Ecology

All living organism, whether plant or animal or human being is surrounded by the environment, on which it derive its needs
for its survival.

Each living component interacts with non-living components for their basic requirements form different ecosystem.

Definition

Ecology is the study of interactions among organism or group of organisms with their environment. The environment
consists of both biotic components (living organisms) and abiotic components (non-living organisms). Or Ecology is the stud
of ecosystems.

Ecosystem
Ecosystem is the basic functional unit of ecology. The term ecosystem is coined form a Greek word meaning study of
home.

Definition:
A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with environment is known as ecosystem. Thus an ecosystem is a
community of different species interacting with one another and with their non living environment and one another and
with their non- living environment exchanging energy and matter.

Example
Animals cannot synthesis their food directly but depend on the plants either directly or indirectly.

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

 Natural ecosystem
Natural ecosystems operate themselves under natural conditions. Based on habitat types, it can be further classified into
three types.

1. Terrestrial ecosystem: This ecosystem is related to land.

Example: Grassland ecosystem, forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, etc.,

2. Aquatic ecosystem:
This ecosystem is related to water. It is further sub classified into two types based on salt contents

• Fresh water ecosystem

(i) Running water ecosystems.

Examples: Rivers, Streams

(b) Standing water ecosystems Examples: Pond, lake

 Marine ecosystem: : Seas and sea shore
 Man-made (or) Artificial ecosystems
Artificial ecosystem is operated (or) maintained by man himself. Example: Croplands, gardens.

STRUCTURE (or) COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

The term structure refers to the various components. So the structure of an ecosystem explains the relationship between
the abiotic (non-living) and the biotic (living) components.
An ecosystem has two major components

• Biotic (living) components

• Abiotic (non living) components

Biotic components

The living organisms (or) living members in an ecosystem collectively form its community called biotic components (or)
biotic community.
Examples

i. Plants (producers),

ii. animals (consumers),

iii. microorganisms (decomposers).

Members of components of an ecosystem (or) Classification biotic components

The members of biotic components of an ecosystem are grouped in to three based on how they get food.

• Producer (plants)

• Consumer (Animals)

• Decomposers (Micro-organisms)

1. Procedures (Autotrophs)

Procedures synthesize their food themselves through photosynthesis Example: All green plants, trees. Photosynthesis

The green pigments called chlorophyll, present in the leaves of plants, converts CO₂ and H₂O in the presence of sunlight
into carbohydrates.

6CO₂ + 12H₂O -- CH12O6 + 602+6H₂O

This process is called photosynthesis

2.Consumers (heterotrophs) Examples: Plant eating species Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc., Classification of

consumers Consumers are further classified as

(i) Primary consumers (Herbivores) (Plant eaters)

Primary consumers are also called herbivores, they directly depend on the plants for their food. So they are called plant
eaters.

Examples: Insects, rat, goat, deer, cow, horse, etc., Chemistry, AEC Salem

(ii) Secondary consumers (primary carnivores) (meat eater) Secondary consumers are primary carnivores, they

feed

On primary consumers. They directly depend onHerbivores for their food. Example: Frog, cat, snakes, foxes, etc.,

(iii) Tertiary consumers (Secondary carnivores) (Meat-eaters)

Tertiary consumers are secondary carnivores, they feed on secondary consumers. They depend on the primary
carnivores for their food.

Examples: Tigers, lions, etc.,

3. Decomposers

Examples:Microorganisms like bacteria and fungi.

Decomposers attack the dead bodies of producers and consumers and decompose them into simpler compounds.
During the decomposition Inorganic nutrients are released.

The inorganic nutrients together with other organic substances are then utilized by the procedures for the synthesis of
their own food.
Abiotic (non-living) components

The non-living components (physical and chemical) of ecosystem collectively form a community called abiotic
components (or) abiotic community.

Examples: Climate, soil, water I air, energy, nutrients, etc.,

1. Physical components

They include the energy, climate, raw materials and living space that the biological community needs. They are useful for
the growth and maintenance of its member.

Examples: Air, water, soil, sunlight, etc., V.S Saravana Mani, Head & AP Chemistry, AEC Salern

2. Chemical Components
They are the sources of essential nutrients

Examples

• Organic substances: Protein, lipids, carbohydrates, etc.,

Inorganic substances: All micro (Al, Co, Zu, Cu) and macro elements (C,H, O, P, N, P, K) and few other elements
FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM

To understand clearly the nature of ecosystem its functioning should be thoroughly understood.

The function of an ecosystem is to allow flow of energy and cycling of nutrients. Types of Functions

Functions of an ecosystem are of three types.

1. Primary function

The primary function of all ecosystem is manufacture of starch (photosynthesis).

2. Secondary function

The secondary function of all ecosystem is distribution energy in the form of food to all consumers.

3. Tertiary Function
All living systems diet at a particular stage. These dead systems are decomposed to initiate third function of ecosystems
namely “cycling The functioning of an ecosystems may be understood studying the following terms.

• Energy and material flow.

• Food chains

• Food webs

Food pyramids”.
ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEMS
Energy is the most essential requirement for all living organism. Solar energy is the only source to our planet earth. Solar
energy is transformed to chemical energy in photosynthesis by the plants (called as primary producers). Though a lot of
sunlight falls on the green plants, only 1% of it is utilized for photosynthesis. This is the most essential step to provide
energy for all other living organisms in the ecosystem.

Some amount of chemical energy is used by the plants for their growth and the remaining is transferred to consumers by
the process of eating.

Thus the energy enters the ecosystems through photosynthesis and passes through the different tropic levels feeding
levels.

Ecological succession

Ecological succession is the process of change in the species that make up an ecological community over
time. The process of succession occurs either after the initial colonization of a newly created habitat, or
after a disturbance substantially alters a pre-existing habitat.
Causes of Ecological Succession
Some important causes may be defined as below:

 Climatic Causes: these can be rainfall, temperature variations, humidity, gas composition, etc.
 Biotic Causes: the organisms in a community compete to thrive for existence. Some of them are
lost in the process while some new ones are incorporated.
 External Causes: soil conditions are affected by the process of migration, invasion, and competition
amongst various species.

Type of Ecological Succession

1. Nudation:
It is a process of formation of a bare area without any form of life for the arrival of new species.

2. Invasion:
The successful establishment of a species in a vacant area is called invasion. This process of
establishment is completed in three successive steps:
  Migration (dispersal): The seeds, spores of the species are carried to the unadorned area
by the agents like air, water, etc.
 Establishment: The process of the successful establishment (germination and growth) of
the species in the new area as a result of adjustment with the prevailing conditions is known as
ecesis.

3. Competition
As the species aggregate within a restricted space, there happens competition for space and nutrition.
4. Reaction:
The species present in an environment constantly interact with it by causing its modification. The
mechanism of the modification of the environment through the influence of living organisms on it
is known as a reaction.

5. Stabilization:
At last, a final or terminal community is established which can maintain equilibrium.

What is Food Chain?

A food chain represents the flow of energy and nutrients among different organisms in an ecosystem. It
tells us how energy and nutrients are transferred from one trophic level to another and how the
organisms interact in an ecosystem. In a food chain, each organism represents a particular trophic level
according to its food behavior.
Food chain in a pond
Food chain in a forest

Tropic Levels (T1, T2, T3, T4, T5) (or) Feeding levels
The various steps through which food energy passes in an ecosystem is called as tropic levels.
The tropic levels are arranged in the following way as Where,
The green plants or producers represent first tropic level T1,
The herbivores or primary consumers represent second tropic level T2.
The carnivores or secondary consumers represent third tropic level T3.
The tertiary consumers are fourth tropic level T4.
Finally decomposers represent last tropic level T5

Types of food chain

Food chains are classified into two main types

1. Grazing food chain

2. Detritus food chain

1.Grazing food chain

Found in Grassland ecosystems and pond ecosystems. Grazing food chain starts with green plants (primary
procedures) and goes to decomposer food chain or detritus food chain through herbivores and carnivores.

2. Detritus food chain

Found in Grassland ecosystems and forest ecosystems. Detritus food chain starts with dead organic matter (plants
and animals) and goes to decomposer food chain through herbivores and carnivores
FOOD WEB
Definition

The interlocking pattern of various food chains in an ecosystem is known as food web. In a food web many
food chains are interconnected, where different types of organisms are connected at different tropic
levels, so that there is a number of opportunities of eating and being eaten at each tropic level
Example:
Grass may be eaten by insects, rats, deer's, etc., these may be eaten by carnivores (snake, tiger).
Thus there is a interlocking of various food chains called food webs.
Characteristics of Food Chain
Some of the characteristics of the food chain are listed below:
 Interaction between living organisms: A food chain demonstrates the relationships and
dependencies among different organisms in an ecosystem.
 Dependency: Organisms within a food chain depend on each other for food and energy,
demonstrating the interconnectedness of life.
 Straight pathway of energy flow: Energy moves linearly from one organism to another in a food
chain, representing a direct flow of energy through the ecosystem.
 Undivided energy flow: Energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next without branching
off, maintaining a continuous flow within the chain.
 Limited trophic levels: Food chains typically consist of 3 to 4 trophic levels, representing the primary
producers, consumers, and sometimes secondary consumers in an ecosystem.

Characteristics of Food Web

Some of the characteristics of the food web are listed below:
 Interconnectedness: Shows how organisms in an ecosystem are connected through feeding
relationships.
 Complexity: Represents the multitude of interactions among various species within the ecosystem.
 Energy Flow: Illustrates the transfer of energy from one organism to another through feeding.
 Biodiversity: Reflects the diversity of species and trophic levels present in the ecosystem.

Differences Between Food Chain and Food Web

Some of the differences between a food chain and a food web are listed below

Features Food Chain Food Web

It is arranged in a linear pattern

It is arranged in a web-like pattern i.e. multiple
Arrangement i.e. the flow of energy is in a
food chains are connected like a web.
straight line.

Mainly consists of a single

Consists of more than one species per trophic
Structure organism per trophic level in
level in each web.
each chain.

No option for food except for

Food Option Multiple food options.
the specific species.

Consists of mostly 3-4 trophic

Number of Levels Can consist of 4-6 trophic levels.
levels.

Adaptability and No adaptability and competition Adaptability and competition among organisms
Competition among organisms. are present.
 Features Food Chain Food Web

If a species from any trophic

The integrity of Loss of one or two species from any trophic
level gets eliminated then the
the Chain level will not disintegrate the food web.
whole chain falls.

Mostly in seen in ideal Naturally, ecosystems show a food chain in a

Presence condition. web-like arrangement.

Demonstrates the relationship Demonstrates how the ecosystem and its biotic
Demonstrates between organisms. communities are structured and placed.

Occurrence It is only a single unit. Multiple units of food chains are present.

If present in an ecosystem, it Helps in stabilizing the ecosystem by

Significance increases the instability. maintaining balance.

There are only two types of food

Types chains; the grazing food chain, No specific type of food web is present.
and the detritus food chain.

Grass –> Grasshopper, rabbit, deer –> Frog,

Grass –> Grasshopper –> Frog –
Example Weasels, Small bird, fox –> Small snake, Wolf,
> Snake –> Hawk
Cheetah, Hawk –> Lion, Eagle, Cobra

Similarities Between Food Chain and Food Web

The similarities between food chains and food webs are:
 Both food chains and food webs represents the flow of energy and nutrients through an ecosystem.
 Both depict the transfer of energy from one organism to another through feeding relationships,
highlighting the interconnectedness of species within an ecosystem.
 Both start with producers (plants or autotrophic organisms) that convert sunlight into chemical
energy through photosynthesis, that act as the foundation of the food chain/web.
 Both support multiple trophic levels, including producers, primary consumers (herbivores), secondary
consumers (carnivores or omnivores), and sometimes tertiary consumers (top predators).
 Food chain and food web help ecologists understand the structure and dynamics of ecosystems,
including energy flow, trophic interactions, and the importance of biodiversity.

Ecological Pyramid

An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the distribution of biomass or energy within

an ecosystem. The biomass is distributed according to the number of individual organisms in each
trophic level. Each step or level of the food chain forms a trophic level. The autotrophs or the
producers are at the first trophic level. They fix up the solar energy and make it available for
heterotrophs or the consumers.
Types of Ecological Pyramid

Ecological pyramids can be of three kinds. These are as follows:

 Pyramid of numbers

 Pyramid of biomass

 Pyramid of energy

Ecological Pyramid Types

The ecological pyramid is of three types; the pyramid of numbers, the pyramid of biomass, and the
pyramid of energy.

Pyramid of Number

The Pyramid of Number denotes the total number of living individuals at various trophic levels in an
ecological system. The producers are at the base and top carnivores at the topmost level in this pyramid.

Pyramid of Biomass
The ecological pyramid that is made by considering the amount of biomass that is produced by the living
system of each trophic level is represented by the pyramid of biomass. The pyramid that demonstrates
the total weight of every trophic level in a specific food chain in an ecosystem is the biomass pyramid.

Pyramid of Energy

Pyramid of energy is the only type of ecological pyramid, which is always upright as the energy flow in a food chain
is always unidirectional.

FOREST ECOSYSTEM
A forest ecosystem is the one in which a tall and trees grow that support many animals and birds. The forest are
found in undisturbed areas receiving moderate to hi rainfall. The forest occupies nearly 40% of the world's land
area. In India it occupies only 19% of its total land area.

Types of forest ecosystem

Depending upon the climate conditions, forests can be classified into the following types.

1. Tropical Rain forests.

2. Tropical deciduous forests.
3. Tropical scrub forests.
4. Temperate rain forests.
5. Temperate deciduous forests:
Features of different types of Forests

1. Tropical Rain forests

They are foi.ind near the equator. They are characterized by high temperature. They have broad leaf trees like teak
and 1. and the animals like lion, tiger and monkey.
2. Tropical deciduous forests
They are found little away from the equator. They are characterized by a warm climate and rain is only during
monsoon. They have different types of deciduous trees like maple, oak and hickary and animals like deer, fox,
rabbit and rat.
3. Tropical Scrub forests
These are characterized by a dry climate for longer time. They small deciduous trees and shrubs and animals like
maple, oak and hickory and animals like deer, fox, etc.,
4. Temperate Rain Forests
They are found in temperate areas with adequate rainfall. They are characterized by coniferous trees like pines,
firs, red wood etc., and animals like, squirrels, fox, cats, bear etc.,
5. Temperate deciduous forests
They are found in areas with moderate temperatures. have major trees including broad leaf deciduous trees like
oak, hickory and animals like deer, fox, bear, etc.,

Characteristics of forest ecosystems

1. Forests are characterized by warm temperature and adequate rainfall, which make the
2. Generation of number of ponds, lakes etc.,
3. The forest maintains climate and rainfall.
4. The forest support many wild animals and protect biodiversity.
5. The soil is rich in organic matter and nutrients which support the growth of trees.
6. Since penetration of light is so poor, the conversion of organic matter into nutrients is very fast.so, with every
increasing trophic level, some energy is lost into the environment.

GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM.
Introduction
Grassland occupies about 20% of earth's surface addition to grass species, some trees and shrubs are/also pre in
grasslands. Limited grazing helps to improve the net primary production of the grasslands. But, overgrazing leads
 degradation of these grasslands resulting in desertification

Types of grassland ecosystem

Depending upon the climate conditions grassland cal classified into three types
1. Tropical grasslands.
2. Temperate grasslands.
3. Polar grasslands.
Features of different types of grassland

1. Tropical grasslands
They are found near the borders of tropical rain. forests. are characterized by high temperature and moderate
rainfall (40 to 100 cm). It is also known as Savanna type. They ye tall grasses with scattered shrubs and stunted
trees and animals like zebras, giraffes, antelopes, etc.,

2. Temperate grasslands
They are usually found in the centers of continents, oil sloped hills.. They are characterized by very cold winters
and hot summers: Intense grazing and summer fires, do not W shrubs or trees to grow.

3. Polar grasslands
They are found in arctic polar regions. They are characterized by severe cold and strong winds along with ice and
snow. In summers several small annual plants grow. They 'e animals like arctic wolf, weasel, arctic fox, etc.,

Characteristics of Grassland Ecosystems

Grassland ecosystem is a plain land occupied by grasses. Soil is very rich in nutrients and
organic matter. Since it has tall grass, it is ideal place Structure/Components of Grassland
Ecosystem
The different structural components of the grassland ecosystem can be classified as abiotic and biotic components.

Biotic Components

 Producers – In grassland, producers are mainly grasses; though, a few herbs & shrubs also
contribute to the primary production of biomass.
 Consumers – In a grassland, consumers are of three main types:

 Primary Consumers – The primary consumers are herbivores feeding directly on grasses.
Herbivores such as grazing mammals (e.g., cows, sheep, deer, rabbit, buffaloes, etc), insects
 (e.g., Dysdercus, Coccinella, Leptocorisa, etc), some termites and millipedes are the primary
consumers.
 Secondary Consumers – These are carnivores that feed on primary consumers (Herbivores).
The animals like foxes, jackals, snakes, frogs, lizards, birds etc., are the carnivores feeding on
the herbivores. These are the secondary consumers of the grassland ecosystem.
 Tertiary Consumers – These include hawks etc. which feed on secondary consumers.
 Decomposers – These include bacteria of death and decay, moulds and fungi (e.g., Mucor,
Penicillium, Aspergillus, Rhizopus, etc). These bring the minerals back to the soil to be available to
the producers again.
Abiotic Components

 These include the nutrients present in the soil and the aerial environment.
 The elements required by plants are hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur.
 These are supplied by the soil and air in the form of CO2, water, nitrates, phosphates and
sulphates.
 In addition to these, some trace elements are also present in the soil.
for grazing animals. It is characterized by low or uneve.
DESERT ECOSYSTEMS
Introduction
Desert occupies about 35% of our world's land area. It is characterized by less than 25 cm rainfall. The atmosphere
is dry and hence it is a poor insulator.
Types of desert ecosystems
Based on the climatic conditions, deserts are classified three types.
1. Tropical deserts.
2. Temperate deserts.
3. Cold deserts.
Features of different types of deserts
1. Tropical deserts: Tropical deserts are found in
•Africa: Sahara desert.
•Rajasthan: Thar desert.
They are characterized by only few species. Wind blow sand dunes are very common.
2. Temperate deserts
They are found in
South California: Majave.
They are characterized by very hot summer and very Winter time.
3. Cold deserts
They are found in -
China: Gobi desert.
They. are characterized by cold winters and was summers.

Characteristics of Desert ecosystem

The desert air is dry and the climate is hot. Annual rainfall is less than 25 cm. The soil is very poor in nutrients and
organic matter, Vegetation is poor.

Structure and functions of the desert systems ecosystems

1. Abiotic Components
Examples: Temperature, rainfall, sunlight, water, etc., The temperature is very high and the rainfall is very low. The
nutrient cycling is also very lown rainfall.
II. Biotic Components
Procedures
Examples:Shrubs, bushes, some grasses and few trees.In deserts mostly Succulent (e.g., cacti) plants are found
available. They have water inside them to stay alive. They have. r on the outside to protect them from the sun.
Consumers

Examples:Squirrels, nice foxes, rabbits, deer and reptiles. These animals dig holes in the ground to live in. They
come out at night to find food. Most of the animals can extract water from the seeds they eat.

Decomposers

Examples: Fungi and bacteria Desert has poor vegetation with a very low amount of dead organic mater. They are
decomposed by few fungi and bacteria.
Introduction of Aquatic Ecosystem
An ecosystem is defined as a functional unit wherein all living organisms interact with their
surroundings and one another to sustain themselves in the environment. In a broad sense, an
ecosystem can be categorized as a land/terrestrial ecosystem or a water/aquatic ecosystem.
Features of Aquatic Ecosystem
Salient features of the aquatic ecosystem are highlighted in this figure below –
 Freshwater or saltwater can be used to make them.
 They serve as a home for a variety of aquatic animals.
 The majority of the vegetation is made up of algae and corals.
 They have a lot of biological diversity, which makes them the most productive and
wealthiest ecosystems on the planet.
 They help regulate the hydrological cycle and act as a pollution filter, among other things.

Types of Aquatic Ecosystem

In general, there are two types of aquatic ecosystems, namely marine ecosystems and freshwater
ecosystems. Both marine and freshwater ecosystems are further divided under different aquatic
ecosystems.

A. Marine Water Ecosystem

This particular ecosystem is the largest aquatic ecosystem and covers over 70% of the earth’s
total surface. This ecosystem is relatively more concentrated in terms of salinity.
Nonetheless, the body of aquatic organisms is well-adjusted to saline water, and they may
find it challenging to survive in freshwater. The following categories comprise the marine
ecosystem.

 Ocean Ecosystem
Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean, and the Southern Ocean are the
five major oceans on earth. Notably, the Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of these
five, while the Atlantic is the second largest in terms of size. Also, the Southern Ocean
harbors the largest population of Krill among them. Other than that, the oceans serve as
home to aquatic organisms like – turtles, crustaceans, plankton, corals, shellfish, blue whale,
sharks, tube worms, reptiles, etc.

 Estuaries
Typically, it is the meeting point of a sea and rivers, which makes the water slightly more
saline when compared to freshwater and more diluted when compared to the marine
ecosystem. Biologically, estuaries are considered to be productive as they stimulate primary
production and trap plant nutrients. Some examples of estuaries include – tidal marshes, river
mouth, and coastal bays.
B. Freshwater Ecosystem
This aquatic ecosystem covers less than 1% of the earth’s surface and is broadly divided into
– wetlands, lentic and lotic ecosystems.