell contents from leaves, stems, flowers and
the surface of fruits, causing silvery scars and
deformation and chlorosis of leaves. At high
densities it causes retarded plant growth. It is
mostly found on leaves and to a lesser extent on
the flowers. Thrips palmi functions as a vector for
economically important tospoviruses, including
groundnut bud necrosis virus, Melon yellow spot
virus, capsicum chlorosis virus, tomato spotted
wilt virus and watermelon silver mottle virus.
Management
An integrated approach involving the
combination different compatible methods
has to be used for effective economic and eco-
friendly management of thrips.
Physical Methods
 The covering of protected structures
openings such as vents with fine size mesh
screens physically prevent the entry of these
tiny insect pests.
 Raise the seedlings in polyhouse condition
with insect proof net.
 Monitor the thrips population both in the
nursery and in the field, conditions using
sticky traps. The blue or yellow/white sticky
traps at 65–75 traps/ha at crop canopy height
for mass trapping purpose and 20-25 traps/
ha for monitoring purpose. White was the
most effective colour to attract T. palmi to
sticky trap plates.
 Because thrips find suitable host plants
by utilizing different cues, including visual
cues in the ultraviolet (UV) spectrum,
using materials that reflect UV radiation
can obscure their host-locating cues.
Several researchers have found that using
UV-reflective mulch significantly reduced
early season abundance of adult thrips and
disease incidence
Cultural Practices
 Inter crop with agathi (Sesbania grandiflora)
to provide shade which regulate the thrips
population
 Do not grow chilli after sorghum
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 Do not follow chilli and onion mixed crop
 Sprinkler irrigation is having a advantage
of reducing the thrips population, as the
jet of water spray disrupts the growth and
multiplication of thrips.
Biological Control
 Both macrobials and microbials can be
used for the biological control of thrips. The
macrobials such as anthocorid bugs (Orius
spp.), green lacewing species and predatory
phytoseiid mites which predominantly
attack first instar thrips on foliage, and soil-
dwelling free living predaceous laelapid
mites which consume thrips pupae in soil
can be released in to the field.
 Spraying of microbial based insecticides
like Beauveria bassiana or Lecanicilium
lecanii at 4.00 g or ml/L (spore load - 1x108
cfu/g or ml), Pseudomonas fluorescence
– NBAIRPFDWD at 20g/L or Bacillus albus
– NBAIR-BATP @ 20 g/L uniformly covering
whole plant. c) Foliar spray of Entomo-
Pathogenic Nematode (EPN), Steinernema
carpocapsae formulation at10g/L + 1 g
wetting agent. d) Soil application of EPNs,
Steinernema carpocapsaeor, Heterorhabditis
indica at7.50- 12.50 kg/ha. It can be applied
as soil drenching after mixing in 500 -750 L
of water. EPN’s are to be used early in the
morning or during late evening hours as they
are sensitive to UV and high temperature.
Spraying of EPNs in peak sunshine hours is
avoided.
Chemical Control
 Chemical means of management is
recommended at the critical stage and in
the absence of other compatible measures.
The Insecticide use should be accurate,
precise and complement other compatible
control approaches. The exhaustive use of
insecticides will cause resurgence of pest due
to the depletion of natural enemy population
and also because of the development of
resistance to the insecticides.
 Seed treatment with Imidacloprid 70 WS
@10 g per kg seed prevents the sucking pest
infestation.
 Apply carbofuran 3% G @ 33 kg/ha or phorate
10 % G @ 10 kg/ha
 Spraying of insecticides such as Emamectin
benzoate, difenthiuron, Chlorofenapyr
10% SC, Fipronil, Thiamethaxm, Spinosad
and Spinetoram at the recommended
concentration helps to manage the thrips
population.
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Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
E N T O MOLOGY
20. Artificial Intelligence and Pest
Management: Pros and Cons
ARVIND* AND RITU BHALL
Ph.D. SCHOLAR - Dept. of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Hisar) Chaudhary Charan
Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana
*Corresponding Author Email: arvindmor555@gmail.com
Introduction
The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) into
various fields has revolutionized industries, and
pest management is no exception. AI-powered
systems are offering innovative and efficient
solutions for monitoring, identification, and
control of pests. In this article, we will explore the
transformative impact of AI in pest management
and how it is reshaping the way we tackle pest-
related challenges.
Advantages of Artificial Intelligence in Pest
Management
Intelligent pest monitoring
Traditional pest monitoring methods often
rely on manual inspections and the placement
of traps, which can be time-consuming and
labour-intensive. AI-based monitoring systems
equipped with cameras, sensors, and machine
learning algorithms can automate the process.
These systems analyse real-time data to identify
pest presence, count populations, and track
their movements. By detecting early signs of
infestations, AI monitoring systems enable
prompt interventions, minimizing the need for
widespread pesticide applications and reducing
environmental risks.
Automated pest identification
Accurate pest identification is crucial for
implementing targeted control measures. AI has
enabled the development of image recognition
and pattern detection algorithms that can swiftly
identify pests from images or video footage. By
training AI models on vast databases of insect
images, these systems can quickly and accurately
identify pest species, even distinguishing
between closely related ones. Automated
pest identification not only saves time but also
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AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
22534
improves accuracy, allowing pest managers to
implement effective control strategies tailored to
specific pests.
Predictive modelling and decision support
AI algorithms can analyse vast amounts of data,
including weather patterns, pest life cycles, and
environmental factors, to develop predictive
models for pest outbreaks. These models
help pest managers anticipate pest population
dynamics, predict the timing of infestations,
and optimize control strategies accordingly.
AI-powered decision support systems provide
valuable insights and recommendations, guiding
pest management professionals in making
informed choices about pesticide application,
biological control methods, or habitat
manipulation.
Precision pest control
The integration of AI with robotics and
automation technologies is transforming pest
control practices. AI-powered robotic systems
can precisely deliver targeted treatments, such as
pesticide application or the release of beneficial
insects, while minimizing the impact on non-
target organisms and the environment. These
systems can navigate complex environments,
detect and target specific pests, and operate
autonomously, reducing the need for manual
labor and enhancing the efficiency and
effectiveness of pest control efforts.
Robotics and automation
The integration of AI with robotics and
automation technologies is transforming pest
control practices. AI-powered robotic systems
can precisely deliver targeted treatments, such as
pesticide application or the release of beneficial
insects. These systems can navigate complex
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 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
environments, detect and target specific pests,
and operate autonomously, reducing the need
for manual labor and enhancing the efficiency
and effectiveness of pest control efforts.
Data analytics and remote sensing
AI tools enable the analysis of large datasets
and the extraction of meaningful information for
pest management. By leveraging data analytics
techniques, pest managers can gain insights
into pest population trends, environmental
conditions, and the effectiveness of control
measures. Remote sensing technologies, such as
satellite imagery and drones, integrated with AI
algorithms, provide valuable spatial information
for pest monitoring and management.
Smart traps and sensor networks
AI is used to enhance the functionality of
pest traps by incorporating advanced sensors
and communication capabilities. Smart traps
equipped with AI algorithms can detect and
capture specific pests, while also providing real-
time data on pest populations and movement
patterns. Sensor networks, combined with AI
analytics, enable the monitoring of pest behavior
and population dynamics across larger areas,
aiding in effective pest management strategies.
Artificial Intelligence is revolutionizing pest
management by providing advanced tools and
techniques to address pest-related challenges.
From intelligent monitoring and automated
identification to predictive modeling and
precision control, AI enables more sustainable
and effective pest management practices. By
leveraging the power of AI, we can enhance our
ability to protect crops, minimize environmental
impact, and ensure a safer and healthier living
environment.
Limitations of Artificial Intelligence in Pest
Management
While artificial intelligence (AI) has shown
great potential in various fields, including pest
management, it is important to acknowledge that
there are also some drawbacks associated with
its implementation. Here are a few drawbacks of
artificial intelligence in pest management:
Limited generalization
AI models in pest management are often trained
on specific datasets that may not fully capture
the complexity and diversity of real-world pest
scenarios. Consequently, the models may
struggle to generalize well to new or evolving
pest populations, reducing their effectiveness.
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Lack of human expertise
AI systems heavily rely on accurate data labeling
and training to make accurate predictions. In
the field of pest management, accurate and
comprehensive datasets can be challenging
to acquire, particularly for emerging pests or
rare scenarios. Without sufficient input from
human experts, AI models may make inaccurate
predictions or fail to adapt to new situations.
Ethical considerations
The use of AI in pest management raises ethical
concerns regarding animal welfare. Automated
systems may make decisions that result in
the unintended harm of beneficial insects or
animals, as AI algorithms typically prioritize the
elimination of pests without considering broader
ecological impacts.
High initial costs
Implementing AI technology for pest
management can involve significant upfront
costs. This includes acquiring the necessary
hardware, software, and skilled personnel to
develop and maintain the AI systems. Small-
scale or financially constrained operations may
find it challenging to adopt AI solutions due to
the associated costs.
Technical limitations
AI models in pest management heavily rely
on data availability, quality, and accuracy. In
situations where data collection is limited, such
as in remote agricultural regions, AI systems
may struggle to provide reliable predictions or
recommendations. Additionally, AI models may
be affected by biases or noise present in the
training data, leading to suboptimal results.
Lack of explain ability
AI models, particularly deep learning models,
are often considered as black boxes, making
it difficult to understand and interpret their
decision-making processes. This lack of
explain ability can be a drawback in pest
management, where it is important for users to
understand the reasoning behind AI-generated
recommendations or predictions.
Reliance on connectivity
AI systems in pest management may require a
reliable internet connection to function optimally,
particularly in cases where data is processed in
the cloud. This reliance on connectivity can be
a disadvantage in areas with poor or unreliable
internet infrastructure.
Despite these drawbacks, ongoing research
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Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
and advancements in AI technology aim to
address these limitations and enhance the
applicability of AI in pest management. It is
21. Insect-Inspired Robotics
RITU BHALL* AND ARVIND
(Ph.D. SCHOLAR - Dept. of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Hisar) Chaudhary Charan
Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana
*Corresponding Author Email: ritubhall7505@gmail.com
Introduction
Insects, with their remarkable adaptability and
efficiency, have captivated the attention of
scientists and engineers for years. The intricate
mechanisms behind their locomotion, sensing
capabilities, and behaviours have inspired the
field of robotics, leading to the development
of insect-inspired robots. These robots, often
referred to as bio-inspired or biomimetic robots,
mimic the characteristics and functionalities of
insects to solve complex challenges in various
domains. This article delves into the exciting
realm of insect-inspired robotics, exploring
their design principles, applications, and future
prospects.
Biomimicry
Biomimicry, also known as bio-inspiration,
aims to emulate nature’s ingenious solutions
to engineering and design challenges. It draws
inspiration from the structures, functions,
and behaviors of living organisms to develop
innovative technologies and systems.
Insect Biomimicry
Insects, with their incredible adaptations, offer
abundant inspiration for biomimetic design.
They excel in locomotion, sensing, perception,
and cooperative behaviour, making them a
fascinating subject for researchers. By mimicking
these abilities, engineers aim to create robots
with similar agility and efficiency.
Understanding Insect Anatomy and
Physiology
A deep understanding of insect anatomy and
physiology is crucial for effective mimicry.
Insects have specialized structures and systems
that enable their unique functionalities. Their
exoskeleton provides support and protection,
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AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
important to weigh the benefits and drawbacks
carefully when considering the adoption of AI
systems in this field.
22546
while efficient muscle systems allow rapid and
precise movements. Compound eyes offer wide
vision, motion detection, and depth perception.
Tactile sensors help navigate and detect
environmental changes, while chemical sensing
aids communication and resource location.
From Nature to Robotics: Design Principles
Translating nature’s principles into robotics
requires the development of biomimetic design
principles. These principles guide engineers
in replicating insect characteristics and
functionalities. Biomimetic design integrates
multiple disciplines, such as mechanical
engineering, materials science, electronics,
and computer science. By incorporating
these principles, robots gain enhanced agility,
manoeuvrability, and adaptability, enabling them
to operate in challenging environments and
perform complex tasks.
Applications of Insect-Inspired Robotics
Insect-inspired robotics, driven by biomimicry,
holds promise in various fields. It offers
solutions for search and rescue operations,
agriculture, environmental monitoring, and
medical applications. By learning from nature’s
adaptations, we can create a future where
technology and nature converge, benefiting
society as a whole.
Insect-Inspired Locomotion:
Insects have evolved a wide array of
locomotion strategies to navigate their diverse
environments. Their remarkable agility,
efficiency, and adaptability in movement have
inspired researchers to develop insect-inspired
robots capable of mimicking these locomotion
techniques. In this section, we explore some
of the key insect-inspired locomotion strategies
that have been successfully incorporated into
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robotic systems.
Legged Locomotion: Walking, Running, and
Jumping Robots
Insects use legged locomotion to navigate
complex terrains, employing various leg
configurations and gaits for stability and
maneuverability. Researchers have created
walking robots that mimic insect leg movements
and coordination, allowing them to traverse
challenging environments like uneven surfaces
and obstacles. Hexapod robots have been
developed for search and rescue missions and
exploring rugged terrains. Additionally, insect-
inspired robots can run and jump by studying
the elasticity of insect legs. These jumping
robots utilize specialized leg mechanisms,
elastic materials, and precise control algorithms
to achieve impressive leaps, overcoming
obstacles and covering long distances efficiently.
Overall, legged locomotion in insects serves as
inspiration for creating robots that can navigate
difficult terrains with stability and agility.
Flight: Mimicking the Aerial Prowess of
Insects
Insects’ remarkable flight capabilities serve as
inspiration for the development of aerial robots
with enhanced agility and manoeuvrability.
Flapping-wing robots, known as ornithopters,
imitate the wing motions of insects and birds
to achieve lift and propulsion. By replicating
intricate wing kinematics and aerodynamic
principles, these robots can hover, navigate
tight spaces, and mimic the flight patterns of
their biological counterparts. Insect-inspired
flying robots have applications in surveillance,
environmental monitoring, and pollination. For
instance, miniature robotic insects equipped with
cameras and sensors can be deployed for aerial
surveillance in disaster zones or inaccessible
areas. Pollination drones, inspired by the flight
and foraging behaviours of bees, can address
declining pollinator populations and assist in
crop pollination. These insect-inspired flying
robots offer innovative solutions in various fields,
capitalizing on the incredible flight strategies of
insects.
Undulatory Locomotion: Slithering and
Swimming Robots
Insects have also mastered undulatory
locomotion, which involves the propagation of
waves along their bodies. This type of locomotion
is employed by creatures like snakes, worms, and
certain insects, allowing them to move efficiently
in confined spaces or aquatic environments.
Researchers have developed robots that
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replicate undulatory locomotion for applications
such as exploration in narrow pipes, underwater
inspection, or search and rescue operations
in debris-filled environments. These robots
utilize flexible bodies or modular segments that
can mimic the undulating movements seen in
nature. By flexing and extending their bodies in
a wave-like motion, they can navigate complex
terrains or propel through water with efficiency
and agility. Undulatory locomotion also finds
application in soft robotics, a field that focuses
on the development of robots with compliant
and deformable bodies. By mimicking the soft
and flexible structures of insects, these robots
can adapt to unpredictable environments,
squeeze through tight spaces, and interact safely
with humans.
Sensing and Perception
Vision: Insect-Inspired Visual Systems
Insects possess extraordinary visual systems
that have evolved to detect and process visual
information with incredible efficiency. By
studying and emulating these visual systems,
researchers have developed insect-inspired
robots with enhanced vision capabilities. These
robots utilize technologies such as compound
eyes and motion detection mechanisms to
navigate complex environments, detect objects,
and track fast-moving targets. Inspired by nature’s
engineering, insect-inspired visual systems offer
promising advancements in robotics, enabling
robots to see the world through an insect’s eyes.
Tactile Sensing
Insects possess a remarkable sense of touch
that allows them to navigate their environment,
detect obstacles, and interact with objects.
Their tactile sensing systems, such as hairs or
setae on their bodies, enable them to perceive
changes in pressure, texture, and vibrations.
Inspired by these capabilities, researchers have
developed tactile sensing technologies for
robots. Tactile sensors, often made of flexible
materials, mimic the structure and function of
insect mechanoreceptors. These sensors can
detect contact, pressure, and texture variations,
providing valuable feedback for robotic systems.
By integrating tactile sensors into robot grippers,
fingers, or even entire robotic bodies, robots can
manipulate objects with increased dexterity,
adapt to changes in their environment, and
ensure safe interactions with humans. The
development of bio-inspired tactile sensing has
applications in various fields, including robotics
for manufacturing, prosthetics, and human-robot
interaction. Robots equipped with tactile sensing
capabilities can perform delicate tasks, such as
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object recognition or handling fragile items, with
greater precision and sensitivity.
Olfaction: Bio-Inspired Chemical Sensing
Insects rely heavily on their sense of smell,
or olfaction, for various behaviours, including
locating food, finding mates, and avoiding
predators. Their olfactory systems are highly
sensitive and can detect and distinguish a
wide range of chemical compounds. Inspired
by these capabilities, researchers have been
working on developing bio-inspired chemical
sensing systems for robots. Bio-inspired
chemical sensors utilize various techniques,
such as microfabrication, nanotechnology, and
biomimetic receptor molecules, to mimic the
odour detection mechanisms found in insects.
These sensors can detect and identify specific
chemicals or odour patterns, similar to how
insects recognize pheromones or locate food
sources. Applications of bio-inspired chemical
sensing in robotics include environmental
monitoring, agriculture, and explosive detection.
For example, robots equipped with olfactory
sensors can be deployed in polluted areas
to monitor air quality or detect hazardous
substances. In agriculture, these sensors can
help identify crop diseases or pests by detecting
specific chemical signals emitted by plants or
insects. Furthermore, bio-inspired chemical
sensing has been utilized in security applications,
where robots equipped with odour sensors can
detect explosives or narcotics.
Auditory Perception: Bioacoustics and
Hearing in Robots
Insects exhibit fascinating auditory systems that
enable them to communicate, detect predators,
and locate potential mates through sound. The
study of bioacoustics in insects has inspired
the development of auditory perception in
robots. Bio-inspired auditory systems in robots
involve the use of microphones or specialized
acoustic sensors to capture and process sound
signals. These sensors mimic the structure and
functionality of insect ears, which can detect a
broad range of frequencies and localize sound
sources with remarkable precision. Robots with
auditory perception capabilities can be applied
in various domains. For example, in surveillance
and security applications, robots equipped with
bio-inspired auditory systems can detect and
analyse sounds to identify specific events or
anomalies in their environment. In industrial
settings, they can help detect and diagnose
machinery malfunctions based on sound
patterns. Furthermore, in assistive robotics,
robots with auditory perception can respond
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AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
to verbal commands or assist individuals with
hearing impairments. By incorporating insect-
inspired auditory perception, robots can
augment their capabilities in environmental
awareness, communication, and interaction
with the surrounding world.
Cooperative Swarm Behaviour
Insect colonies, such as ants and bees,
exhibit remarkable collective behaviours and
intelligence that have captivated researchers
for years. Swarm intelligence, inspired by these
insect colonies, refers to the ability of a large
group of simple individuals to collectively solve
complex problems and exhibit sophisticated
behaviours. By studying and emulating these
natural systems, researchers have developed
swarm robotics, a field that focuses on the
coordination and cooperation of large groups of
robots to accomplish tasks. swarm intelligence
and swarm robotics, inspired by the collective
behaviours of insect colonies, offer a new
paradigm for robotic systems. By harnessing the
power of cooperation, decentralized control,
and self-organization, swarm robotics holds
immense potential in solving complex problems
and advancing various fields, from environmental
monitoring and disaster response to agriculture
and industrial automation. As research in
this field progresses, we can expect further
innovations and applications that leverage the
lessons learned from insect colonies.
Applications of Insect-Inspired Robotics
Search and Rescue Operations
Insect-inspired robots can play a crucial role
in search and rescue operations during natural
disasters or hazardous situations. These robots
are designed to navigate through complex
and inaccessible terrains, including rubble,
debris, or collapsed structures. By mimicking
the locomotion capabilities of insects, such as
walking, crawling, or flying, these robots can
locate and assist survivors, collect data, and
assess the safety of the environment. They
provide a safer and more efficient alternative to
human rescuers, particularly in situations where
human access is limited or dangerous.
Environmental Monitoring
Insect-inspired robotic systems have the potential
to revolutionize environmental monitoring
efforts. By mimicking the sensing capabilities
of insects, such as chemical sensing or visual
perception, these robots can collect data on air
quality, water pollution, temperature, humidity,
and more. Equipped with sensors and cameras,
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they can be deployed in various ecosystems,
including forests, oceans, or urban areas, to
monitor and analyse environmental conditions.
This information can aid in early detection of
environmental threats, conservation efforts, and
the study of ecological systems.
Agriculture and Pollination
Insect-inspired robotics can significantly impact
the field of agriculture by assisting in crop
monitoring, pollination, and pest control. Robots
designed to mimic the behaviours of bees or
other pollinators can aid in the pollination of
crops, particularly in areas facing a decline in
natural pollinator populations. These robots can
carry pollen from flower to flower, ensuring the
reproduction of plants and maximizing crop
yield. Additionally, insect-inspired robots can be
used for monitoring crop health, identifying pests,
and applying targeted treatments, reducing the
reliance on chemical pesticides and improving
agricultural sustainability.
Micro-Scale Robotics
Insect-inspired robotics is particularly relevant
in the development of micro-scale robots.
Miniaturized robots that replicate the size and
capabilities of insects can be used in a wide range
of applications, including medical procedures,
targeted drug delivery, and exploration of
confined spaces. These robots can navigate
through intricate structures, access remote areas
of the human body, or perform precise tasks at
a microscopic scale. They have the potential
to revolutionize minimally invasive surgeries,
disease diagnosis, and the development of
personalized medical treatments.
Human-Robot Interaction and Assistive
Robotics
Insect-inspired robotics also has implications for
human-robot interaction and assistive robotics.
Robots that mimic the locomotion, perception,
and communication abilities of insects can
facilitate seamless interactions with humans in
various settings. They can assist in tasks such as
household chores, elderly care, or rehabilitation
exercises. These robots can also be designed to
50 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
provide companionship and emotional support.
By incorporating insect-inspired behaviours
and biomimetic design principles, robots can
enhance their ability to understand and respond
to human needs, leading to improved quality of
life for individuals.
Challenges and Future Perspectives
While insect-inspired robotics has made
significant strides, several challenges and
future perspectives remain. Miniaturization
of components, power efficiency, and the
integration of complex control algorithms are
ongoing challenges. Additionally, replicating the
intricate biomechanics and sensory capabilities
of insects poses technical difficulties. Future
research aims to address these challenges by
advancing materials science, developing more
efficient power sources, and exploring advanced
control systems. Moreover, the integration of
artificial intelligence and swarm intelligence
algorithms offers exciting prospects for the future
of insect robotics, enabling more sophisticated
and autonomous behaviours in robotic systems.
Conclusion
Insect-inspired robotics represents a remarkable
convergence of biology, engineering, and
robotics. By drawing inspiration from the natural
world, scientists and engineers have unlocked
new possibilities in robotics design, enabling
the development of agile, efficient, and versatile
machines. Insect-inspired robots have already
found applications in various fields, from search
and rescue operations to precision agriculture.
However, several challenges lie ahead, including
power efficiency, miniaturization, and ethical
considerations. With continued advancements
in materials science, sensor technology, and
artificial intelligence, the future of insect-inspired
robotics appears promising. As we delve deeper
into nature’s engineering secrets, we can
harness the extraordinary capabilities of insects
to create a future where robotic systems coexist
and collaborate with humans, enhancing our
lives and pushing the boundaries of exploration
and innovation.
Entomology
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER

22559

22. Pests and Diseases of Silkworm and

their Management
MR. AKASH V. MORE
Senior Research Fellow, Agril. Entomology, Organic Farming Research and Training
Centre, MPKV, Rahuri, Ahmednagar.

Pests of Silkworm and their Management
Uzifly
Scientific name: Exorista soebillans
Type of Damage
 Mature maggot causes reduction in yield of
cocoons and cocoon quality.
 Causes death of silkworm larva.
Symptoms
 Presence of creamy white oval eggs on the
skin of larvae in the initial stage.
doses @ 8000, 16,000 and 76,000/100 DFLs
during 4thand 5thinstars and after cocoon
harvest.
Beetles
Scientific name: Dremestes cadeverinus
Types of Damage
 The adults and grub and other dermestid
beetls are attracted to the smell of cocoons
in storage.
Symptoms
 They eat of cocoons, enclosed pupa and
often the eggs of silkworms.

Uzifly
 Presence of black scar on the larval skin.
 Silkworm larvae die before they reach the
Beetles
spinning stage.
 In later stage, pierced cocoon is noticed.  The females of these beetles lay their eggs in
creviceps, organic and wooden boards.
 Period of occurrence: Throughout the year,
severity is more in winter months. Management
Management  Occasionally, the rooms could be fumigated
with CH3 Br (Methyl bromide).
 Maintain sanitary and hygienic conditions in
the rearing room. Ants
 Provide physical barriers like wire mesh in The attack on silkworms in earning trays.
the doors and windows of the rearing rooms.
 Spray 1 % benzoic acid over the larvae to kill
the eggs of uzifly.
 Dissolve the uzicide tablets in the water (2
tablets/lit.) to attract the adults.
 Release the gregarious, ectopupal
hyperparasitoid, Nesolynx thymus
(Eulophidae: Hymenoptera) @ 1 lakh
adults/100 DFLs during night hours.
Ants
 Release the hyperparasitoid in three split

Entomology 51 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03

 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
Management
 At the time of spinning ash or kerosene is put
at the handles of mountages to keep the ants
off.
Diseases of Silkworm and their Management
Viral Disease –1) Grasserie and 2) Flacherie
Symptom
 The larvae will be sluggish with swollen
intersegmental region.
 The integument of diseases larvae will be
fragile and brakes easily.
 On injury milky fluid containing many
polyhedral inclusion bodies oozes out from
the larval body.
 The diseases larvae do not settle for moult
and show shining integument.
 The larvae appear to be restless.
 The dead larvae hand by hind legs head
downward.
Grasserie
Flacherie
Management
 Sun drying of rearing appliances for one/two
days.
 Disinfection of rearing room and appliances
with 5% bleaching powder.
 Disinfection of worms, trays and discarding
of diseased worms.
 Ensure proper ventilation and air circulation.
 Provide proper bed spacing.
 Feed the larvae with nutritious mulberry
leaves.
 Collect and burn infected larvae, faecal
matter and bed refuses.
 Early diagnosis and rejection of infected lots.
 Dust the bed disinfectant, Vijetha (or)
52 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
Resham KeetOushadh on the larvae, after
each moult and ½ hr. before resumption of
feeding (3 kg/100 DFLs).
 Spray 1% of extract of Psoralea coryleifoliaon
mulberry leaves, shade dry and feed worms
once during third instars.
Bacterial Diseases
Symptom
 Bacteria and viruses cause the disease
individually or in combination.
 Fluctuating temperature and humidity
and poor-quality mulberry predispose the
disease development.
 The diseased larvae will be stunted in
growth, dill lethargic soft and appear flaccid.
 The cephalothoracic region may be
translucent.
Bacterial Diseases
 The larvae vomit gut juice, develop dysentery
and excrete chain type fecus.
 The larvae on death putrefy, develop
different and emit foul smell.
Management
 Maintenance of hygienic condition.
 Disinfection of rearing room and appliances.
 Disinfection of worms, trace and discarding
of sick worms.
 Avoid injury to the worms, overcrowding
of trays and accumulation of faeces in the
rearing bed.
 Sound management, improving the rearing
environment and feed stuff.
 Feeding the larvae with healthy nutritious
leaves.
 Early diagnosis and rejection of infected lots.
 Avoid spraying commercial B. t. insecticides
in nearby mulberry field.
 Apply antibiotics like Streptomycin/
Entomology
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
Tetracyclin/Ampicillin.
Fungal Diseases - Muscardine
Symptom
 White muscadine is caused by a fungus
Beauveria bassiana and the green
muscadine is caused by a fungus Spicaria
prasina.
 The diseases larvae prior to death will be
lethargic and on death are flaccid.
 Oil specks may be seen on the surface of
larvae.
 They gradually be fome hard, dry and
mummify into a white or green coloured
structure.
Muscardine
 The diseases pupae will be hard, lighter and
mummifies.
Management
 Sundry the rearing appliances.
 Disinfect the rearing room and utensils with
5 per cent bleaching powder.
 Avoid low temperature and high humidity in
the rearing room.
S E R ICULT UR E
23. Host Plants of Eri Silkworm
G. SWATHIGA AND S. RANJITH KUMAR
Forest College and Research Institute, Mettupalayam
*Corresponding Author Email: swathiga.g@gmail.com
Introduction
Eri culture is mostly confined to the Brahmaputra
valley of Assam in the tribal inhabited districts. It is
also practiced in few districts of the neighbouring
states mainly Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur
Sericulture
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
 Keep the rearing bed thin and dry.
 Early diagnosis and rejection of infected lots.
 Apply Dithane M45 (3 kg/100 DFLs) / Vijetha
supplement as disinfectant on the larvae
 Disinfect rearing rooms and trays with 4 %
pentachlorophenol to control Aspergillosis.
Protozoan Disease: Pebrine
 Diseases larvae show slow growth,
undersized body and poor appetite.
 Diseases larvae reveal pale and flaccid body.
Tiny black spots appear on larval integument.
 Dead larvae remain rubbery and do not
undergo putrefaction shortly after death.
Pebrine
Management
 Produce healthy eggs
 Disinfection of rearing room and utensils
 Maintain strict hygienic conditions during
rearing
 Surface disinfects the laying in 2 per cent
formalin for 10 minutes before incubation.
 Collect and burn the diseased eggs, larvae,
pupae and moths, bed refuses, faecal
pellets, etc.
22543
and Arunachal Pradesh. A small quantity of eri
cultivation is also practiced in Bihar, West Bengal,
Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Uttaranchal,
Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh etc., Eri silkworm is
polyphagous and feeds on a wide range of host
plants.
53 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023

Host Plants of Eri Silkworm metre apart and to add 1 Kg FYM to each pit and
cover with soil before sowing. In many parts of
S. Common the country, no pits are dug and FYM (10 MT/
Scientific name Family
No name ha) is broadcast before sowing. Well-matured
Primary host plants healthy seeds are treated with Bavistin at the
1. Castor Ricinus communis Euphorbiaceae rate of 2 g/kg to prevent any fungal infection and
Secondary host plants two or three seeds are inserted into the soil at a
1. Tapioca Manihot esculenta Euphorbiaceae depth of 2.50 - 3.00 cm at one point maintaining
2. Kesseru Heteropanax Araliaceae the required spacing and irrigated. Germination
fragrans takes place after 7-10 days.
3. Payam Evodia flaxinifolia Rutaceae
Tertiary host plants
1. Bar kesseru Ailanthus excelsa Simaroubaceae
2. Papaya Carica papaya Caricaceae
3. Jatropha Jatropha curcas Euphorbiaceae
4. Gulanhiphool/ Plumeria acutifolia Apocyanaceae
Champa
5. Pagoda tree/ Plumeria rubra Apocyanaceae
temple tree
6. Korha Sapium Euphorbiaceae
eugenifolium
7. Ber Zyzypus mauritiana Rhamnaceae
Eri group comprises of Eri (Samia ricini
Donovan and Samia cynthia) is widely available.
Besides this wild silkworm like Attacus atlas and
Cricula species are distributed in this region. Castor plant
Castor (Ricinus communis Linn.) is primary food When the seedlings are sufficiently grown,
plants of Eri silkworm and commonly distributed one healthy seedling per pit is retained and the
in this region. However, Kesseru (Heteropanas rest are removed. Nitrogen, Phosphorus and
fragrans Roxb.) is also considered as another Potash (NPK) are applied @ 60:40:20 kg/ha as a
primary perennial host plants. Besides these two, basal dose one month after germination of the
eri silkworm being polyphagous feeds on several seeds. A second dose of 30 kg nitrogen/ha is
alternative food plants viz. Barkesseru (Ailanthus applied when the plants are three months old.
excels Roxb.), Barpat (Ailanthus grandis), Tapioca Light digging and weeding are carried out prior
(Manihot esculanta Crantz), Gulancha (Plumeria to application of fertilizer. First leaf harvest is
acutifolia), Gamari (Gmelina arborea), Payam taken 3 months after plantation and thereafter
(Evodia flaxinifolia), are endemic to this region. every alternate month except in winter. Thus,
four leaf harvests are made from an annual crop
Primary Host Plant variety. About 12 -14 MT of leaf can be harvested
in all in high rainfall zones or under irrigated
Castor – Ricinus Communis system. Contrary to this, the leaf yield reported
The castor plant can easily be cultivated in from arid zone was only 1.50 MT / ha from a
diverse climatic conditions. It is grown in poor single harvest. Castor can survive even with
sandy to rich alluvial soil texture and also in very little soil moisture but cannot survive water
heavy black cotton soil with a clay content of stagnation. Therefore, it is cultivated largely
80 – 90%. The propagation is through seeds only under rain-fed system and even in draughtprone
in Castor. The non blooming (non-powdery) areas. In many areas, it is cultivated as intercrop
varieties are preferred for silkworm rearing as along with other crops like chilly, red gram, etc.
the waxy coating on the leaves usually works or as bund crop.
as anti-feedant for the silkworm. March-April
is the best season for sowing of Castor in the Varieties of Castor Leaves Suitable for Eri
North-East region of India. Sowing is also done Rearing
in September-October. But, in other parts of the
In the context of Eri silkworm rearing, there are
country, sowing is done up to July.
specific varieties or cultivars of castor plants
The land is ploughed 2-3 times to a depth (Ricinus communis) that are known to be
of 20 - 25 cm and leveled. It is recommended to suitable for providing nutritious leaves for the
make pits of 25 x 25 x 20 cm size (LxBxD) one larvae. Here are a few varieties commonly used

54 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03 Sericulture

Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
for Eri silkworm rearing:
1. MD-72: MD-72 is a popular castor variety
known for its suitability in Eri silkworm
rearing. It is recognized for its high leaf
yield and nutritional content, making it an
excellent choice for supporting the growth
and development of Eri silkworm larvae.
2. TMVCH-3: TMVCH-3 is another castor
variety that is commonly used for Eri
silkworm rearing. It is known for its high leaf
production and nutritional quality, making it
a preferred choice for sericulture activities
involving Eri silkworms.
3. GAUCH-1: GAUCH-1 is a castor variety
that has been specifically developed for
sericulture purposes, including Eri silkworm
rearing. It is characterized by high leaf
productivity and nutritional value, ensuring a
sufficient food supply for the larvae.
These are just a few examples of castor
varieties that have been found suitable for Eri
silkworm rearing. It’s important to note that the
choice of castor variety may vary depending
on factors such as local climate, availability
of seeds, and specific regional preferences.
Local agricultural authorities and sericulture
institutions in Eri silk-producing regions can
provide more specific recommendations on
suitable castor varieties for optimal Eri silkworm
rearing.
Secondary Food Plants
Tapioca - Manihot Utilissima
Manihot utilissima is commonly known as
Tapioca or Cassava. It belongs to the family
Euphorbiaceae under Euphorbiales. Tapioca is
cultivated for its edible tubers in many part of
the world. It is a tropical tender perennial plant
whose height varies from 120 to 180 cm.
Kesseru plant
Tapioca is generally grown in the humid
tropical climate as experienced in states like
Sericulture
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. In
nature, the propagation of Tapioca is through
seeds. Under cultivated conditions, it is
propagated through soft wood stem cuttings or
cuttings of tuberous roots planted at a spacing
of 90-120 cm. It prefers well drained light loamy
or sandy loam soils. The method of cultivation of
Tapioca is very simple. Normally, 12,500 cuttings
are required for one hectare.
Cultivation Practices of Tapioca
Cultivating tapioca as a food source for Eri
silkworm rearing requires specific cultivation
practices to ensure a sufficient supply of leaves
for the larvae. Here are the general cultivation
practices for cassava in the context of Eri
silkworm rearing:
1. Land Preparation: Select a well-drained
area with deep, fertile soil for cassava
cultivation. Clear the land from weeds and
prepare the soil by plowing and leveling.
Incorporate organic matter or compost into
the soil to improve its fertility.
2. Planting Material: Cassava can be
propagated through stem cuttings. Select
healthy and disease-free stems for planting.
Cut the stems into sections of about 15-20
cm in length, ensuring that each section has
at least 3-4 nodes.
3. Planting: Plant the cassava stem cuttings
in rows or pits. Dig holes or furrows at a
spacing of about 1-1.5 meters between rows
and 0.5-1 meter between plants. Plant the
stem cuttings vertically, burying them about
5-10 cm deep in the soil.
4. Irrigation: Provide regular irrigation to the
cassava plants, especially during the early
stages of growth. Cassava requires adequate
water supply for optimal growth and leaf
production.
5. Fertilization: Cassava plants benefit from
balanced fertilization. Apply organic or
inorganic fertilizers based on soil test results
and local recommendations. The specific
fertilizer requirements may vary depending
on soil conditions and nutrient levels.
6. Weed Control: Implement weed control
measures to minimize competition for
nutrients, water, and light. Regular weeding
or mulching around the cassava plants can
help suppress weed growth and improve
their productivity.
7. Pest and Disease Management: Monitor the
cassava plants for any pest or disease issues
and take appropriate measures to control
them. Common pests that can affect cassava
55 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
include mealybugs, spider mites, and
whiteflies. Disease management practices
such as crop rotation and maintaining plant
health are essential.
8. Harvesting Leaves: Cassava leaves can
be harvested for Eri silkworm rearing once
the plants reach a suitable height and have
enough foliage. Select healthy leaves from
different parts of the plant while leaving
some leaves to sustain plant growth.
It’s important to note that while cassava
leaves can be used as a food source for
Eri silkworms, the primary use of cassava
worldwide is for its starchy tubers rather than the
leaves. Therefore, cultivating cassava specifically
for Eri silkworm rearing might not be a common
practice in all regions. Local knowledge and
expertise in sericulture can provide more specific
guidance on the suitability and cultivation
practices of cassava for Eri silkworm rearing in
your particular area.
Kesseru - Heteropanax Fragrans
Kesseru is widely used as a best perennial food
plant for eri silkworm rearing. It belongs to family
Araliaceae is ranked second among all the food
EX TE N S IO N E D U C AT IO N AN D R UR AL D EVELOPMEN T
24. Gender Issues in Agriculture
KATTA SRAVAN NAGA AND PARIMALA KUMAR1
Research Scholar1; 1&2Department of Agricultural Communication, G.B. Pant University of
Agriculture & Technology,
*Corresponding Author Email: KSNPkumar@gmail.com
Introduction
Gender issues in agriculture refer to the unequal
distribution of resources, opportunities, and
decision-making power between men and
women in the agricultural sector. Women
play a crucial role in agriculture, contributing
significantly to food production, food security,
and rural development. However, they often
face numerous challenges and barriers that limit
their full participation and hinder their potential
impact. There is need to explore and analyze the
gender issues in agriculture, examine the key
factors contributing to gender inequalities, and
56 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
plants of eri silkworm next to castor. It is widely
distributed in the North Eastern region of India,
both in wild and cultivated conditions. Taking
the advantage of its perennial nature, Kesseru
is being utilized in various developmental
schemes of Central Silk Board, Govt. of India
like Augmentation of Eri food plant, Catalytic
Development Programme, Cluster Promotion
Programme, etc.
Eri host plant, Kesseru, Heteropanax
fragrans (Roxb.) Seem is a perennial tree. Its
leaves are hard and fibrous. It is difficult for
worms, in chewing the leaves as compared to
castor. However, cocoons harvested from the
worms fed with Kesseru are compact. Hence, it
takes more time for de-gumming during spinning
as compared to castor fed ones. Feeding of
kesseru foliage during late instars rearing is more
suitable.
The method of harvest of leaves depends
on the rearing practices in vogue in the locality
or nation. From the fourth year onwards, three
leaf harvests can be made in a year per hectare
- 1) April-May (5,500 kg), 2) August- September
(5,500 kg) and 3) December-February (4,000 kg).
22538
propose strategies to address these challenges.
Gender Inequalities in Agricultural Resources
Access to Land
Women’s access to land is limited in many regions,
resulting in reduced agricultural productivity
and economic opportunities. Cultural norms,
legal barriers, and discriminatory practices
often restrict women’s rights to own and inherit
land, leaving them dependent on male family
members for access to land resources.
Extension Education and Rural Development
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
Access to Credit and Finance
Women face significant challenges in accessing
credit and finance for agricultural activities.
Financial institutions often require collateral;
which women may not possess due to limited
land ownership. Moreover, gender biases and
stereotypes result in lower loan approval rates
for women, hindering their ability to invest in
productive agricultural activities.
Access to Technology and Information
Women also encounter barriers to accessing
agricultural technologies and information.
Limited training opportunities and a lack of
extension services specifically targeting women
contribute to the gender gap in adopting modern
agricultural practices. Additionally, women
often have limited access to mobile phones, the
internet, and other communication tools that
provide vital agricultural information.
Gender Division of Labor in Agriculture
Unpaid Care Work
Women bear a disproportionate burden of
unpaid care work, including household chores,
childcare, and elderly care. This limits their
time and energy for engaging in productive
agricultural activities, constraining their potential
contribution to the sector.
Occupational Segregation
There is a significant occupational segregation
in agriculture, with women often concentrated
in low-paid and low-skilled roles. Men
typically dominate ownership, management,
and high-skilled positions, while women are
predominantly engaged in subsistence farming,
unpaid family labor, and informal agricultural
work.
Gender and Agricultural Productivity
Women’s Contribution to Food Production
Despite their limited access to resources
and opportunities, women make substantial
contributions to food production globally. Closing
the gender gap in access to productive resources,
such as land, finance, and technology, has the
potential to increase agricultural productivity and
improve food security.
Empowering Women Farmers
Empowering women farmers through capacity
building, training, and access to resources can
enhance their productivity and income. Providing
gender-sensitive extension services, tailoring
Extension Education and Rural Development
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
financial products, and promoting women’s
participation in decision-making processes can
enable women to fully utilize their skills and
knowledge in agriculture.
Strategies to Address Gender Issues in
Agriculture
Policy and Legal Reforms
Enacting and enforcing laws and policies that
promote gender equality in agriculture is crucial.
This includes legislation ensuring women’s land
rights, eliminating gender-based discrimination,
and promoting equal opportunities for women in
agricultural institutions and organizations.
Capacity Building and Training
Investing in gender-responsive training and
capacity-building programs for women in
agriculture can enhance their skills, knowledge,
and confidence. Providing technical training on
modern agricultural practices, financial literacy,
and entrepreneurship can empower women to
adopt innovative approaches and improve their
productivity.
Access to Finance and Markets
Facilitating women’s access to credit, savings,
and insurance services can enable them to
invest in productive agricultural activities and
manage risks effectively. Promoting women’s
participation in agricultural value chains and
providing market linkages can enhance their
income-earning opportunities and economic
empowerment.
Conclusion
Addressing gender issues in agriculture is
essential for achieving sustainable agricultural
development, food security, and rural livelihoods.
By promoting gender equality in access to
resources, improving women’s participation
in decision-making, and empowering women
farmers, the agricultural sector can unlock the
full potential of women’s contributions. Efforts
from governments, civil society organizations,
and development partners are crucial to creating
an enabling environment that supports gender
equality in agriculture, leading to more inclusive
and sustainable rural communities.
References
Agarwal, B. (2010). Gender and land rights revisited:
Exploring new prospects via the state, family,
and market Journal of Agrarian Change, 10(1),
184–224.
Doss, C. and Kieran, C. (2014). Analyzing gender
57 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
differences in agricultural productivity, Journal of
Development Studies, 50(11), 1570–1593.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO) (2011) The State of Food and
Agriculture 2010–2011: Women in Agriculture:
Closing the Gender Gap for Development FAO.
International Fund for Agricultural Development
25. Publishing Social Science Research
Findings: Need and Its Importance
VIKAS CHOWHAN*, RAKESH BHATTHAD AND S. RAGUNATH
Ph.D. Scholars, Department of Agricultural Extension Education, University of Agricultural
Sciences, Raichur- 584104, Karnataka, INDIA
*Corresponding Author Email: vikas.chowhan49@gmail.com
Publishing sound research findings is vital for
the progress of science. Publishing allows free
exchange of information and allows one’s
research findings to be added to the literature
on a given subject and will also help in building
new theories and developing new policies. It
also ensures and promotes accountability of
researchers to the investments made by the
government or shareholders who have funded it
through taxes or contributions. Apart from these,
publishing also helps the researcher in gaining
feedback on his/her work, improving career
prospects, securing new research funding, and
gaining credibility as an expert on a specific
research domain or topic.
Researchers aim at understanding problems
and often providing solutions to address these.
Some develop technologies which make human
life better and easier by saving time and other
resources. Through continuous research they
try to address existing and expected problems
and come up with technologies/practices which
may replace, modify or refine the existing ones.
Publications serve as one of the important
windows of the research output. Publications
primarily help researchers working in similar areas
to gather information on recent developments in
their field of study. It also helps the authors to
get feedback on their work and get motivated
to purse their research in new directions as
suggested. The authors also get credit for their
published work through its use as an indicator
of performance in career advancement and
grant of research funds. From the donors (public
and private) who fund research, publications
58 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 03
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
(IFAD) (2017) Rural women and girls: Catalyzing
change in agriculture and rural areas IFAD.
Quisumbing, A. R., Rubin, D., Manfre, C., Waithanji,
E., van den Bold, M., Olney, D. and Meinzen-Dick,
R. (2015). Closing the gender asset gap: Learning
from value chain development in Africa and Asia,
Agricultural Economics, 46 (S1), 105–124
22548
serve as a measure of accountability. Apart
from all these, the publications help the wider
community of knowledge users to know about
the new knowledge generated through research.
Why Publishing is Important?
 Convey something important
 Share your work
 Change practice
 Promote thoughts or stimulate debate
 Propose guidelines, principles and
suggestions
 Educate
 Help academies and industries implement
in real time
 Get into high impact journal
 Recognition
 Build your portfolio
 Advance your career
 Credibility with colleagues
 Royalties, Incentives & Remuneration
 Joint Proposals & Funding
 Collaboration
Challenges in Publishing
 Choosing the Suitable Conference and
Journal
 Publication Type: Open Access Journal
versus Traditional Journal?
 Language and Style
Extension Education and Rural Development
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
 Plagiarism and Similarities
 Publication Time (rapid publication)
 Publication Cost
 Complexity of Peer Review System Copyright
issues
 Following Author Guidelines
Academic/Journal Publishing
Academic publishing has suffered mainly due to
the limitations in quantity and quality of research.
The quality of journals has also declined due to:
1. Lack of willingness and capacity of
researchers to take up quality research to
produce quality output.
2. Lack of capacity to prepare quality research
papers (drafting skills/articulation/language).
3. Lack of serious review of submitted papers
by editors/editorial committee members/
reviewers.
The first and foremost measure to address
these problems is to enhance the quality of
research. This depends on the methodological
rigour and ability to produce results that can be
generalised across similar systems. Secondly,
researchers should reach out to other relevant
and general agricultural journals having higher
rating and professional standing to publish
their quality research work. Thirdly, one should
understand the requirements of different journals
and the format/style of the journal before actually
writing the paper. “Every journal has its audience,
history, format, and type of complexity, be it
methodologically or conceptually. It is best to
know your target journal upfront and specifically
write for that, keeping all expectations of that
journal in mind” (Mulder, 2016).
What Do Editors and Reviewers Look for From
Journal Articles?
1. Relevance of core results and conclusions to
the specific focus of the journal (scope and
objectives of the journal), extension policy,
extension practice.
2. Novelty of the research problem: A novel
research problem which addresses a global
issue.
3. Conceptual framework used linked to the
quality of the review of literature (findings
from the latest papers relevant to the topic
you are discussing, different dimensions
related to the topic).
4. Rigour in methodology: Appropriateness
of research methods to the nature of the
problem studied/ experimented, including
data analysis techniques.
Extension Education and Rural Development
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
5. Extent of adherence to the journal’s
specifications (Author Guidelines).
6. Clarity of presentation: Structure, coherence
(logical flow of ideas), use of correct
grammar and spelling.
Though journals do differ on the reviewer
guidelines, I think the above aspects are perhaps
common across all journals. Reviewers make
recommendations to the Editor to publish, or to
publish with minor/ major revisions suggested, or
to reject the paper entirely. Generally, reviewers
explain in detail the reasons for revision and
how the paper could be revised. Sometimes the
same reviewer also goes through the revised
version to make sure that the quality of the paper
has improved by following his/ her comments.
It should be noted here that reputable journals
publish only about less than 20% of the
manuscripts it receives. There are several
reasons for rejection of research manuscripts.
Common Reasons for Rejection of Research
Articles
 A lack of a conceptual or theoretical
framework.
 The language which is used is difficult to
understand.
 An insufficient or incomplete problem
statement (which does not address a general
practical or scientific problem, or does not
contribute to the advancement of agricultural
education and theory development).
 The presentation of inaccurate or
inconsistent data.
 An outdated review of literature, which does
not link with current mainstream research in
the journals.
 A sampling method which is inappropriate
or insufficiently described (the research
methods are not documented in a way that
informs the readers on how to repeat the
study).
 Conclusions which are not related to the
research question.
Inexperienced scholars should understand
a few key aspects of the revision process.
First, it is important to address the revisions
diligently; second, it is imperative to address
all the comments received from the reviewers
and avoid oversights; third, the resubmission
of the revised manuscript must happen by
the deadline provided by the journal; fourth,
the revision process might comprise multiple
rounds (Shaikh, 2016). One need not necessarily
agree with all the comments of the reviewer, but
should respond politely to all the comments in
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 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
detail, clearly indicating how one has addressed
the comments in the revised version. In case
of disagreement, provide details, including
publications to support your argument.
Beyond Research Journals
In addition to publishing research results in peer-
reviewed journals, books, working papers and
conference proceedings which are accessed
mainly by fellow researchers, researchers can,
and should, publish in other formats which
many others mostly access. For instance, policy
makers, especially senior bureaucrats in the
Ministry of Agriculture or Rural Development are
keen to learn from the researchers’ experience
with field level implementation of a programme
for which he/she is responsible. Similarly, the
Members of Parliament, other senior officials
representing different organisations/enterprises
in the agri-food innovation system might be
interested in knowing about the performance
of extension and how it could be improved. But
many members of this diverse audience often
do not access research journals to know about
these aspects due to lack of time and/or low
aptitude for reading relatively dense and complex
presentations of findings in research journals.
Researchers should also meet the knowledge
requirements of these wider set of actors too.
Some of the relevant forms of publishing non-
journal articles are discussed below.
Policy Briefs
A policy brief is a stand-alone document, usually
a 4-page document that presents the findings
and recommendations from research to a policy
relevant audience. It should offer policy makers
specific recommendations on what needs to be
done and how and what are the implications for
such action.
Social Media Publishing
Social media has over the past one decade
become one of the most important sources
of information and advice for those who have
access to the internet. Increasingly, social media
are also used for science communication. Social
media publishing is the process of strategizing,
planning, creating, scheduling, and distributing
your social media content across a variety of
social media platforms, forums, and blogging
sites.
This is especially true for many of us who
gain new insights and experience on the job
which are relevant to a wider audience, but
which can’t be communicated as a journal
paper. Social media provide you with the right
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platform to share your views, opinions, and the
lessons you have learnt through the internet. You
could either start/open your own social media
account on the internet or publish your write-up
on others accounts. Social media platforms are
increasingly used as a ‘teaser’ to promote more
detailed research outputs, such as policy papers
and journal outputs, by several researchers
currently.
Open Access Publishing
A publication is defined ‘open access’ when
there are no financial, legal or technical barriers
to accessing it - that is to say when anyone can
read, download, copy, distribute, print, search
for and search within the information, or use it
in education or in any other way within the legal
agreements.
Open access is a publishing model for
scholarly communication that makes research
information available to readers at no cost, as
opposed to the traditional subscription model
in which readers have access to scholarly
information by paying a subscription.
Conclusion
Publishing research outputs having high quality
and impact as journal articles and in various
other formats is important for the growth of
agriculture discipline, and also for enhancing its
contribution to extension policy and practice.
Publishing scholarly research in high impact
journals depends not only on the quality of
one’s research, but also on selecting the right
journal for one’s research topic and the level
of one’s writing. Apart from these one also
needs a certain amount of luck for publishing
peer-reviewed articles. Researchers need to
master the skills of writing for different formats,
including writing for social media. There are no
shortcuts to improve one’s writing skills other
than reading and writing. Language editors can
only marginally improve one’s presentation style
and correct grammar and spelling, but they
cannot improve the overall quality of the paper.
Finally, one needs passion for the topic of one’s
research and for writing if one wants to publish
quality research work.
References
AESA 2014. (Availableat:http://www.aesagfras.
net/Resources/file/Where%20we%20can%20
publish%20extension%20research%20-%20
Final%20Note.pdf )
Ffrench-Constant, Laura. (2014.) How to plan,
write and communicate an effective policy
brief. Three steps to success. (Available at:
Extension Education and Rural Development
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
http://www.researchtoaction.org/wp-content/
uploads/2014/10/PBWeekLauraFCfinal.pdf)
Gowda C M.J., Dixit S, Burman R and Ananth P.
N. (2014.) Extension research and technology
development. Blog 29, Agricultural Extension in
South Asia. (Available at: http://aesa-gfras.net/
Resources/file/FINALM_J_Chandre%20Gowda-
13-FEB.pdf)
Mulder, Martin. (2016.) Editorial: Publishing in the
JAEE. Journal of Agricultural Education and
Extension 22(1):3-6.
Rao, S V N, Natchimuthu, K and Ramkumar, S.
(2014.) Scientific publishing in extension: Are we
E N V IR O N M ENTAL SCIEN CE
26. Biodegradable Plastic and
Biodegradation
DR. SHRADDHA A. DILPAK
Senior Research Fellow, Agril. Microbiology, Organic Farming Research and Training
Centre, MPKV, Rahuri, Ahmadnagar.
Biodegradable Plastics
Biodegradable plastics are those that can
decompose naturally in the environment. The
makeup structure of biodegradable plastics
makes them easily break down by natural
microorganisms, giving an end product that is
less harmful to the environment.
Biodegradable plastics are perceived to be
more eco-friendly due to their environmental
benefits, which are hard to deny compared to
ordinary plastics.
To minimize environmental pollution, this
type of plastic is undoubtedly a better choice but
still comes with its downside.
A product is biodegradable when it can be
decomposed by biological organisms (bacteria,
fungi, algae, etc.) in a favourable environment
(temperature, humidity, light, oxygen, etc.)”—
Futura Science. Biodegradation can be
“anaerobic” (without oxygen) or “aerobic” (in
the presence of oxygen).
More Specifically, Biodegradation has Two
Key Steps
1. Fragmentation: in this first phase, the
Environmental Science
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
doing enough and are we doing well? (Available
at: http://www.aesa-gfras.net/admin/kcfinder/
upload/files/Blog 40.pdf)
Shaikh, Aijaz A. (2016.) 7 steps to publishing in a
scientific journal. (Available at: https://www.
elsevier.com/connect/7-steps-to-publishing-in-a-
scientific-journal)
Sivakumar PS, Sontakki BS, Sulaiman RV, Saravanan
R, and Mittal N. “Manual on Good Practices in
Extension Research and Evaluation.” Agriculture
Extension in South Asia (AESA). Hyderabad,
India (2017).
22557
product deteriorates in a process called
disintegration. It is generally caused by
external agents such as microorganisms or
other living beings (earthworms, insects,
etc.) that break down the product. This
first phase is very useful because it breaks
the material into fragments that are more
accessible to microorganisms.
2. Assimilation: in this second phase, actual
biodegradation occurs. Microorganisms
attack the material, producing water, carbon
dioxide, methane, and biomass that do not
harm the environment.
How are Biodegradable Plastics Made?
Biodegradable plastics are made in a way that
they can breakdown or degrade when exposed
to the sun’s ultra-violet radiation, enzymes,
bacteria, water, or wind abrasion.
Biodegradable plastics can be made from
1) a mixture of organic bio-based materials,
such as starch and cellulose; 2) biodegradable
synthetic polyesters that are fossil-based or 3)
bio-based oils, such as sugarcane, which are not
always biodegradable.
Thus, they are made from renewable raw
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 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
materials or all-natural plant or animal materials
such as orange peels, corn oil, switchgrass,
soybeans, micro-organisms, or starch.
The industrial processing of biodegradable
plastics is similar to the manufacture of ordinary
plastic, only that the materials used differ and for
bio-degradable plastics; they are the materials
that can easily break down or decompose. They
are mainly categorized into two:
1. Bio-plastics: Purely made from natural
substances such as corn starch. In their
manufacturing process, they save energy
and emit less carbon as the plants used
already have the same amount of carbon.
2. Biodegradable plastics: Made from
traditional petrochemicals but designed to
break down faster. They have additives that
speed up their rate of decay or breakdown
in the presence of oxygen and light. The
presence of moisture also accelerates the
breakdown process. Mainly, they get a
breakdown in the presence of the sun’s UV
light with some only breaking down at high
industrial-scale temperatures. The most
common examples include polybutyrate
adipate terephthalate (PBAT), polybutylene
succinate (PBS), polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH/
Advantages of using Biodegradable Plastics
1. Biodegradable Plastics are Easy to Recycle
2. They Consume Less Energy during their
Manufacture
3. Reduction of the Amount of Waste Produced
4. Lower Petroleum Consumption
5. Compostability
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PVA), and polycaprolactone (PCL).
The Types of Biodegradable Plastics are
 Bioplastics: Produced partly or entirely with
biologically sourced polymers. They can
be derived from plants or in combination
with synthetic polymers. Not all are
biodegradable.
 Oxo-degradable plastics: Conventional
plastics with additives to break down faster.
 Photo-biodegradable: Reacts to ultra-violet
light, and it requires initial oxo-degradation.
 Hydro-biodegradable plastics: Made
from plant sources (like starch) and the
degradation is initiated by hydrolysis.
 Industrially compostable plastics:
biodegrade in the conditions of an
industrial composting plant or an industrial
anaerobic digestion plant with a subsequent
composting step.
 Home compostable plastics: biodegrade
in the conditions of a well-managed home
composter at lower temperatures than in
industrial composting plants. Most of them
also biodegrade in industrial composting
plants.
6. Reduction of Carbon dioxide Levels
7. Reduction of Emission of Greenhouse Gas
Levels
8. Biodegradable Plastics Products Do
Not Release Harmful Products upon
Decomposing
9. Biodegradable Plastics Products are Broken
Down by Bacteria That Occur Naturally
Environmental Science
Publishing Date || 01 AUGUST 2023
10. Biodegradable Plastics Products can Mix
with Our Traditional Products
11. Biodegradable Plastic Products are the New
Industry for Export as Well as Marketing
12. Biodegradable Plastic Products can be Made
to Decompose Under Specific Conditions
Disadvantages of Biodegradable Plastics
1. Engineering Problems
2. Need for Costly Equipment for Both
Processing and Recycling
3. Risk of Contamination Due to Confusion
Differentiating Between Bio-degradable and
Non-Biodegradable Plastics
4. Biodegradable Plastics May Produce
Methane in Landfills
5. Surprisingly, Biodegradable Plastics do not
Solve Ocean Pollution Problems
6. There is a Need for More Crops and Croplands
to Produce Biodegradable Plastics
7. Biodegradable Products Come at a Higher
Cost
8. Biodegradable Plastics May Contain Metal
9. Biodegradable Plastics need to be Disposed
of in Very Particular Methods
10. Biodegradable Plastics Require Water to
Decompose Properly
11. Herbicides and Pesticides are not accounted
A N IM A L NUT R IT ION
27. Azolla: A Nutritious and Sustainable
Unconventional Feed
1
KHWAIRAKPAM RATIKA AND 2RAJKUMAR JAMES SINGH
1
College of Veterinary Sciences & AH, CAU Jalukie, Nagaland
2
Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly
Introduction
India is the world’s largest milk producer, with
22 per cent of global production, followed by
the United States of America, China, Pakistan
and Brazil. And there has been an increase in
the demand for milk and milk products and
thus an associated profit potential for dairy
Animal Nutrition
AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
for
Uses of Biodegradable Plastics
Biodegradable plastics are used in many areas
of our daily lives today. Some of these uses are;
 They make Shopping bags, compostable
waste collection bags, and trays, punnets for
fruits, meat, and vegetable.
 The medical department uses bioplastics to
make screws, pins, and plates, materials for
pills and capsules.
 They are used to make disposable catering
service wares.
 They also make items such as bottles,
tea bags, jars, air pillow, pens, pencils
sharpeners, mulch film.
What is the Future of Biodegradable Plastics?
Today, the main industrial applications for
biodegradable and compostable plastics are
bags distributed in supermarkets (38% of total
consumption), the packaging sector (food cups
and containers, films, nets, foams), and plastic
bags for collecting and composting natural
waste.
These applications are broadening,
and in June 2020, the Citizen’s Convention
suggested promoting “compostable bio-sourced
packaging” to reduce plastic pollution.
22549
farmers. The high-producing dairy cows have
various nutrients in sufficient amounts for high
milk production and these requirements are
met from the feed: green fodder, concentrate
and supplements. However, providing proper
nutrition to the cows has become demanding to
dairy farmers due to the scarcity of green fodder
and expensive concentrate feed. It became
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crucial for dairy farmers to minimize the cost
of animal production by seeking alternative
cheaper sources of animal feed.
Azolla (Azolla pinnata) is an aquatic fern
that belongs to the Azollaceae family and Azolla
genus. It is a small floating aquatic fern that grows
invasively fast in stagnant freshwater lakes, rivers,
drains, canals, ponds wetlands, and ditches.
Under ideal conditions it grows exponentially,
doubling its biomass every 3-5 days. A starting
weight of 1 ton/ha of Azolla culture can reach up
to 15–30 ton/ha in just 20 days, indicating that 1
hectare of Azolla can provide protein equivalent
to 790–1100 kg soybean in one month. Azolla
can be cultivated easily and efficiently by every
scale of farmer. Optimum cultivation factors for
growing Azolla are 18–28 °C, 4.5–7.0 pH, and 65—
80% relative humidity in a 7–11 cm deep water
body. Water salinity adversely affects Azolla
growth.
Azolla grows in symbiosis with the nitrogen-
fixing blue-green alga Anabaena azollae,
this increases the protein content of Azolla,
making it one of the substantial alternative feed
ingredients. Azolla is rich in protein and other
nutrients. On a dry matter basis, it contains
25–30% protein, 7–10% amino acids (especially
lysine), vitamins (Beta Carotene, vitamin A,
vitamin B12), minerals (calcium, potassium,
phosphorus, ferrous, magnesium, copper, etc.),
and antioxidants. While it has lesser content of
carbohydrates (lignin) and fats. This nutrient
composition makes it a highly efficient and
effective feed supplement for livestock like
cows, buffalo, sheep, goats and rabbits.
Cultivation of Azolla
1. Make an even floor pit with dimensions of
5 × 4 × 0.3 m with the same level of corners
to maintain a uniform water level.
2. Put and uniformly Silpaulin sheets over the
pits such are longer and broader than the pit
and the outer edges of the sheets were good
fixed
3. Spread evenly10–15 cm clear soft soil over
the sheet.
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4. Fill water in the pit to a three-fourth level
and regular maintenance the same level of
water.
5. Dissolve about 15 kg of fermented buffalo
feces in 35 L of water and add the mixture
evenly throughout the pit.
6. Dissolve about 30 g of superphosphate in
10 L of water and add it as a zigzag to the
previous soil.
7. Five Kg of fresh and pure Azolla incubated in
the pit and slowly sprinkled water over it.
8. Every 15 days the application of buffalo’s
feces, superphosphate and minerals was
done to avoid nutrient deficiency and obtain
continuous growth of Azolla.
9. If the pit is affected by pests or diseases must
be clearing and a fresh inoculation of the
pure culture of Azolla to be done.
10. Azolla multiplies rapidly and fills the pit
within one week, so every week can harvest
fully grown Azolla.
11. Sun dried the yield of Azolla for 2–3 days and
packed in air tight bags and stored until use.
Feeding of Azolla in Livestock
Supplementation of Azolla in feed has been
reported to increase feed efficiency and average
daily gain of animals, and milk production.
Incorporating 1.5–2 kg fresh Azolla in the diets of
dairy cows can increase milk yield by 20% and
buffalo by 17%. Replacing 15-20% conventional
feed with the same amount of Azolla boosted
milk yield by 15- 20%; this might be attributed
to its high protein and low lignin content.
Additionally, in crossbred bovine animals’ diets
supplemented with Azolla can enhance milk
yield and FCM by 11.2 and 12.5% as well as feed
conversion efficiency as kg DMI / kg FCM yield.
Concentrate feed replaced with 20 and 30%
dried Azolla can increase the average daily gain
of goats by 56.5 and 60%, respectively. A mere
10% inclusion of Azolla in the diet of lambs
reared lambs under semi-intensive system can
result in 2.5 times higher weight gain and up to
22% reduction in feed cost.
Animal Nutrition
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