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Faculty of Engineering /Department of Highways and Transportation Engineering
Course No.: 506064062, Course Name: Route Location, Second Semester & Year: 2023-2022
1. PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY LOCATION
The basic principle for locating highways is that roadway elements such as
curvature and grade must blend with each other to produce a system that
provides for the easy flow of traffic at the design capacity, while meeting design
criteria and safety standards. The highway should also cause a minimal
disruption to historic and archeological sites and to other land-use activities.
Environmental impact studies are therefore required in most cases before a
highway location is finally agreed upon.
The highway location process involves four phases:
• Office study of existing information

• Reconnaissance survey
• Preliminary location survey
• Final location survey
1.1 Office Study of Existing Information
The first phase in any highway location study is the examination of all available
data of the area in which the road is to be constructed. This phase is usually
carried out in the office prior to any field or photogrammetric investigation. All
of the available data are collected and examined. These data can be obtained
from existing engineering reports, maps, aerial photographs, and charts, which
are usually available at one or more of the state’s departments of transportation,
agriculture, geology, hydrology, and mining. The type and amount of data
collected and examined depend on the type of highway being considered, but in
general, data should be obtained on the following characteristics of the area:
• Engineering, including topography, geology, climate, and traffic volumes

• Social and demographic, including land use and zoning patterns
• Environmental, including types of wildlife; location of recreational, historic,
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and archeological sites; and the possible effects of air, noise, and water
pollution
• Economic, including unit costs for construction and the trend of agricultural,
commercial, and industrial activities.
Preliminary analysis of the data obtained will indicate whether any of the
specific sites should be excluded from further consideration because of one or
more of the above characteristics. For example, if it is found that a site of
historic and archeological importance is located within an area being considered
for possible route location, it may be immediately decided that any route that
traverses that site should be excluded from further consideration. At the
completion of this phase of the study, the engineer will be able to select general
areas through which the highway can traverse.
1.2 Reconnaissance Survey
The object of this phase of the study is to identify several feasible routes, each
within a band of a limited width of a few hundred feet. When rural roads are
being considered, there is often little information available on maps or
photographs, and therefore aerial photography is widely used to obtain the
required information. Feasible routes are identified by a stereoscopic
examination of the aerial photographs, taking into consideration factors such as:
• Terrain and soil conditions

• Serviceability of route to industrial and population areas
• Crossing of other transportation facilities, such as rivers, railroads, and
highways
• Directness of route
Control points between the two endpoints are determined for each feasible route.
For example, a unique bridge site with no alternative may be taken as a primary
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control point. The feasible routes identified are then plotted on photographic
base maps.
1.3 Preliminary Location Survey
During this phase of the study, the positions of the feasible routes are set as
closely as possible by establishing all the control points and determining
preliminary vertical and horizontal alignments for each. Preliminary alignments
are used to evaluate the economic and environmental feasibility of the
alternative routes.
Economic Evaluation
Economic evaluation of each alternative route is carried out to determine the

future effect of investing the resources necessary to construct the highway.
Factors usually taken into consideration include road user costs, construction
costs, maintenance costs, road user benefits, and any disbenefits, which may
include adverse impacts due to dislocation of families, businesses, and so forth.
The results obtained from the economic evaluation of the feasible routes provide
valuable information to the decision maker. For example, these results will
provide information on the economic resources that will be gained or lost if a
particular location is selected. This information is also used to aid the policy
maker in determining whether the highway should be built, and if so, what type
of highway it should be.
Environmental Evaluation
Construction of a highway at any location will have a significant impact on its

surroundings. A highway is therefore an integral part of the local environment
and must be considered as such. This environment includes plant, animal, and
human communities and encompasses social, physical, natural, and man-made
variables. These variables are interrelated in a manner that maintains
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equilibrium and sustains the lifestyle of the different communities. The

construction of a highway at a given location may result in significant changes
in one or more variables, which in turn may offset the equilibrium and result in
significant adverse effects on the environment. This may lead to a reduction of
the quality of life of the animals and/or human communities. It is therefore
essential that the environmental impact of any alignment selected be fully
evaluated.
Federal legislation has been enacted that sets forth the requirements of the
environmental evaluation required for different types of projects. In general, the
requirements call for the submission of environmental impact statements for
many projects.
These statements should include:
• A detailed description of alternatives

• The probable environmental impact, including the assessment of positive and
negative effects
• An analysis of short-term impact as differentiated from long-term impact
• Any secondary effects, which may be in the form of changes in the patterns of
social and economic activities
• Probable adverse environmental effects that cannot be avoided if the project is
constructed
• Any irreversible and irretrievable resources that have been committed
In cases where an environmental impact study is required, it is conducted at this

stage to determine the environmental impact of each alternative route. Such a
study will determine the negative and/or positive effects the highway facility
will have on the environment. For example, the construction of a freeway at
grade through an urban area may result in an unacceptable noise level for the
residents of the area (negative impact), or the highway facility may be located so
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that it provides better access to jobs and recreation centers (positive impact).
Public hearings are also held at this stage to provide an opportunity for
constituents to give their views on the positive and negative impacts of the
proposed alternatives.
Probable impact of the facility on the environment:

• Natural environment, such as ecological and visual impacts
• Relocation or disruption of human activities
• Recreation for local and other populations
• Air quality impacts
• Noise impacts
• Water quality impacts
• Construction impacts
The best alternative, based on all the factors considered, is then selected as the
preliminary alignment of the highway
1.4 Final Location Survey
The final location survey is a detailed layout of the selected route. The
horizontal and vertical alignments are determined, and the positions of structures
and drainage channels are located. The method used is to set out the points of
intersections (PI) of the straight portions of the highway and fit a suitable
horizontal curve between these. This is usually a trial-and-error process until, in
the designer’s opinion; the best alignment is obtained, taking both engineering
and aesthetic factors into consideration. Splines and curve templates are
available that can be used in this process. The spline is a flexible plastic guide
that can be bent into different positions and is used to lay out different
curvilinear alignments, from which the most suitable is selected. Curve
templates are transparencies giving circular curves, three-center compound
curves, and spiral curves of different radii and different standard scales. Figure 1
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shows circular curve templates, and Figure 2 shows three-centered

curve templates. The spline is used first to obtain a hand-fitted smooth curve that
fits in with the requirements of grade, cross-sections, curvature, and drainage.
The hand-fitted curve is then changed to a more defined curve by using the
standard templates.
Figure .1 Circular Curve Templates
Figure .2 Centered Curve Templates

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The availability of computer-based techniques has significantly enhanced this

process since a proposed highway can be displayed on a monitor, enabling the
designer to have a driver’s eye view of both the horizontal and vertical
alignments of the road. The designer can therefore change either or both
alignments until the best alignment is achieved. Detailed design of the vertical
and horizontal alignments is then carried out to obtain both the deflection angles
for horizontal curves and the cuts or fills for vertical curves and straight sections
of the highway.
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FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF THE HIGHWAY ROUTE
We briefly review some of the main factors affecting selection of the route that
can be discerned from available maps, photographs, and other sources. The basic
philosophy underlying the relationship between costs and design levels is
described to provide some perspective on the appropriateness of specific routes.
Examination of Natural and Man-Made Features
Selection of a possible route for a proposed highway is — apart from traffic

considerations —determined largely by relating topographic features, human
habitation, and environmental features of the area under consideration to
geometric design controls. Therefore, before starting the route selection process,
a review of the area's major topographic and other features likely to affect the
route selection is needed. Several sources of information are available to assist
the review. They include:
1. Topographic Maps. Usually the maps of the United States Geological

Survey (USGS) at a scale of 1:25,000 and a contour interval of 3 m provide the
minimum required detail for preliminary route selection. Larger scale maps may
also be used if available.
2. Aerial Photographs. The two main types of aerial photographs employed in

route design are stereographic and oblique. Stereographic photographs, usually
at the same scale as the topographic maps, may assist in determining important
geological, ecological, and cultural information. Also, with the assistance of
appropriate measuring devices, they form the basis for automated route selection
and design, including the use of computer aided methods. Oblique aerial
photographs may be used to supplement the stereo photographs.
3. Geological and Soil Maps. These are available through the USGS, the U.S.
Soil Conservation Service, or through state agencies, and may provide useful
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information, particularly concerning pavement design, although more detailed

information is usually necessary for preliminary design.
4. Ground Surveys. Reconnaissance or more detailed surveys should be made of
the area, especially if the terrain is rugged or if additional details are required.
As early as possible in the process, the design engineer should "walk the route,"
but practicalities may preclude this procedure early in the project.
We will rely primarily upon the information that can be obtained from USGS
topographic maps; in practice, the designer may use a combination of several
sources of information. The items used and the major steps in the review may
typically include the following:
Topographic Maps ~ Examine the terrain in general between the

start and end points of the proposed route and make note of the following
information, usually available from a topographic and geological maps. An
inspection of the maps should include the following steps:
1. Identify unsuitable ground conditions such as wetlands, rock outcrops, areas

subject to flash floods or avalanche, and other features of an obviously difficult
terrain for highway
2. Examine the contour lines to obtain an initial estimate of the gradients that
exist on undulating or mountainous parts of the potential route. The steepness of
the terrain may be approximately determined by observing the number of
contour lines and their vertical interval along a horizontal distance located at
right angles to them. Slopes steeper than, say, approximately 10%, may be
delineated on the map.
3. Define streams, rivers, ravines, or other topographic features that indicate the
possible need for bridges or other extensive ancillary works to the highway
itself.
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4. List typical types of subsurface and soil conditions that may be expected, as
indicated by the topographic features found on the topographic and geological
map.
5. Summarize the findings of the examination of the above items on maps or
overlays in order to guide the next steps in the route selection. Items 1 through 4
are described graphically in Figures 1-1 through 1-3 where, as an example, the
route of a highway connecting points A and B is being considered.
Other features that may be identified at this time, and that may be directly
related to the effectiveness of the route, include consideration of sunlight
availability to reduce the effects of snow and ice accumulations, avoidance of
possible avalanche areas, and the effects of the route on habitation and other
cultural activities such as schools and community Centers. The physical
characteristics defined by these considerations can significantly affect the
alignment of the route and its ultimate benefits to local and wider
communities.
Aerial Photography ~ The next step is to examine available

aerial and other photography, when available, to confirm or modify the
information on the map. The following procedure is usually appropriate:
Examine the stereoscopic aerial photographs to determine whether topographic
and cultural features are different from those shown on the map. Document any
changes on an overlay so this may be recorded on the map. The type of features
found might include human activity, swamp or marsh areas that no longer exist,
or areas that may be sensitive due to presence of wildlife or other ecological
factors. In addition, conditions potentially hazardous to a highway such as
avalanches, mudslides, or flooding may be evident. Aerial photography can
provide excellent indications of anticipated ground conditions. Examples of the
stereoscopic photographs are presented in Figure 1-4.
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Examine the oblique photographs to obtain a sense of the developmental and

esthetic features of the area and a general idea of the grades and other
topographic characteristics. These, of course, should be cross-checked with
those on the map to ensure correspondence. Figure 1-5 provides several oblique
photographs of the project area.
Note in particular the presence of trees that may make identification of the
ground surface features difficult on the aerial photographs.
In addition to the above considerations, make note of local features which may
be environmentally sensitive to the presence of a proposed highway. Guidelines
for identifying these features and mitigating the effects of potential highways on
the environment are described in several documents listed in the bibliography.
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Identification of Technically Feasible routes

The guiding principle in designing a possible route is to improve the
transportation between specified points. Within the economic and social
framework that typically applies, the term "improve" may be broadly interpreted
as "to make less expensive and safer for the public in general as well as for the
highway's users, while at the same time maintaining or contributing to the
improvement of environmental quality." Furthermore, the route should be
"technically feasible" in that no excessive construction or maintenance problems
are envisaged, and such that the design controls and policy on geometric design
of the highway agency having jurisdiction are adhered to. The policies of the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) are generally used.
A highway improvement may be an upgraded existing highway or a completely

new route and should always be considered as a component of the overall
transportation system.
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Objectives in identifying acceptable routes
In defining a broadly acceptable route, therefore, the approach typically involves

compromising between the user costs and construction costs while seeking the
route and physical conditions that result in the least adverse environmental
impact.
How is a balance struck between user costs and construction costs? A rather
extreme example may be used to illustrate this problem: suppose the objective is
to define a route between two points on existing highways separated by
mountainous terrain. The least cost route for vehicle users on a "per vehicle
kilometer" basis would clearly be a horizontal and vertical alignment permitting
a high design speed (long sight distances, large radius curves, etc.) route with
bridges and tunnels and extensive cuts and fills to overcome the rugged terrain.
At the other extreme, a winding road following the contours of the terrain, with
little or no cut and fill sections, few bridges, and no tunnels, would result in
higher user costs due to sharp curves, resultant reductions in speed, and greater
likelihood of accidents. However, such a road would undoubtedly cost less to
build, even if it were somewhat longer than the first, because of the reduced
amount of expensive excavation and filling and construction of bridges and
tunnels.
In a more formalized way, as developed by the World Bank, the Highway

Design and Maintenance Model states that (in selecting a particular highway)
" .. .the basic task is to predict total life-cycle costs - construction, maintenance,
and road user costs - as a function of the road design, maintenance standards and
other policy options which may be considered", and adds that a broader
definition of societal costs would include such examples as air pollution as it
affects non-road-users.
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For any given volume of traffic, the relationship between the user cost,
construction cost, and total cost can be shown conceptually, as in Figure 1-6.
The lower the design standards, the lower the construction costs (because of the
reduced need for cut, fill, bridges, and tunnels). Conversely, the travel cost to
users increases due to the reduced speed and increased travel time, and the
increased likelihood of accidents due to the lower geometric design standards.
Examples of higher and lower geometric design standards applied to highways
are shown in Figure 1-7. It must be emphasized that both of these highways
satisfy specified criteria in terms of their function and role within the overall
system, and the terms "higher" and "lower" should not be construed as meaning
"better" and "worse" designs.
The preferred route can only be determined by comparing the total costs for
users and the construction and maintenance costs incurred by the implementing
agency, for each technically feasible alternative, and selecting that alternative
with the least monetary cost and acceptable non-quantifiable impacts.
The economic analysis involved in this process is described in several

publications. See the bibliography for these. In the examples provided in this
book, however, we are concerned primarily with establishing the technical
feasibility of each alternative, and its capital cost. In the worked example in
(will be given later) also include approximate maintenance costs and
approximate vehicle operating cost as an aid to indicating the relative merits of
the alternatives.
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Design Controls
Once the functional classification (e.g., collector, arterial, etc.) of a proposed

highway has been defined, major controls affecting the design must be specified
in order to guide the design process. The functional classifications of highways
in rural areas include principal arterials, minor arterials, major and minor
collectors, and local roads. At a minimum, the following design controls usually
must be specified.
Traffic volumes
Design vehicle
Design speed
Maximum grade
Lane and shoulder widths
Traffic Volumes —The traffic data should include the current and future
average daily traffic (ADT), the future design hourly volume (DHV), directional
distribution, and truck percentage, as indicated in Table 2-1.
On most highways, the DHV is used for design. The ADT may be used for
design of minor, low-volume roads. On highways with unusual or highly
seasonal fluctuations in traffic flow, the DHV should be based upon detailed
analysis of the anticipated demand. For important intersections, data should be
obtained to show traffic movements during morning and evening peak hours and
at other times of heavy traffic. The capacity of each highway and the levels of
service associated with the demand must be determined from a capacity
analysis. For design purposes, the guidelines shown in Table 2-2 may provide an
initial indication of the appropriate levels of service. For example, if other data
are unavailable to indicate otherwise, level-of-service D would be appropriate
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for a rural collector highway in mountainous terrain. Estimation of actual

service flow rates, level of service, and related performance measures should be
done in accordance with procedures described in the latest edition of the
Highway Capacity Manual (HCM).
Design Vehicles—Width and height, overhangs, and minimum turning paths at

intersections are key dimensions to be noted and accommodated. Current policy
(i.e. HCM) states that the vehicle that should be used in design for normal
operation is the largest one that represents a significant percentage of the traffic
for the design year. For design of most highways accommodating truck traffic,
one of the design semitrailer combinations is typically used. When geometric
configuration is constricted, such as in urban areas and at certain intersections, a
design check should be made for the largest vehicle expected to ensure that it
can negotiate the designated turns, particularly if pavements are curbed. In
special cases, a design may have to be made to accommodate vehicles larger
than the WB-15. Minimum turning paths are shown in Table 2-3. Templates are
typically used to determine the location of wheel paths.
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Design Speed Designation – The design speed is a primary determinant of the

geometric design. In order to provide better selection of potential physical
design values, a distinction has been made between "rural highways and high-
speed urban streets," and "low-speed urban streets". However, the latter may be
appropriate for urban street designs where smaller radii and lower coefficients of
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friction are appropriate. As well as the selected design speed, the design will
be dependent upon the traffic, highway capacity, and running speed and will
reflect the following variables:
Terrain — As the terrain varies from level to mountainous, so the cost of the
construction for any given speed will increase. Although difficult to define
precisely, examples of level, rolling and mountainous are shown graphically in
Figure 2-1. Definitions of terrain as related to highway design are given in
(HCM) as follows:
"Level terrain is that condition where highway sight distances, as governed by

both horizontal and vertical restrictions, are generally long or could be made to
be so without construction difficulty or major expense.
"Rolling terrain is that condition where the natural slopes consistently rise
above and fall below the road or street grade and where occasional steep slopes
offer some restriction to normal horizontal and vertical roadway alignment.
"Mountainous terrain is that condition where longitudinal and transverse

changes in the elevation of the ground with respect to the road or street are
abrupt and where benching and side hill excavations are frequently required to
obtain acceptable horizontal and vertical alignment.
"Terrain classifications pertain to the general character of a specific route

corridor. Routes in valleys or passes of mountainous areas that have all the
characteristics of roads or streets traversing level or rolling terrain should be
classified as level or rolling. In general, rolling terrain generates steeper grades,
causing trucks to reduce speeds below those of passenger cars, and mountainous
terrain aggravates the situation, resulting in some trucks operating at crawl
speeds."
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Grades - The higher the maximum grade, the lower will be the design speed,
reflecting the lower running speeds of vehicles using the highway, and
commercial vehicles in particular.
Lane and Shoulder Widths — Higher values of lane increase design capacity.
Designated lane widths range between 3 m and 3.6 m for highways with any
significant traffic volumes. Adequate shoulders are usually necessary for safety
and capacity reasons.
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Example: Selection of Design Controls ~ The relationships of the above

variables and design capacities are assembled in Tables 2-4, 2-5, and 2-6 for
rural collector highways The design speed may be selected from these tables.
For example, given the following data, determine an appropriate design speed,
maximum grade, lane width, and shoulder widths:
Terrain: mountainous
ADT: 3500
Table 2-4 indicates that a minimum design speed of 60 km/h would be required,
and Table 2-5 indicates a maximum grade of 10% for that design speed. The
appropriate lane width would be 3.6 m with 2.4 m shoulders (Table 2-6). It
should be noted that higher speeds may be justified if safety and cost
considerations are adequately met.
Design Designation—In order to summarize and present the information on

design controls and criteria, it is usual to indicate on the title sheet of the set of
drawings describing the highway the major controls for which it is designed.
This "design designation" is typified by the following example:
Control of Access = None

ADT 1964 = None
ADT 1984 =5,000
DHV = 500
D = 60%
T = 5% (assumed)
V =60 km/h
In addition, the maximum grade and basic lane and shoulder widths may be
specified.
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ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
Having established the major design controls, the next step is to relate them
to each of the major elements of the highway design. The design of these
elements, based upon the fundamental determinants of driver and vehicle
characteristics and environmental conditions, includes primarily horizontal and
vertical alignment and other factors such as drainage and landscaping.
Stopping Sight Distance - Stopping sight distance for a given design speed is
the minimum distance that a vehicle moving at the corresponding running speed
will require to come to a safe halt. It is the sum of the distances traveled during
the driver's brake reaction time and during the braking of the vehicle to a stop on
a wet pavement. Stopping sight distances for various design speeds are
summarized in Table2-7.
Passing Sight Distance ~ Passing sight distance is particularly important when

considering safety and alignment. As described by AASHTO, "design passing
sight distance is the minimum distance required to safely make a normal passing
maneuver on 2-lane highways at passing speeds representative of nearly all
drivers, commensurate with design speed. Passing sight distance on 2-lane
highways should be provided over as high a proportion of the highway length as
feasible. This proportion should be greater on highways with high volumes than
on those with low volumes." See Figure 2-2 for passing sight distances for
various design speeds.
Horizontal Alignment — Based upon the selected design speed and the
allowable (as specified by state or other jurisdiction) superelevation rate, the
minimum radius of curve, or corresponding maximum degree of curvature, may
be specified. Table 2-8 indicates the key relationships between design speed,
side friction factor, superelevation, minimum radius of curvature, and maximum
degree of curve. Typically, establishment of the minimum radius (or degree of
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curve) is a basic step required before a realistic route selection can be made.
For example, for a design speed of 60 km/h and maximum superelevation of
6%, the minimum radius would be 135 m, as shown in Table 2-8.
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APPLICATION OF GEOMETRIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES TO

ROUTE DESIGN
The fundamental objective in the highway geometric design process is the

establishment of the new highway's centerline and cross sections in relation to
the terminal points and to the topography through which the highway will pass.
The vertical and horizontal alignment of the centerline determines the amount of
cut and fill, cross section details, drainage design, construction and user costs,
and environmental impacts.
PRELIMINARY ROUTE LAYOUT AND GEOMETRIC DESIGN

In selecting a preliminary, technically feasible route, the designer should attempt
to envisage the topography in three dimensions. This may be difficult initially,
but some practice will assist. The major activities may be divided into: defining
design controls; establishing an initial alignment; balancing cut and fill; and,
refining the design. These activities are described below.
Defining Design Controls -- The alignment of a highway is subject to design

controls that ensure that it will provide suitable service for the traffic within the
topography for which it is designed. As well as the controls noted earlier, it is
necessary to specify several other variables that are inputs to establishing a
preliminary route. These variables are described as follows:
1. Minimum radius of horizontal curves, based upon the design speed and the
permissible super elevation.
2. Minimum length of vertical curves, based upon design speed and difference
between intersecting grades.
3. Maximum grade at any point on the highway, determined from consideration

of road classification, truck traffic, and terrain.
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4. Maximum grade in proximity to existing intersections. The vertical

alignment of the proposed route should allow for a minimum to moderate grade
approaching the intersection with the existing highway in order to assist in safe
stopping on downhills and improved sight distance on uphill approaches.
Ideally, this grade should be no more than is required for adequate drainage.
Because this approach grade may intersect with a vertical curve ascending or
descending the hillside, a vertical curve may be required at this location. The
length of this curve is determined by consideration of the design speed and
intersecting grades. For preliminary design purposes, it is suggested that within
a distance of about 30 m from the intersection's stop line, the grade be no more
than 2%. This value will be used in the design projects presented later and will
allow for any necessary modifications in the detailed design stage.
5. Minimum grade at any point on the highway to ensure adequate drainage. A

minimum of 0.5% is suggested for preliminary design purposes.
6. Maximum horizontal approach angle at intersections. It is desirable to design

the route to ensure that intersections with existing highways are of suitable
alignment and configuration from a safety and capacity point of view.
Therefore, the horizontal alignment should feature as nearly as possible a right-
angled intersection with the existing highway (within, say, 90° + 15°). It is
suggested that for preliminary design purposes, the proposed approach to the
intersection be a tangent section for a distance of at least 30 m to aid drivers'
visibility at the approach.
7. Maximum depth of excavation and height of fill, a maximum depth of cut and
height of embankment must be specified in order for the designer to establish an
initial vertical alignment.
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Establishing an Initial Alignment - Development of the alignment is

a trial and error process involving defining a trial alignment, then checking to
see if it complies with the horizontal and vertical controls, then modifying it in
successive iterations until all the controls are complied with. One approach to
this process is illustrated by the problem example shown in Figure 3-1. In
addition to these steps, the following points may help to guide the process.
Horizontal Alignment. A first step is usually to determine if the shortest route

possible will comply with the controls, because this is likely to be the least-cost
solution. Examination of how this first trial route complies with the controls will
suggest how the route may be modified for the next trial. The highway should be
constructed as close to the existing ground (or slightly above it to assist adequate
drainage) as possible, provided that the design controls are complied with. Thus,
any horizontal centerline should be checked, first of all, for its grade. This may
be done approximately by measuring the length of a given segment of highway
and counting the contour lines that are crossed. The vertical distance covered,
divided by the horizontal length, indicates the approximate grade. If this grade is
significantly more than the specified amount, the alignment must be readjusted.
Where the rounded topography of a mountain or a hill must be negotiated in a

transverse fashion, the curve of a highway should preferably conform
approximately to the surface of the hill itself, or excessive cuts or fills are likely
to result. At this point, the designer must sketch a curve that approximately
conforms to the topography, by using compasses or templates. This curve must
then be checked for conformity with the maximum allowable radius and also for
the grade the highway negotiates throughout the curve. The latter must also
conform with the maximum allowable grade requirement and be adjusted if
necessary.
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Refinements to Selected Route - Once an initial, technically feasible

route
has been defined and examined, the alignment may be adjusted to ensure that
the relevant K values have been complied with, address coordination of
horizontal and vertical curves, and explore other routes that involve, for
example, less depth of cut or height of fill or reduce the proximity to sensitive
features such as wetlands. The alignment selection process can now be followed
for a number of alternatives. There are several reasons for doing this. For
example, the shortest highway that is feasible in a technical sense may not be
the least expensive. Detailed economic analysis will be needed to determine
these relative costs. Also, in practice, the provision and estimation of several
alternatives will provide information for decision makers who may favor certain
alignments over that considered preferable by purely engineering evaluation. If
possible, at least three alternatives should be initially defined, all of which are
technically feasible and conform to the specified design controls.
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DEPTH AND HEIGHT OF CUT AND FILL SECTIONS
In rolling or mountainous terrain, most highways will be constructed partially on

cut and fill sections. In general, it is desirable to "balance" the amount of cut and
fill over the length of the highway and to avoid excessive haul lengths during
construction. This requires careful consideration of the depth and configurations
of cut and fill segments of the highway. This section addresses some of the
considerations that should be taken into account when deciding the maximum
permissible depth of cuts and height of fills.
Highways Constructed in Cuts - Ingeneral, highways are constructed in cuts at

locations near the high points in the highway profile. The design details of the
cut will depend on the type of material excavated and upon the depth from the
original grade level.
Although no guidelines have been established, in general, a maximum of 10 m

should be about the greatest depth of cut for most highways, with 7 m being a
more desirable maximum. Beyond this depth, problems of slope stability and
excessive costs usually tend to outweigh the benefits derived from decreases in
grades and horizontal alignments, unless the highway accommodates high traffic
volumes. Deeper cuts may be necessary but the highway alignment should be
investigated very carefully for alternatives before such action is taken.
6
An example of selected characteristics of highways constructed in cuts is shown

in Figure 2-12. Figure 2-12A shows a highway in a cut where the ground
material is stable enough to be formed into self-supporting slopes. In general,
slopes should conform to the values described and should be consistent with the
provision of guardrail and other safety measures described earlier. The design of
all slopes should be based upon detailed engineering soils analysis. In addition,
to assist in slope stabilization, fabric and vegetation may be included. Selection
of the appropriate materials, again, should be subject to detailed engineering
analysis. It can be seen that the volume of excavation increases significantly as
7
the depth of the cut increases. Thus, excessive depths of cuts should be
avoided. Note that when the cut is located with an extensive slope above it, an
interceptor ditch should be provided at the top of the cut section to reduce
erosion of the cut slope by surface water runoff.
Figure 2-12B shows a cut section where the base material is rock. Again, the
rock slope beyond the limits of the ditch and pavement structures should be the
result of detailed engineering analysis. In some instances, the rock must be
adequately stabilized and, if necessary, barriers at the base of the cut should be
provided in order to prevent rock fragments from falling onto the highway. In
instances where cuts are provided in rock, the expense of blasting quickly
becomes extremely high. Again, such depths of cut should be minimized.
Highways Constructed on Embankments (Fill) -- Probably the greatest

amount of highway construction in rural areas occurs on fill. Even in extremely
flat topography, the highway pavement should be elevated several feet above the
surrounding ground, thus assisting drainage. In order to obtain this fill,
particularly where few cut segments are available, it is often necessary to obtain
material from borrow pits along the highway route.
As with the cut section, it is usually desirable to keep the height of the fill
section to 10 m or less, with 7 m being a preferred maximum. Above this height,
depending upon the topography, the classification of the highway, and the
affected land uses, it may be more economical to construct a bridge. This may
be particularly true where the highway passes through rocky terrain or where the
fill section is on a marsh, swamp, or any other location where unstable ground
conditions occur.
8
Slopes for cuts and fills should be determined in accordance with the guidelines
discussed earlier under Cross Section Elements, including the provision of
guardrails or other safety devices. Usually, the side slopes should be no steeper
than 1 in 2 for regular fill material from soil stability, surface vegetation, and
maintenance considerations. This slope may be increased somewhat if rock or
other more stable material is available for the purpose or if limited space or
9
environmental factors dictate. Again, the exact slope should be the

result of detailed engineering analysis.
Drainage of fill sections is particularly important to ensure that rainwater from

the highway surface does not erode the slopes of the fill, resulting in possible
eventual subsidence of the highway surface itself. Thus, curbing at the top of the
fill, transverse flumes, and substantial ditches at the foot of the slope section
may be major features of the drainage systems.
10
Example: Find the annual revenue resulted from reduction in the vehicle operation
and travel time costs as a result of rehabilitation old road in Iraq (Case study: Abu Gar quarry
project).
‫) صيية م درييا ي ي ي ا سم ا ي ا ييا‬77% ‫تب ي ا دراسد ييم درية سنييم د ياييبم ي سدى درميييا درييا هي ي درية ب ي ى ي‬
. ) 66% ‫ ) بةابم‬TYPE 3 ) 11% ‫ ) بةابم‬Type 3-S2 ‫درية ب ى درثق لم‬
) Type 3-S2 ‫ ) أ ي يي‬Medium Truck ) MT ‫ ) ية بيم و ي م يثليم بي رة‬type 3 ‫ف يعبية ييا‬

.) Large Truck ) LT ‫ية بم ب ةة يثلم ب رة‬
)‫ ة بم\ ةم‬65700 = (AADT)‫عال حهم درية س دراة ي‬
47.781=)‫ط ل در ةنق م‬
: ‫تصة ف درية ب ى درا ثالث دي د‬
PC: passenger Car 23%
MT: Medium Truck 66%
LT: Large Truck 11%
1
‫كلفة وحدة الوقود واالطارات والزيوت للمركبات‬: )1(‫جدول‬

average no.
fuel cost tire cost tire/vehicle Oil cost
US$/l ID/l US$/tire ID/tire US$/l ID/l
passenger car 0.035 400 30 37500 4 1.75 2187.5
medium truck 0.02 400 200 250000 8 1 1250
large truck 0.02 400 200 250000 16 1 1250
PC‫الكلف التخمينية الستخدام مركبة الصالون‬:)2 ( ‫جدول‬

Link Pavement IRI Average IRI Fuel Tire life Oil
type condition [m/km] influenced speed consumption [1000 consumption
[km/h] [l/km] km] [l*1000 km]
4 Good 4 80 0.073 40.7 2.15
11 Bad- very 14 35 0.157 0.8 7.3
bad
MT‫الكلف التخمينية الستخدام مركبة ثقل متوسطة‬:)3 ( ‫جدول‬

No. condition [m/km] influenced speed consumption [1000 consumption
[km/h] [l/km] km] [l*1000 km]
4 Good 4 70 0.148 40.7 3.67
11 Bad- very 14 27 0.308 0.8 10.34
bad
LT‫الكلف التخمينية الستخدام ثقل كبيرة‬:) 4( ‫جدول‬

No. condition [m/km] influenced speed consumption [1000 consumption
[km/h] [l/km] km] [l*1000 km]
4 Good 4 60 0.168 40.7 5.75
11 Bad- very 14 20 0.389 0.8 14.5
bad
2
‫‪Faculty of Engineering /Department of Highways and Transportation Engineering‬‬
‫‪Course No.: 506060406, Course Name: Highways Maintenance, Semester & Year: Fourth , 2018-2019‬‬
‫جدول( ‪:) 5‬قيمة الوقت للركاب‬

‫‪time value‬‬
‫‪US$‬‬ ‫‪/Person-‬‬ ‫‪ID/Person-‬‬
‫‪year‬‬ ‫‪Hour‬‬ ‫‪Hour‬‬
‫‪2010‬‬ ‫‪1.0464‬‬ ‫‪1308‬‬
‫‪2015‬‬ ‫‪1.2752‬‬ ‫‪1594‬‬
‫‪2020‬‬ ‫‪1.4519‬‬ ‫‪1814‬‬
‫‪2025‬‬ ‫‪1.6701‬‬ ‫‪2087‬‬
‫‪2030‬‬ ‫‪1.9332‬‬ ‫‪2416‬‬
‫‪2035‬‬ ‫‪2.1567‬‬ ‫‪2696‬‬
‫جدول( ‪:) 6‬قيمة الوقت للحمولة‬

‫‪time value‬‬
‫‪ID/ton-‬‬
‫‪year‬‬ ‫‪US$ / ton-Hour‬‬ ‫‪Hour‬‬
‫‪2010‬‬ ‫‪0.0186‬‬ ‫‪23.25‬‬
‫‪2015‬‬ ‫‪0.0184‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬
‫‪2020‬‬ ‫‪0.0175‬‬ ‫‪21.875‬‬
‫‪2025‬‬ ‫‪0.0165‬‬ ‫‪20.625‬‬
‫‪2030‬‬ ‫‪0.0154‬‬ ‫‪19.25‬‬
‫‪2035‬‬ ‫‪0.0146‬‬ ‫‪18.25‬‬
‫كلفة تشغيل المركبات‬
‫كلف تشغيل ‪PC‬‬
‫در ةنق دريقوةح ‪link type 4‬‬
‫ل م در ق د= ‪ 29.2= 0.073 x400‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم س ب‬
‫ل م تبانا دالط سدى = ‪ 3.686= 40700\) 37500 x4‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم س ب‬
‫ل م در ن ى = ‪ 4.703 =1000\) 2187.5 x2.15‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم س ب‬
‫ي ةض عة درية بم ‪ 12000000‬دنة س‪ ،‬ل م درص يم ‪ x 0.15‬ل م درشةدء ‪ 250000 ،‬م تا ة قبا د توةك‬
‫ل م درص يم = ‪ 7.2= 250000\) 12000000 x 0.15‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم س ب‬
‫الكلفة الكلية لتشغيل مركبة الركاب = ‪ 44.789‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم س ب‬
‫در ةنق درم ر ‪link type 11‬‬
‫ل م در ق د= ‪ 62.8= 0.157 x400‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم س ب‬
‫ل م تبانا دالط سدى = ‪ 187.5= 800\) 37500 x4‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم س ب‬
‫‪ 15.968 =1000\) 2187.5 x7.3‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم س ب‬ ‫ل م در ن ى =‬
‫ل م درص يم = ‪ 14.4= 250000\) 12000000 x 0.3‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم س ب‬
‫الكلفة الكلية لتشغيل مركبة الركاب = ‪ 280.668‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم س ب‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫كلف تشغيل ‪MT‬‬
‫م‬ ‫ل م در ق د= ‪ 59.2= 0.148 x400‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم و‬
‫م‬ ‫ل م تبانا دالط سدى = ‪ 49.14= 40700\) 250000 x8‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم و‬
‫م‬ ‫ل م در ن ى = ‪ 4.588 =1000\) 1250 x3.67‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم و‬
‫م‬ ‫ل م درص يم = ‪ 18.00= 500000\) 60000000 x 0.15‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم و‬
‫م‬ ‫الكلفة الكلية لتشغيل مركبة متوسطة = ‪130.928‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم و‬
‫م‬ ‫ل م در ق د= ‪ 123.2= 0.308 x400‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم و‬
‫م‬ ‫ل م تبانا دالط سدى = ‪2500 = 800\) 250000 x8‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم و‬
‫م‬ ‫ل م در ن ى = ‪ 12.925 =1000\) 1250 x10.34‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم و‬
‫م‬ ‫ل م درص يم = ‪ 36.00= 500000\) 60000000 x 0.3‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم و‬
‫م‬ ‫دركل م دركل م روشغ ا ة بم درة ب = ‪ 44.789‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم و‬
‫م‬ ‫الكلفة الكلية لتشغيل مركبة متوسطة = ‪ 2672.125‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم و‬
‫كلف تشغيل ‪LT‬‬
‫ل م در ق د= ‪ 67.20= 0.168 x400‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم ب ةة‬
‫ل م تبانا دالط سدى = ‪ 98.28= 40700\) 250000 x16‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم ب ةة‬
‫ل م در ن ى = ‪ 7.188 =1000\) 1250 x5.75‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم ب ةة‬
‫ل م درص يم = ‪ 18.00= 500000\) 60000000 x 0.15‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم ب ةة‬
‫الكلفة الكلية لتشغيل مركبة كبيرة = ‪190.668‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم ب ةة‬
‫ل م در ق د= ‪ 155.6= 0.389 x400‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم ب ةة‬
‫ل م تبانا دالط سدى = ‪ 5000= 800\) 250000 x16‬دنة س\ م‪ -‬ة بم ب ةة‬
‫‪4‬‬
Course No.: 506060406, Course Name: Highways Maintenance, Semester & Year: Fourth , 2018-2019
‫ ة بم ب ةة‬-‫ دنة س\ م‬18.125 =1000\) 1250 x14.5 = ‫ل م در ن ى‬
‫ م تا ة قبا د توةك‬500000 ، ‫ ل م درشةدء‬x 0.3 ‫ ل م درص يم‬،‫ دنة س‬60000000 ‫ي ةض عة درية بم‬
‫ ة بم ب ةة‬-‫ دنة س\ م‬36.00= 500000\) 60000000 x 0.3 = ‫ل م درص يم‬
‫ ة بم ب ةة‬-‫دنة س\ م‬5209.725 = ‫الكلفة الكلية لتشغيل مركبة كبيرة‬
)‫الثقيلة الكبيرة‬،‫الثقيلة المتوسطة‬،‫كلف تشغيل المركبات(الصالون‬:)7 (‫جدول‬

passenger car/ Link type 4 and Link type 11 costs
Link type 4 Link type 11
Fuel consumption 29.200 62.8
tire cost 3.686 187.5
oil consumption cost 4.703 15.96875
maintenance cost 7.200 14.4
Total ID/km-PC 44.789 280.66875
Medium truck / Link 4 and Link 11 costs

tire cost 49.140 2500
maintenance cost 18.000 36
Total ID/km-MT 130.928 2672.125
Large truck / Link 4 and Link 11 costs

tire cost 98.280 5000
maintenance cost 18.000 36
Total ID/km-LT 190.668 5209.725
‫ معدل كلف التشغيل ومعدل العوائد‬:) 8 ( ‫جدول‬

‫يابم درية ب ى‬ 0.23 0.66 0.11
Link type PC MT LT
11 280.668 2672.125 5209.725
4 44.789 130.928 190.668
)‫درع دما فةق لف دروشغ ا‬ 235.879 2541.197 5019.057
)‫ ة بم‬-‫عال درع دما يةدق دنة س\ م‬ 2,283.54
47.781=)‫ط ل در ةنق م‬ 109,109 )‫عال درع دما يةدق دنة س\ ة بم‬
)Travel Time) ‫عوائد زمن الرحلة‬

. 2039 ‫ رغ نم‬2010 ‫( رلاة دى ا‬fright) ‫( درمي رم‬passenger) ‫إنه د لف در ا رلة ب‬ ‫ب ال ك‬
35 ‫ يلييا در ةنييق يعييال‬PC ‫ح ييا يييت ييةيم درية ب ي ى‬، ‫تييم ق ي و در قييت درياييوغةق رلية بييم ر ي ل در ةنييق درم ي ر‬
.‫ م\ يم‬20 ‫ فك يت‬LT ‫ م\ يم د درية ب ى‬27 ‫ يعال‬MT ‫م\ يم ةيم درية ب ى‬
‫يم‬ 1.365 =PC = ‫ز ا ة بم درص ر‬
5
‫يم‬ ‫م = ‪1.769 =MT‬‬ ‫ز ا درية ب ى دريو‬

‫يم‬ ‫ز ا درية ب ى دركب ةة = ‪2.389 = LT‬‬
‫‪ PC‬بـ ‪ 80‬م\ ي يم ‪ 70‬م\ ي يم‬ ‫د در قت درياوغةق رلية ب ى يلا در ةنق دريقوةح ‪،‬تم تقانة ةيم ة بم درص ر‬
‫رلية ب ى ‪ 60 MT‬م\ يم رلية ب ى ‪LT‬‬
‫در قت درياوغةق ف درةحلم رل ةنق دريقوةح ح در ‪:‬‬ ‫ك‬ ‫ب رو ر‬
‫يم‬ ‫ز ا ة بم درص ر = ‪0.597 =PC‬‬

‫يم‬ ‫م = ‪0.682 =MT‬‬ ‫ز ا درية ب ى دريو‬
‫يم‬ ‫ز ا درية ب ى دركب ةة = ‪0.796 = LT‬‬
‫جدول( ‪ :)9‬الزمن المستغرق للمركبات للطريق الحالي والمقترح(الجديد)‬

‫ف در ةنق‬ ‫ف در ةنق‬
‫درم ر ‪ )pc‬يم)‬ ‫درم ر ‪ )MT‬يم)‬ ‫يم)‬ ‫ف در ةنق درم ر ‪)LT‬‬
‫‪1.365171429‬‬ ‫‪1.769666667‬‬ ‫‪2.38905‬‬
‫‪35 km/h‬‬ ‫‪27 km/h‬‬ ‫‪20km/h‬‬
‫ف در ةنق‬ ‫ف در ةنق‬
‫يم)‬ ‫درهانا ‪)pc‬‬ ‫درهانا ‪ )MT‬يم)‬ ‫يم)‬ ‫ف در ةنق درهانا ‪)LT‬‬
‫‪0.5972625‬‬ ‫‪0.682585714‬‬ ‫‪0.79635‬‬
‫‪80 km/h‬‬ ‫‪70 km/h‬‬ ‫‪60 km/h‬‬
‫يم)‬ ‫فةق در ا‬ ‫يم)‬ ‫فةق در ا‬ ‫يم)‬ ‫فةق در ا‬

‫‪0.768‬‬ ‫‪1.087‬‬ ‫‪1.593‬‬
‫محصلة العوائد(لزمن الرحلة)‬
‫‪ -1‬معدل العائد للركاب‬
‫ي سة درمييا‪.‬د فيةق دري ا رلية بي ى ب ي دي ي ي فيةق‬ ‫‪ )1.5‬ف‬ ‫يلا فةض ج د ‪ )2‬سد ب ف درا سة درص ر‬
‫الت ‪:‬‬ ‫ك‬ ‫در ا ب ا د وخادم در ةنق درم ر دريقوةح‬
‫يم‬ ‫‪0.768 =PC‬‬
‫يم‬ ‫‪1.087 =MT‬‬
‫يم‬ ‫‪1.593 =LT‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫جدول(‪ :)10‬معدل العائد للركاب للسنوات من (‪)2039-2010‬‬

‫نسبة المركبات‬ ‫‪0.23‬‬ ‫‪0.66‬‬ ‫‪0.11‬‬
‫عدد االشخاص في المركبة‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1.5‬‬ ‫‪1.5‬‬
‫معدل العائد للركاب‬
‫‪year‬‬ ‫‪PC‬‬ ‫‪MT‬‬ ‫‪LT‬‬ ‫(دينار\مركبة)‬
‫‪2010-2014‬‬ ‫‪2,008.85‬‬ ‫‪2,132.85‬‬ ‫‪3,124.88‬‬ ‫‪2,213.455‬‬
‫‪2015-2019‬‬ ‫‪2,448.09‬‬ ‫‪2,599.21‬‬ ‫‪3,808.15‬‬ ‫‪2,697.437‬‬
‫‪2020-2024‬‬ ‫‪2,787.32‬‬ ‫‪2,959.37‬‬ ‫‪4,335.83‬‬ ‫‪3,071.211‬‬
‫‪2025-2029‬‬ ‫‪3,206.21‬‬ ‫‪3,404.13‬‬ ‫‪4,987.44‬‬ ‫‪3,532.770‬‬
‫‪2030-2034‬‬ ‫‪3,711.30‬‬ ‫‪3,940.40‬‬ ‫‪5,773.14‬‬ ‫‪4,089.307‬‬
‫‪2035-2039‬‬ ‫‪4,140.37‬‬ ‫‪4,395.95‬‬ ‫‪6,440.58‬‬ ‫‪4,562.078‬‬
‫‪ -2‬معدل عائد الحمولة‬
‫وم دحواي ب ييا فيةض د حي ريم درية بيم )‪ (MT‬ناي ي ‪ 20‬طيا درية بيم )‪(LT‬‬ ‫ي ما در قت رلمي رم )‪(fright‬‬
‫نا ي ‪ 34‬طا‪.‬‬
‫جدول(‪ :)11‬معدل العائد للحمولة للسنوات من (‪)2039-2010‬‬

‫نسبة المركبات‬ ‫‪0.23‬‬ ‫‪0.66‬‬ ‫‪0.11‬‬
‫وزن الحمولة (طن)‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪34‬‬
‫معدل العائد للحمولة‬
‫‪year‬‬ ‫‪PC‬‬ ‫‪MT‬‬ ‫‪LT‬‬ ‫(دينار\مركبة)‬
‫‪2010-2014‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪505.49‬‬ ‫‪1,259.03‬‬ ‫‪472.12‬‬
‫‪2015-2019‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪500.06‬‬ ‫‪1,245.49‬‬ ‫‪467.04‬‬
‫‪2020-2024‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪475.60‬‬ ‫‪1,184.57‬‬ ‫‪444.20‬‬
‫‪2025-2029‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪448.42‬‬ ‫‪1,116.88‬‬ ‫‪418.81‬‬
‫‪2030-2034‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪418.53‬‬ ‫‪1,042.42‬‬ ‫‪390.89‬‬
‫‪2035-2039‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪396.78‬‬ ‫‪988.27‬‬ ‫‪370.59‬‬
‫مجموع العوائد=عائد تشغيل المركبات‪+‬عائد الوقت للركاب (لسنة معينة)‪+‬عائد الوقت للحمولة(لسنة معينة)‬
‫=‪467+2,697+109,109‬‬
‫=‪( 112273‬عراقي دينار\مركبة)‬
‫العوائد الكلية السنوية (‪ = (annual revenue‬مجموع العوائد‪ x‬حجم المرور السنوي‬
‫= ‪65700x112273‬‬
‫=‪ 7376336100‬دينار عراقي‬
‫‪7‬‬
Course No.: 506060406, Course Name: Highways Maintenance, Semester & Year: Fourth , 2018-2019
H.W 1:
It is recommended to reconstruction a new road instead old one which has a bad pavement condition.
If the length of the old road is 50 Km, find the length of the new road by which the project has annual
benefit in vehicle operation cost (VOC) equal to 4,000,000,000 ID/year. The characteristics of the old
and new pavement shown in the below table can be used for Mini bus and Trucks to find the vehicle
operation costs
Average Fuel consumption Tyre life Oil

influenced (L/km) (1000 consumption
speed (Km/h) km) (L*1000 km)
Old pavement condition 30 0.3 0.75 10.5
New pavement condition 80 0.15 80 2.0
Design hour volume (DHV) = 25 Vehicle/hour, K=0.10, mini bus (10 passengers, 4 tyres) =80%
Type 3 (2 passengers, 10 tyres) =20%.
Fuel cost= 500 ID/liter, oil costs = 2500 ID/ liter, (Tyre costs: mini bus = 45000 ID/tyre, Truck=
250000 ID/tyre). Neglect the vehicle maintenance cost.
8
ECONOMIC EVALUATION
The economic evaluation of a proposed highway -- beyond a basic construction
cost estimate -- may then be appropriate. The evaluation may be conducted by
means of (a) benefit-cost ratio, (b) net present value, (c) comparison of annual
costs, and (c) internal rate of return.
For these methods it is required to know or estimate the following inputs:
1. Construction or initial investment cost
2. Maintenance cost, usually expressed as an annual amount
3. User cost (fuel, oil, tires, repairs, maintenance, purchase price, and accidents)
in using the highway
4. Economic analysis period
5. Traffic volume
6. Interest rate.
7. User time and accident costs if included as economic costs.
From a designer's point of view in determining the desired route, the ways in
which the cost can be reduced relate primarily to items 1 through 3 above. The
ways in which this can be done (bearing in mind the design designation and
controls, and desirable practice) for each of these three items is as follows:
• In order to minimize construction and maintenance costs, the highway should

be made as short as possible and amounts of cut and fill should be minimized.
• In order to minimize user costs (i.e., the cost of operating the vehicle) grades
should be as flat as possible and horizontal alignment should avoid the use of
sharp curves.
1
Clearly, the balance between these features can only result from considerable
trial and error, and a change in one feature will invariably result in changes to
the others.
An economic evaluation of a transportation project is completed using one of the

following methods: present worth (PW), equivalent uniform annual cost
(EUAC), benefit– cost ratio (BCR), or internal rate of return (ROR). The reason
for selecting one over the other is preference for how the results will be
presented. Since transportation projects are usually built to serve traffic over a
long period of time, it is necessary to consider the time-dependent value of
money over the life of a project.
Present Worth
The most straightforward of the economic evaluation methods is the present

worth, (PW) since it represents the current value of all the costs that will be
incurred over the lifetime of the project. The general expression for present
worth of a project is
Net Present Worth
The present worth of a given cash flow that has both receipts and disbursements
is referred to as the net present worth (NPW). The use of an interest rate in an
economic evaluation is common practice because it represents the cost of
capital. Money spent on a transportation project is no longer available for other
2
investments. Therefore, a minimal value of interest rate is the rate that would
have been earned if the money were invested elsewhere. For example, if $1000
were deposited in a bank at 8 percent interest, its value in five years would be
1000(1+ 0.08)5= $1469.33. Thus, the PW of having $1469.33 in five years at 8
percent interest is equal to $1000, and the opportunity cost is 8 percent.
Discount rates can be higher or lower, depending on risk of investment and
economic conditions. It is helpful to use a cash flow diagram to depict the costs
and revenues that will occur over the lifetime of a project. Time is plotted as the
horizontal axis and money as the vertical axis, as illustrated in Figure 13.3.
Using Eq. 13.5, we can calculate the NPW of the project, which is
3
Equivalent Uniform Annual Worth
The conversion of a given cash flow to a series of equal annual amounts is

referred to as the equivalent uniform annual worth (EUAW). If the uniform
amounts are considered to occur at the end of the interest period, then the
formula is Recovery factor (k) = yearly amount required to
discharge a debt of (1 unit) in (N) years with interest (i)
Where:
EUAW= equivalent uniform annual worth
NPW= net present worth
i = interest rate, expressed as a decimal = 8%

N = number of years (design life) 20 year for asphalt pavement
40 years for concrete structures
The term in the brackets in above Equation is referred to as the capital recovery
factor and represents the amount necessary to repay $1 if N equal payments are
made at interest rate i. For example, if a loan is made for $5000 to be repaid in
equal monthly payments over a five-year period at 1 percent /month, then the
amount is
4
Thus, 60 payments of $111.25 would repay a $5000 debt, including both

principal and interest. The NPW of a cash flow is converted to an EUAW by
multiplying the NPW by the capital recovery factor. The inverse of the capital
recovery factor is the present worth factor for a uniform series. Thus, the present
value of 60 payments of $111.25, at 1 percent per month, is
Benefit–Cost Ratio
The ratio of the present worth of net project benefits and net project costs is
called the benefit– cost ratio (BCR). This method is used in situations where it is
desired to show the extent to which an investment in a transportation project will
result in a benefit to the investor. To do this, it is necessary to make project
comparisons to determine how the added investment compares with the added
benefits. The formula for BCR is
B2/1= reduction in user and operation costs between higher-cost Alternative 2

and lower-cost Alternative 1, expressed as PW or EUAW
C2/1 = increase in facility costs, expressed as PW or EUAW
If the BCR is 1 or greater, then the higher cost alternative is economically

attractive. If the BCR is less than 1, this alternative is discarded.
5
H=∑ 𝑪. 𝑲 + 𝑴
H= annual highway costs ($/year)
C= costs of various items
K= recovery factor
M= annual maintenance cost ($/year)
Annual user costs (R) = 365* A* U* L ($/year)

Where:
A= average daily traffic (ADT) (veh./day)
U= road user cost (e.g. vehicle operation cost, travel time cost) ($/veh.km)
L= length of the road (km)
𝑅1−𝑅2
B/C= if >1 Ok.
𝐻2−𝐻1
<1 not Ok.
6
Example:
It is recommended to improve an existing road. The characteristics of the road

before and after improving are shown in the table below. Find the economic
feasibility using benefit to cost ratio (B/C). Assume: Interest ratio (i) =8%,
design life for concrete structure=40 years, asphalt pavement=20.
Information Existing road Improved road

Length (km) 50 50
ADT (vpd) 8000 8000
Maintenance cost ($/km.year) 10 5
Road user costs ($/veh.km) 0.040 0.025
Construction costs ($) ---------- 13,000,000

concrete structure ---------- 8,000,000
asphalt pavement
Solution:
By using H=∑ 𝐶. 𝐾 + 𝑀
H1=maintenance cost = 50 *(10) = 500 ($/year)

Recovery factor (k)
H2= 13,000,000*(0.083) +8,000,000*(0.1015) +50*(5) =1,891,250 ($/year)
By using Annual user costs (R) = 365* A* U* L
R1=365 (8000)* (0.040)*50= 5,840,000 ($/year)
R2= 365*(8000)*(0.025)*50= 3,650,000 ($/year)
𝑅1−𝑅2 5,840,000−3,650,000
B/C= = =1.158 > 1 Ok.
𝐻2−𝐻1 1,891,250−500
H.W …. Find the solution of the above example by using NPW
7
𝐷𝐻𝑉
𝐴𝐴𝐷𝑇 = 365
𝐾
AADT: Annual Average Daily Traffic (Veh./year)
DHV: Design hourly volume (veh./hour)
K: Constant (10-15%)
‫‪Course No.: 506064062, Course Name: Route Location, Second Semester & Year: 2023-2022‬‬
‫العوامل الرئيسية التي تتحكم في عملية التخطيط‬

‫قبل الدخول يف تفاصيل اختيار الطريق (حتديد املسار) سوف يتم عرض مقدمة سريعة تتناول املبادئ‬
‫األساسية أو املعايري املعتمدة يف عملية اختيار الطريق‪.‬‬
‫يطلق لفظ التخطيط عادة على عملية اختيار حمور مسار الطريق على األرض وعدد املمرات املطلوبة ‪،‬‬
‫وينبغي أن يتم اختيار مسار الطريق بدقة وعناية كبرية كون ذلك سوف ينعكس على تكلفة اإلنشاء وعلى تكلفة‬
‫الصيانة مستقبال هذا باإلضافة إىل تكلفة تشغيل املركبات املستخدمة له ‪ .‬حيث انه ما إن يتم إنشاء الطريق‬
‫نظرا الرتفاع قيمة األرض اجملاورة فضال عن ارتفاع قيمة‬
‫سوف يصعب إدخال أية تعديالت عليه مستقبال ً‬
‫التعويضات (االستمالك) الالزمة للمنشآت املقامة على جانيب الطريق‪.‬‬
‫ونظرا ألن مرحلة اختيار مسار الطريق تعترب من أهم مراحل التصميم ينبغي أن تؤخذ النقاط التالية بعني‬
‫ً‬
‫االعتبار‪:‬‬
‫‪ -1‬قصير وبسيط (‪ )Short and Easy‬جيب أن يكون الطريق ً‬
‫قصريا ما أمكن وبأقل احندار ممكن‬
‫حىت تكون كلفة انشاءه قليلة فضال عن انسياب املرور يف اقل وقت وبأقل إرهاق‪ .‬ويعترب اخلط املستقيم‬
‫من اقصر الطرق ولكن نتيجة لبعض االعتبارات العملية يصبح من غري املمكن حتقيق هذا املبدء لذا وجب‬
‫التفكري بتحقيقه كلما امكن ذلك‪.‬‬
‫‪ -2‬أمين (‪ )Safe‬جيب ان يكون مسار الطريق امني حبيث يتجنب وقوع اية حادث مرورية ممكن حدوثها‬
‫بسبب الناحية التصميمية لل طريق و هذا يتم من خالل حتديد العرض املناسب للطريق و نوعية االكتاف‬
‫و عرضها و السيطرة على املداخل و االرشادات املرورية و الوضوح يف املسار حبيث يستطيع السائق ان‬
‫يتخذ قرارا واحدا عن التقاطعات و املفرتقات و غريها‪.‬‬
‫‪ -3‬اقتصادي (‪ )Economic‬جيب أن تكون تكلفة اإلنشاء اقل ما ميكن مع األخذ يف االعتبار‬
‫تكاليف الصيانة املستقبلية حبيث تكون يف أضيق احلدود ‪.‬‬
‫مستقيما بني نقاطه احلاكمة ‪ ،‬وهذا ال ميكن‬
‫ً‬ ‫كي ميكن حتقيق اقصر الطرق ينبغي أن يكون‬
‫حتقيقه يف معظم األحوال لوجود صعوبات عملية كثرية مثل العوائق الطبيعية والصناعية اليت قد تعرتض‬
‫املسار ‪.‬فاملسار القصري قد يكون ذو احندارات شديدة وبالتايل يصعب استخدامه (باألخص يف حالة‬
‫الصعود) وخاصة بالنسبة ملركبات النقل الثقيل‪.‬‬
‫كما وان الطريق الذي تكون تكاليف إنشاؤه قليلة قد ال تكون تكلفة صيانته وتكلفة تشغيل‬
‫املركبات عليه قليلة أيضا‪ ،‬وقد جند إن اقصر الطرق واقلها تكلفة تشغيل للمركبات هي أكثر الطرق‬
‫تكلفة يف اإلنشاء ‪ .‬وبناءًا على ذلك ميكن القول انه ليس من السهل احلصول يف نفس الوقت على‬
‫مجيع املتطلبات املرغوبة يف املسار ‪ .‬لذلك يفضل اللجوء إىل وضع عدة بدائل الطريق املمكنة (اثنني‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫على األقل) ومن مث القيام بتقومي هلذه البدائل املقرتحة عرب إجراء عملية مقارنة شاملة بغية التوصل إىل‬
‫اختيار البديل األفضل من هذه املسارات‪.‬‬
‫أما العوامل األساسية التي تحكم تخطيط الطريق فهي‪:‬‬
‫‪ -1‬النقاط احلاكمة‪.‬‬
‫‪ -2‬حجم وتركيب املرور‪.‬‬
‫‪ -3‬التصميم اهلندسي للطريق‪.‬‬
‫‪ -4‬التكلفة‪.‬‬
‫‪ -5‬عوامل أخرى‬
‫أوال ‪.‬النقاط الحاكمة‬
‫وهي النقاط األساسية اليت مير هبا مسار الطريق‪ ،‬وهذه النقاط احلاكمة تقسم إىل قسمني‬
‫أساسيني‪:‬‬
‫أ‪ -‬نقاط أساسية ‪ :‬وهي النقاط اليت قد تتسبب يف زيادة طول املسار أو املرور يف مناطق‬
‫صعبة‪.‬‬
‫ومن األمثلة على مثل هذه النقاط موقع جسر‪ ،‬مدينة متوسطة‪ ،‬ممر جبلي‪....‬‬
‫حيث انه عندما يتطلب األمر املرور مبنطقة جبلية أو مناطق ذات هضاب فإن البدائل املمكنة‬
‫بعيدا عن اهلضاب‬
‫يف هذه احلالة هي اللجوء إىل عمل نفق أو االلتفاف حول اهلضاب أو توجيه املسار ً‬
‫العالية ليعرب اهلضاب املنخفضة نسبيًا‪.‬‬
‫إن عملية اختيار أي من هذه احللول يعتمد بالطبع على عوامل كثرية من أمهها طبوغرافية‬
‫املنطقة ومتطلبات املسار‪.‬‬
‫يتحدد موقع اجلسور على اجملاري املائية حبيث يكون اجلسر عمودي على اجملرى املائي بقدر‬
‫مستقيما وقطاعه مستقر وغري معرض للتآكل ‪ ،‬هذا باإلضافة إىل‬
‫ً‬ ‫اإلمكان وحبيث يكون اجملرى املائي‬
‫إمكانية إنشاء أكتاف اجلسر بدون مشقة ‪ .‬وبالنسبة لتخطيط الطريق الذي مير على هذا اجلسر جيب‬
‫أن يتم مع جتنب املنحنيات األفقية بالقرب من هذا اجلسر‪.‬‬
‫ب‪ -‬نقاط يجب أن ال يمر بها تخطيط الطريق‬
‫أيضا قد نضطر إىل تغيري مسار الطريق ‪ .‬ومن أالماكن اليت جيب جتنبها عند‬
‫يف هذه احلالة ً‬
‫ختطيط الطريق تشمل مناطق العباد ة‪ ،‬املدافن واملنشآت الضخمة عالية التكاليف أو يف حالة األرض‬
‫الغري مالئمة ‪ .‬ويف حالة ضرورة االلتزام باملسار املار مبثل هذه املناطق املمنوعة فإن األمر يتطلب عمل‬
‫جسور أو أنفاق مما يضيف الكثري إىل تكاليف اإلنشاء‪ .‬أما يف حالة وجود بركة أو حبرية أو وادي‬
‫يعرتض املسار املستقيم للطريق جيب عمل التفاف حوله‪.‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫ثانيًا ‪.‬حجم وتركيب المرور‬

‫جيب أن يتماشى التخطيط مع حجم املرور احلايل واملتوقع مستقبال لذلك جيب عمل دراسات وعمل‬
‫دراسة عن املسار املرغوب ملعرفة )‪ (Origin and Destination‬املنشأ واملقصد اجتاهات حركة املرور‬
‫َ‬
‫املتوقعة ‪ ،‬هذا باإلضافة إىل حتديد أنواع املركبات املتوقع استخدامها للطريق‬
‫ثالثًا ‪.‬التصميم الهندسي للطريق‬

‫إن أسس التصميم اهلندسي مثل االحندارات أنصاف أقطار املنحنيات ومسافة الرؤية تتحكم يف اختيار‬
‫املسار النهائي للطريق ‪ .‬فإذا تطلب األمر اختيار املسار األقصر فإن هذا سينعكس على احندار الطريق والذي‬
‫جيب أن ال يزيد بأي حال من األ حوال عن االحندار احلاكم‪ .‬وعليه فإن األمر يتطلب حتديد اقل نصف قطر‬
‫واقل طول ملنحين االنتقال بعد حتديد السرعة التصميمية‪.‬‬
‫ابعا ‪.‬التكلفة‬
‫رً‬
‫بعد أن تؤخذ العوامل السابقة يف االعتبار ينبغي أن يكون اختيار املسار النهائي متوق ًفا على التكلفة‬
‫الكلية ‪ ،‬وهذه التكلفة جيب أن تشمل تكلفة اإلنشاء وتكلفة الصيانة وتكلفة تشغيل املركبات ‪ ،‬وميكن جعل‬
‫تكلفة اإلنشاء قليلة يف حالة جتنب اجلسور العالية والقطوع العميقة مع حماولة اختيار املسار حبيث يتساوى احلفر‬
‫والردم بقدر االمكان‪.‬‬
‫خامسا ‪.‬عوامل أخرى‬
‫ً‬
‫أما العوامل األخرى اليت حتكم التخطيط فهي عمليات الصرف ‪ ،‬ورتابة املسار ‪ .‬وعند التخطيط الرأسي‬
‫للمسار جيب أن يؤخذ يف االعتبار الصرف السطحي وكيفية التخلص من املياه هذا باإلضافة إىل حتديد منسوب‬
‫املياه األرضية ومعدل التسرب ومنسوب مياه الفيضان إن وجد‪ .‬ويف املناطق السطحية وحيث الطريق أفقي‬
‫ومستقيم ملسافات طويلة قد يتسبب ذلك يف نوع من الرتابة وامللل للسائق مما جيعله عرضة للنوم أو عدم االنتباه‬
‫ولذلك جيب بعد عدة كيلومرتات عمل احنراف قليل يف املسار كي ينتبه السائق واألفضل وضع موانع فسفورية‬
‫على حافة الطريق لتنبيه السائق‪.‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫األعمال المساحية لمسار الطريق‬

‫قبل تسقيط مسار الطريق على اخلرائط جيب أن ُتؤخذ يف االعتبار مجيع النقاط السابق ذكره ا ‪.‬وهنالك‬
‫أربعة مراحل لألعمال املساحية هي‪:‬‬
‫‪ -1‬دراسة اخلرائط‪.‬‬
‫‪ -2‬املسح االستطالعية‪.‬‬
‫‪ -3‬املسح االبتدائي‪.‬‬
‫‪ -4‬املساحة التفصيلية‪.‬‬
‫اوال ‪.‬دراسة الخرائط (العمل المكتبي)‬

‫من واقع اخلرائط الطبوغرافية املتاحة ميكن حتديد عدة مسارات بديلة وختطيطها على هذه اخلرائط‪ ،‬ويف مجيع‬
‫األحوال جيب الرجوع إىل الطبيعة للتعرف على الواقع الفعلي ‪ .‬وجيب أن تؤخذ يف االعتبار النقاط التالية عند‬
‫تعيني املسار‪:‬‬
‫أ‪ -‬جتنب عبور الوديان أو الربك أو البحريات‪.‬‬
‫ب‪ -‬لتحديد موقع عبور هنر أو جمرى مائي جيب أن يؤخذ يف االعتبار وجود اجلسر على جزء‬
‫مستقيم من النهر مع جعل الطريق عمودي على اجملرى املائي بقدر االمكان‪.‬‬
‫ج‪ -‬عندما يتطلب األمر صعود الطريق إىل أعلى مرتفع أو هضبة جيب أن ال يتعدى احنداراخلط االحندار‬
‫احلاكم‪.‬‬
‫ثانيًا ‪.‬المساحة االستطالعية‬

‫جدا أن يقوم بنفسه باملرور‬
‫مهما كانت اخلرائط اليت بيد املهندس كاملة ووافية باملعلومات إال انه من الضروري ً‬
‫لكشف املكان املراد إقامة الطريق عليه إذ رمبا ترآى له وجوب تعديل مكان الطريق لعوامل أخرى ليست مبينة‬
‫باخلرائط ‪ ،‬وعلى املهندس اختيار أفضل موقع للطريق من خالل االستطالع احلقلي‪ ،‬واملعلومات الواجب مجعها‬
‫من خالل عملية االستطالع هي‪:‬‬
‫‪ .1‬مجيع العوائق الغري ظاهرة على اخلرائط وتعرتض املسار أو املسارات املقرتحة مثل ‪ :‬الوديان‪ ،‬الربك‪،‬‬
‫البحريات‪ ،‬املستنقعات‪ ،‬الكثبان الرملية ‪ ،‬املرتفعات واملنشآت احلديثة (املقامة بعد وضع اخلر ائط‬
‫املتاحة)‪.‬‬
‫‪ .2‬االحندارات وأطواهلا وأنصاف أقطار املنحنيات للمسارات البديلة‪.‬‬
‫‪ .3‬عدد ونوع املنشآت الالزمة لصرف املياه السطحية املتقاطعة مع الطريق ‪ ،‬باإلضافة إىل حتديد منسوب‬
‫فيضان اجملاري املائية القريبة من املسار املقرتح وكذلك مناسيب املياه اجلوفية‪.‬‬
‫‪4‬‬
‫‪ .4‬نوع وطبيعة ال تربة للموقع املقرتح للمسار من واقع جتارب ميدانية مع مالحظة الظواهر اجليولوجية‬
‫للمنطقة‪.‬‬
‫‪ .5‬مصادر مواد اإلنشاء القريبة وكيفية احلصول على املياه الالزمة للعمل ومواقع توفرها هذا باإلضافة إىل‬
‫حتديد مواقع املقالع واملعامل‪.‬‬
‫وميكن عمل مساحة استطالعية سريعة للمنطقة وخاصة إذا كانت متسعة وصعبة التضاريس‬
‫ويستخدم يف هذه احلالة املسح اجلوي‪.‬‬
‫ونظرا لوجود أكثر من بديل واحد فإن الفرصة متاحة بعد الدراسة االستطالعية الختيار أفضل‬
‫ً‬
‫مسارين (أو أكثر) لعمل دراسة متكاملة بعد عملية االستطالع‬
‫ثالثًا ‪.‬المسح االبتدائي‬

‫الغرض من عمل هذا املسح هو‪:‬‬
‫‪ .1‬عمل مبدئي للمسارات املختارة بعد عملية االستطالع للحصول على مجيع البيانات الالزمة لطبوغرافية‬
‫املنطقة والصرف ونوع الرتبة لتساعد على تقرير نوع التبليط‪.‬‬
‫‪ .2‬التعرف على اجتاه الرياح وقوهتا ودراسة عالقتها باجتاه املرور على الطريق لتجنب التأثري السليب للرياح‬
‫الشديدة على انسيابية املرور‪.‬‬
‫‪ .3‬مقارنة البدائل بالنسبة ملتطلبات التخطيط اجليد‪.‬‬
‫‪ .4‬عمل دراسة اقتصادية لكل مسار بشكل منفصل‪.‬‬
‫‪ .5‬من واقع اخلطوات السابقة ميكن اختيار املسار النهائي‪.‬‬
‫ومن املسح االبتدائي ميكن احلصول على مجيع البيانات الالزمة لعمل التخطيط النهائي للطريق ‪ ،‬وميكن‬
‫احلصول على هذه املعلومات من عمليات مسح سريعة وحديثة باستخدام عمليات املسح اجلوي وذلك بأخذ‬
‫صور جوية وقراءة هذه الصور واحلصول على خرائط ‪ G.I.S‬وبواسطة الربامج احلديثة مثل شاملة لطبوغرافية‬
‫املنطقة وطبيعة األرض‪.‬‬
‫رابعا‪ :‬المسح النهائي ( التفصيلي)‬
‫بعد اعمال فرق املسح االولية السابقة ميكن اختيار املسار النهائي املنتخب‪ ،‬حيث يتم توضيح حمور هذا‬
‫املسار على االرض مث تتم مجيع عمليات املساحة التفصيلية الالزمة لتوقيع و ختطيط هذا الطريق بوضع اوتاد على‬
‫احملور املقرتح‪ ،‬مث تستانف عمليات املسح االرضي او اجلوي ولكن بدقة اكرب و تعمل قطاعات عرضية كل ‪30‬‬
‫مرتا تقريبا و خاصة يف مناطق املنحنيات او االحندارات و يف مجيع احلاالت حتدد مواقع اجملاري املائية و الوديان و‬
‫بتفاصيل كاملة و ملسافات كبرية على جانيب املسار و جتمع املعلومات و البيانات اهلايدرولوجية عن املنطقة و يتم‬
‫رسم اخلرائط التفصيلية كاملة‪.‬‬
‫‪5‬‬

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Faculty of Engineering /Department of Highways and Transportation Engineering

1. PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY LOCATION

The highway location process involves four phases:

• Office study of existing information

1.1 Office Study of Existing Information

• Engineering, including topography, geology, climate, and traffic volumes

1.2 Reconnaissance Survey

• Terrain and soil conditions

1.3 Preliminary Location Survey

Economic evaluation of each alternative route is carried out to determine the

Construction of a highway at any location will have a significant impact on its

equilibrium and sustains the lifestyle of the different communities. The

These statements should include:

• A detailed description of alternatives

In cases where an environmental impact study is required, it is conducted at this

Probable impact of the facility on the environment:

1.4 Final Location Survey

shows circular curve templates, and Figure 2 shows three-centered

Figure .1 Circular Curve Templates

Figure .2 Centered Curve Templates

The availability of computer-based techniques has significantly enhanced this

FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF THE HIGHWAY ROUTE

Examination of Natural and Man-Made Features

Selection of a possible route for a proposed highway is — apart from traffic

1. Topographic Maps. Usually the maps of the United States Geological

2. Aerial Photographs. The two main types of aerial photographs employed in

information, particularly concerning pavement design, although more detailed

Topographic Maps ~ Examine the terrain in general between the

1. Identify unsuitable ground conditions such as wetlands, rock outcrops, areas

Aerial Photography ~ The next step is to examine available

Examine the oblique photographs to obtain a sense of the developmental and

Identification of Technically Feasible routes

A highway improvement may be an upgraded existing highway or a completely

Objectives in identifying acceptable routes

In defining a broadly acceptable route, therefore, the approach typically involves

In a more formalized way, as developed by the World Bank, the Highway

The economic analysis involved in this process is described in several

Once the functional classification (e.g., collector, arterial, etc.) of a proposed

Lane and shoulder widths

for a rural collector highway in mountainous terrain. Estimation of actual

Design Vehicles—Width and height, overhangs, and minimum turning paths at

Design Speed Designation – The design speed is a primary determinant of the

"Level terrain is that condition where highway sight distances, as governed by

"Mountainous terrain is that condition where longitudinal and transverse

"Terrain classifications pertain to the general character of a specific route

Example: Selection of Design Controls ~ The relationships of the above

Design Designation—In order to summarize and present the information on

Control of Access = None

Passing Sight Distance ~ Passing sight distance is particularly important when

APPLICATION OF GEOMETRIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES TO

The fundamental objective in the highway geometric design process is the

PRELIMINARY ROUTE LAYOUT AND GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Defining Design Controls -- The alignment of a highway is subject to design

3. Maximum grade at any point on the highway, determined from consideration

4. Maximum grade in proximity to existing intersections. The vertical

5. Minimum grade at any point on the highway to ensure adequate drainage. A

6. Maximum horizontal approach angle at intersections. It is desirable to design

Establishing an Initial Alignment - Development of the alignment is

Horizontal Alignment. A first step is usually to determine if the shortest route