1.

6 Structure of a scientific paper

1.6.1 Introduction
1.6.2 General Structure

4/11/2024 1
 1.6.1 Introduction

What is research?

“All truths are easy to understand once

they are discovered; the point is
to discover them”

“And yet it moves”

Galileo Galilei
Astronomer
1564-1642
4/11/2024 2
 What is research? (continued)
• Cambridge dictionary:
– “Research” is a detailed study of a subject,
especially in order to discover (new) information or
reach a (new) understanding.

• Research Whisperer:
– is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or
the use of existing knowledge in a new and creative
way to generate new concepts, methodologies and
understandings.

4/11/2024 3
 Research fields and strategy
• Academic fields:
– Applied sciences,
– Natural sciences,
– Humanities,
– Social sciences,
– etc.
 Research strategy:
– Interdisciplinary,
– Multi-methodologies,
– Qualitative,
– Quantitative.
4/11/2024 4
 Scientific research
• Scientific research
– is a systematic way of gathering data and harnessing
curiosity.
– provides scientific information and theories for the
explanation of the nature and the properties of the
world.
– can be subdivided into different classifications
according to their academic and application
disciplines.
– Scientific research is a widely used criterion for
judging the standing of an academic institution.
4/11/2024 5
 Why publish?
• Publishing is one of the necessary steps embedded in the
scientific research process. It is also necessary for
graduation and career progression.
• What to publish:
– New and original results or methods.
– Reviews or summaries of particular subject.
– Manuscripts that advance the knowledge and understanding in a
certain scientific field.
• What NOT to publish:
– Reports of no scientific interest.
– Out of date work.
– Duplications of previously published work.
– Incorrect/unacceptable conclusions.
4/11/2024 6
 Publications in Mechanical Engineering

• You need publish your work to the world

– If people don’t know about it, they won’t use it.
– Increase probability of adoption.
• Requirements of writing
– Standard form, structure.
– Good content, style, organization.
• Requirements of quality
– a valid publication, published in the right place like
in peer-reviewed journals, conferences.
– contain results with sufficient information to
4/11/2024
enable (i) assess, (ii) repeat experiments. 7
* Classification
Scientific writing includes experimental research and associated
documentation, as well as the scholarly publications that emerge from
that work.
Being
emerged

I am here

Speed of publication versus authority of content

4/11/2024
for a variety of technical writing types. 8
• Book: most often a monograph written by
specialist(s), reviewed by experts, focuses on a
specific topic.
• Dissertation: scientific work of Ph.D.
• Conference proceedings: a collection of papers,
posters presented at a conference.
• Journal articles:
– Regular articles,
– Review articles,
– Final “extended version” of a conference paper,
– Book reviews.
4/11/2024 9
 Publications in Mechanical Engineering (continued)

• Conference papers  Journal articles

– Page limits. ▪ Unlimited/longer page
limits.
– Higher visibility and
greater impact. ▪ Opportunity to revise
and re-submit paper for
– More timely. review.
– High requirement of ▪ Longer review.
novelty. ▪…
–…

4/11/2024 10
Publications in Mechanical Engineering (continued)

• Find/Search Conferences/Journals:
– http://www.wikicfp.com/cfp/
– https://www.letpub.com/journal-selector
• Find the researchers’ Publications:
– https://scholar.google.com
• Be included in ISI/Scopus:
– https://mjl.clarivate.com/home?PC=MASTER
– https://www.scopus.com/
• Be careful ! List of Predatory Journals
– https://predatoryjournals.com/journals/
– https://beallslist.net/
4/11/2024 11
Publications in Mechanical Engineering (continued)

• Ranked journals/conferences:
– SCImago: https://www.scimagojr.com/journalrank.php?area=2200
– Resurchify: https://www.resurchify.com/ranking
– Scopus: https://www.scopus.com/
– Clarivate: https://mjl.clarivate.com/home?PC=MASTER
– LetPub: https://www.letpub.com/journal-selector

4/11/2024 12
 Why should scientists publish?
• Scientists publish to share with the scientific
COMMUNITY something that advances, not
repeats, knowledge and understanding in a
certain field.
– To present new, original results or methods.
– To rationalize published results.
– To present a review of the field or to summarize a
particular topic.

4/11/2024 13
 Questions to answer before you write

• Think about WHY you want to publish

your work.
– Is it new and interesting?
– Is it a current hot topic?
– Have you provided solutions to some
difficult problems?
– Are you ready to publish at this point?
• If all answers are “yes”, then start
preparations for your manuscript.

4/11/2024 14
 A strong manuscript
• Good CONTENT
– novel, useful, and exciting
• •Good PRESENTATION
– Clear presented and logically constructed
• Reviewers and editors are able to grasp the
scientific significance easily.

4/11/2024 15
 Select the best journal for submission

• Getting a research paper published can be a challenge.

• Risks that come from submitting a paper to a journal
that's not the right fit:
– Rejection.
– Adding months to publication.
– Slowing career progress.

4/11/2024 16
 Select the best journal for submission (continued)

• Investigate all candidate journals to

find out:
– Aims and scope.
– Types of articles.
– Readership.
– Current hot topics
• go through recent abstracts.

4/11/2024 17
 1.6.2 General Structure of a full article

4/11/2024 18
 The detailed structure of a full article

 Fish Bone Model: Basic components of a scientific

paper.

4/11/2024 19
 Developing your title
• A good title should contain the fewest possible
words that adequately describe the contents of a
paper. Keep your title short.
– Articles with short, catchy titles are better cited.
• Effective titles:
– Identify the main issue of the paper.
– Begin with the subject of the paper.
– Are accurate, unambiguous, specific, and complete.
– Do not contain infrequently-used abbreviations.
– Attract readers.
4/11/2024 20
 Developing your title (continued)
• This is your opportunity to attract the reader’s
attention.
– Remember: readers are the potential authors who will cite
your article.
• Keep it informative and concise.
– Reviewers will check whether the title is specific and
whether it reflects the content of the manuscript.
– Editors hate titles that make no sense or fail to represent
the subject matter adequately.
• Avoid technical jargon and abbreviations.
– You wish to have a readership as large as possible, right?
• Discuss with your co‐authors.
4/11/2024 21
 Example - Title

4/11/2024 22
 Abstract
+ 5 basic components:

4/11/2024 23
 Introduction
* Let’s ask three questions?

1) How do writers normally start the

Introduction?

2) What type of information should be in my

Three
questions Introduction, and in what order?

3) How do writers normally end the

4/11/2024 Introduction? 24
 Introduction
* FOUR basic components

4/11/2024 25
 Introduction
* Grammar and writing skills
➢ TENSE PAIRS
➢ SIGNALLING LANGUAGE
➢ PASSIVE/ACTIVE USE
➢ PARAGRAPHING

➢ TENSE PAIRS:

Sentence sample Tense Description

(a) I live in Hanoi Present Simple Permanent situation
(b) I’m living in Hanoi Present Continuous Temporary situation

The Present Simple tense is used in science writing to

state accepted facts and truths

4/11/2024 26
 Introduction
* Grammar and writing skills
➢ TENSE PAIRS:

Sentence sample Tense Description

(a) I lived in Hanoi for Past Simple but I don’t live there anymore.
five years
(b) I have lived in Hanoi Present Perfect and I still live there NOW
for five years
(c) I broke my glasses Past Simple but it doesn’t matter/I repaired
them
(d) I have broken my Present Perfect and so I can’t see properly NOW
glasses
Difference: ‘Time’ of the verb: event in (d) is considered more relevant to the
situation now than the event in (c)

so don’t change tense randomly and make sure you

remember to change tense when you should.
4/11/2024 27
 Introduction
* Grammar and writing skills
➢ SIGNALLING LANGUAGE:

One of the most common errors in writing is failing to connect one

sentence or idea to the next.
How to solve it?

1. Overlap, meaning to repeat something from the previous sentence:

E.g. One way to toughen polymers is to incorporate a layer of rubber particles. As a
result, there has been extensive research regarding the rubber modification of PLA.

2. Use a pronoun (it, they) or pro-form (this method, these systems) to glue the
sentences together
E.g. Many researchers have suggested ways of reducing cost without affecting the
quality of the image. These methods rely on data structures built during a
preprocessing step.

4/11/2024 28
 Introduction
* Grammar and writing skills
➢ SIGNALLING LANGUAGE:

3. Join sentence to the next once with a semicolon or a relative clause (a

‘which’ clause)
E.g. It has received much attention over the past few decades due to its biodegradable
properties, which offer important economic benefits..
4. Use a signaling sentence connector: Therefore, or However

CAUSE RESULT CONTRAST/ UNEXPECTED ADDITION

DIFFERENCE NESS
• Due to (the • Therefore • However • Although • In addition
fact that) • Consequently • Whereas • Despite • Moreover
• As • Hence • But • Regardless of • Furthermore
• Because • As a result • On the other • However • Apart from
• Since • Which is why hand • Nevertheless • Also

4/11/2024 29
 Introduction
* Grammar and writing skills
➢ PASSIVE/ACTIVE USE:

It is common to use the passive instead of active in a research article

E.g. It is known/ thought that… rather than We know/think that…

Dummy subject

4/11/2024 30
 Introduction
* An example in Biomicrofluidics

4/11/2024 31
 Introduction

4/11/2024 32
 Introduction

4/11/2024 33
 Introduction

4/11/2024 34
 Introduction

4/11/2024 35
 Methodology
* Let’s ask three questions
+ Various Names: Materials and Methods,
Procedure, Experiments, Experimental setups,
Simulation, Numerical Method or Model → look
at the Guide for Authors of the journals
+ It should contain sufficient detail for readers to
replicate the work done and obtain similar results.

Three questions
1) How do I start the Methodology section?
What type of sentence should I begin with?

2) What type of information should be in this

section, and in what order?

3) How do I end this section?

4/11/2024 36
 Methodology
* FOUR basic components

4/11/2024 37
 Methodology

4/11/2024 38
 Methodology
* Grammar and Writing Skills
➢ PASSIVES AND TENSE PAIRS:

E.g. ➢ PASSIVES AND TENSE PAIRS

➢ USE OF ‘A’ AND ‘THE’
➢ ADVERBS AND ADVERB
LOCATION

In most cases, you will find that in papers and thesis, the
passive form is used, either in the Present Simple passive (is
collected) or in the Past Simple passive (was collected).

Present Simple passive Past Simple passive

for what is normally done indicate what you did yourself

E.g. A Standard procedure → need E.g. In this study/ In our experiments, the
research reference samples were collected using a suction tube

4/11/2024 39
 Methodology

* Grammar and Writing Skills

➢ USE OF ‘A’ AND ‘THE’:

4/11/2024 40
 Methodology
* Grammar and Writing Skills
➢ USE OF ‘A’ AND ‘THE’:

Confusing rule 1:

which one can also be used in the plural, i.e. countably?

a countable meaning appear in italics

4/11/2024 41
 Methodology
* Grammar and Writing Skills
➢ USE OF ‘A’ AND ‘THE’ (continued):
Confusing rule 2: “a” for General thing; “the” for Specific thing

The specific/general criterion doesn’t help you to select

“a” or “the”, what does?

New rule

USE THE IF THERE IS

ONLY ONE POSSIBLE
REFERENT

USE A IF IT DOESN’T MATTER or YOU DON’T KNOW or YOUR READER DOESN’T KNOW
WHICH THING/ PERSON YOU ARE REFERRING TO.

4/11/2024 42
 Methodology
* Grammar and Writing Skills
➢ ADVERBS AND ADVERB LOCATION:

Communicating complex ideas in another language

Problem arisen

An invisible/hidden error is where the sentence is grammatically correct but the choice
of which verb tense to use is inappropriate or does not represent the intention of the writer.
One of the hidden error

Adverb location errors are easy to make and hard to detect.

E.g. He gave a lecture Blinding Was the lecture in the hospital — or the cancer?
about liver cancer at the Did the lecture refer to cancer cases occurring in
hospital last January. point January or did the lecture itself occur in January?

✓ Last January, he gave a lecture about liver cancer at the hospital

✓ Last January, he gave a lecture at the hospital; his subject was liver cancer
4/11/2024 43
 Methodology
* An example in Biomicrofluidics

4/11/2024 44
 Methodology

4/11/2024 45
 Methodology

4/11/2024 46
 Methodology

4/11/2024 47
 Results
* Names and two questions

Look at the Guide for Authors of the journals

1) Why, then, should you bother to write a

Results section?
Two
questions 2) Why not simply provide good, clear graphs
or tables with good, clear titles and perhaps a
4/11/2024 few notes underneath each? 48
 Results
* Reasons for writing a Results section
1. To communicate interesting or significant results in a table or graph
2. To relate your results to the aim(s) of the research
3. To offer background information to explain why a particular result
occurred, or to compare your results with those of other researchers.
4. To suggest possible reasons for problematic results
5. Must communicate your own understanding and interpretation of
the results to your readers.

Notes:
1. Results do not speak for themselves;
2. This section contains some comments on what you found or observed rather
than just a description of your findings and observations

4/11/2024 49
 Results
* FOUR basic components

4/11/2024 50
 Results

Results – What have you found?

• The following should be included in this part:
– Main findings listed in association with the methods.
• Thus not all findings
• Findings from experiments described in the Methods
section
– Highlighted differences between your results and the
previous publications (especially in case study papers).
– Results of statistical analysis.
– Results of performance analysis (especially in the
methodology, or algorithm papers).
– A set of principal equations or theorems supporting
the assumptions after a long chain of inferences
(especially in the theory papers).
4/11/2024 51
 Results

4/11/2024 52
 Results
* Grammar and Writing Skills ➢ SEQUENCE
➢ FREQUENCY
➢ SEQUENCE: ➢ QUANTITY
➢ CAUSALITY
A clear understanding of the time sequence will help
your reader to picture it and repeat it for themselves.

4/11/2024
53
 Results
* Grammar and Writing Skills
➢ FREQUENCY:
It is important to communicate clearly how often a
particular event or result occurred → For a very reliable
result;.
Note: frequency language is often used in a subjective way

each/every time;
without exception;
Sometimes; hardly ever; barely
on each/every Frequently;
1 4 7 on some occasions; 10 ever; almost never;
occasion; often; commonly
at times scarcely ever
always;
invariably
Habitually; as a rule; Occasionally; on no occasion;
more often;
2 generally; normally; 5 8 now and then; 11 not once;
than not
usually from time to time at no time; never
as often as not Rarely;
3 Regularly; repeatedly 6 (neutral 9 seldom;
frequency) infrequently

4/11/2024 54
 Results
* Grammar and Writing Skills
➢ QUANTITY:

Very similar OR
Considerably different ?

4/11/2024 55
 Results
* Grammar and Writing Skills
➢ QUANTITY:

4/11/2024 56
 Results
* Grammar and Writing Skills
➢ QUANTITY:

4/11/2024 57
 Results
* Grammar and Writing Skills
➢ CAUSALITY:

Understanding the relationships between the events

you observed.

4/11/2024 58
 Results
* Grammar and Writing Skills
➢ CAUSALITY:
‘Softening’ a causal statement:

OR Add a frequency/quantity
qualifier, or a modal verb:

4/11/2024 59
 Results
* An example in Biomicrofluidics

4/11/2024 60
* Example in Naval Architecture

4/11/2024 61
 Discussion – What the results mean?
• It is the most important section of
your article. Here you get the
chance to SELL your data.
– Many manuscripts are rejected
because the Discussion is weak.
• Make the Discussion
corresponding to the Results.
– But do not reiterate the results
• You need to compare the
published results with yours.
– Do NOT ignore work in The Discussion looks back at
disagreement with yours –confront the points made in the
it and convince the reader that you Introduction on the basis of
are correct or better. the information in the central
report section.
4/11/2024 62
 Discussion – What the results mean? (continued)
• Check for the following:
– How do your results relate to the original question or
objectives outlined in the Introduction section?
– Can you reach your conclusion smoothly after your
discussion?
– Do you provide interpretation for each of your results
presented?
– Are your results consistent with what other investigators have
reported? Or are there any differences? Why?
– Are there any limitations?
• Do not
– make statements that go beyond what the results can support.
– suddenly introduce new terms or ideas.
4/11/2024 63
 Conclusions
* Let’s ask three questions

Three questions
1) How do I start the Conclusion section? What type
of sentence should I begin with?

2) What type of information should be in this section,

and in what order?

3) How do I end this section?

4/11/2024 64
 Conclusions
* FOUR basic components

4/11/2024 65
 Conclusions
* Why should I begin the Conclusion by
revisiting previous research?

Offering an overview of the section by previewing the content of that subsection

with some general statements and referring back to something from the previous
sections to link it with the new one.

4/11/2024 66
 Writing the conclusions
• Tells how your work advances the field from the
present state of knowledge.
• Without clear Conclusions, reviewers and readers will
find it difficult to judge the work, and whether or not it
merits publication in the journal.

4/11/2024 67
Writing the conclusions (continued)
A clear conclusion section helps reviewers to judge your
work easily.
• Do
– Present global and specific conclusions, in relation to the
objectives.
– Indicate uses, extensions, and limitations if appropriate
– Suggest future experiments and point out those that are
underway.
 Do not
– Summarize the paper (the abstract is for that purpose).
– Make a list of trivial statements of your results.
– Make judgments about impact.
– Use uncertain words such as “might”, “probably”.
4/11/2024 68
 Conclusions
* Grammar and Writing Skills
Writing about the reasons, interpretations and implications of your results → often need
to communicate that something is a possible reason, or an obvious interpretation or a
probable implication.

MODAL VERBS are

commonly used in science
writing are may, might,
could, can, should, ought to,
need to, have to and must.

4/11/2024 69
 Conclusions

4/11/2024 70
 Conclusions
* An example in Biomicrofluidics

4/11/2024 71
 Writing the acknowledgements
• Your chance to thank:
– People who have helped you, e.g., technical help, English
revision, proofreaders, typists
– Funding organizations.
– Affiliation to projects and programs.
– Suppliers who may have given materials.
– Reviewers and editors (especially in the revised manuscript).
• Do
– Ask permission from those who will be acknowledged with
their names mentioned.
– State clearly why they are acknowledged.
– Include the grant number or reference.
4/11/2024 72
 Example - Acknowledgements

4/11/2024 73
 References - Get them right
• Please conform everything to the Guide for Authors of the journal.
• It is your responsibility, not of the Editor, to format references
correctly.
• Avoid citing the following if possible:
– Personal communications, unpublished observations,
manuscripts submitted but not yet accepted for publication.
– Articles published only in the local language, which are
difficult for international readers to find.
– Excessive self‐citations and journal self-citation.
– Excessive citations of publications from the same region.

4/11/2024 74
 References - Get them right (continued)
• More mistakes are found in the references than any other part of
the manuscript.
• It is one of the most annoying problems, and causes great
headaches among editors…
– Cite the main scientific publications on which your work is
based
– Do not inflate the manuscript with too many references –it
doesn’t make it a better manuscript.
– Get help, save time → use Reference management software.
 Check
– Referencing style of the journal.
– The spelling of author names, the year of publication.
– Punctuation use.
4/11/2024 75
 Supplementary Materials
• Data of secondary importance
to the main scientific thrust of
an article.
• Not a part of the main article.
• Will be available online to
readers if the paper is
eventually published.
• All the information should be
related and supportive to your
article.
4/11/2024 76
 Summarizing the structure of a full article

4/11/2024 77