Communication Media and Society

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Communication,

ABOUT THE EDITOR Media and Society
Prof. Ezekiel S. Asemah is a Professor of Public
Relations, Advertising and Behavioural Change
Communication and the Dean, College of Management
and Social Sciences, Glorious Vision University
(formerly Samuel Adegboyega University), Ogwa, Edo
State, Nigeria. He is the Deputy National President of
the African Council for Communication Education,
ACCE Nigeria Chapter and also a Fellow of the African
Council for Communication Education.
Edited by:Ezekiel S. Asemah

Edited by:
Ezekiel S. Asemah
JOS UNIVERSITY PRESS

Jos Plateau State ISBN: 978-978-797-958-7 1 College Rd. Ogui New Layout
Enugu, Enugu State. 09052706870
Edited by:
Ezekiel S. Asemah
i
Ezekiel S. Asemah (Editor)
© Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD
First Published 2023 by Jos University Press

Murtala Mohammed Way
Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria
All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, computer, mechanical, photocopying, recording
and/or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the authors and the publisher.
ISBN: 978-978-797-958-7
Photoset and printed by
Franklead Printing Company

1 College Road, Ogui New Layout
Enugu, Nigeria.
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e-mail: franklead 2000@gmail.com
ii
Acknowledgements
Glory and honour to GOD ALMIGHTY for the grace, knowledge, wisdom, understanding
and strength to carry out this work. All the contributors are highly appreciated for taking
out time to contribute to this book project. Thank you all
iii
Contents
Acknowledgements iii
Contents iv
Introduction 1
Chapter One
Analysis of the Obi Brand of Politicking in the Changing Political Space; 4
Faith Godwin Ebunuwele; Daniel O. Ekhareafo, PhD & Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD
Chapter Two
Use of Social Media for creating Awareness about COVID-19 Preventive Measures 16
by the Government of Edo State, Nigeria;
Aisha Egwa & Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD
Chapter Three
A Discourse on Select Theories of Persuasion and Perception; 28
Isaac Imo-Ter Nyam PhD & Emmanuel Olurotimi Olubodede
Chapter Four
Influence of Television Continental COVID-19 Campaign on the Health Behaviour 37
of the Residents of Ikeja, Lagos State, Nigeria;
Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD; Olaide Zainab Cole & Stella Chinyere Enyindah, PhD
Chapter Five
Newspaper Framing of COVID-19 Pandemic and the Health Behaviour of Residents 52
of Edo State, Nigeria;
Jamiu Mohammed Abubakar; Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD & Tsegyu Santas, PhD
Chapter Six
Responsiveness of Edo State Residents to COVID-19 Media Campaigns; 70
Isah Abdulazeez & Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD
Chapter Seven
Influence of Celebrity Endorsement of Sports Betting on Youth in Benin; 83
Osamagbe Lesley Egharevba; Christian Nelson Davies & Tsegyu Santas, PhD
Chapter Eight
Influence of Social Media Advertising of Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) on 92
the Purchasing Decision of Edo State Residents;
Blessing Osariemen Osagie; Victoria Ugbedeojo Ikani & Faith Ozikor Amah, PhD
Chapter Nine
Influence of Celebrity Endorsement on the Patronage of Munch IT Campaign 103
by University of Benin Undergraduates;
Linda Dooshima Kuku; Faith Ozikor Amah, PhD & Josiah S. Kente, PhD
Chapter Ten
Attitude of Asaba Women towards Media Messages on Gender Violence; 112
Lucky Ejobotodo Oyibo; Victoria Ugbedeojo Ikani & Adenike Omotayo Okeya-
Olayinka, PhD
iv
Chapter Eleven
New Media and the Challenges of Publishing in Nigeria; 119
Peter O. Awofadeju, PhD; Adeline O. Nkwam-Uwaoma, PhD & Aisha Egwa
Chapter Twelve
Village Square as an Indigenous Communication Channel for Curbing the 128
Restiveness of Youth in the Niger Delta;
Eloho Patience Oziwele
Chapter Thirteen
Use of Digital Media for Evangelisation by Catholic Archdiocese of Benin City 136
during the 2020 COVID-19 Lockdown;
Jude Orah & Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD
Chapter Fourteen
Perception of Social Media Trial of Chidinma Ojukwu’s alleged Murder Case 147
among Select Edo Residents;
Emeke Precious Nwaoboli & Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD
Chapter Fifteen
Framing of COVID-19 Vaccination Reports on Facebook and Youtube; 159
Olayemi Abiodun Ajibulu & Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD
Chapter Sixteen
Perception of Media Coverage on Environmental Degradation among Residents of 170
Select Oyo Communities;
Victor Oladele; Daniel O. Ekhareafo, PhD & Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD
Chapter Seventeen
Opinions of Journalists in Yenagoa Metropolis on Fake News and Misinformation 186
in Citizen Journalism Practice in Nigeria;
Ikaderinyo Ibambo Furomfate, PhD
Chapter Eighteen
Factors that induce the Conundrum of Objectivity in Mass Media Reportage; 197
Chapter Nineteen
Influence of Misinformation on the Voting Behaviour of Select University Students 204
in North East Nigeria;
Nassir Abba-Aji, PhD; Adamkolo Mohammed Ibrahim & Hajara Umar Sanda, PhD
Chapter Twenty
Influence of "Obidatti" Online Campaign on the Political Behaviour of Youth in 222
Benin during the 2023 Nigerian Presidential Election;
Augustine A. Ayeni; Adeline O. Nkwam-Uwaoma, PhD & Oluwafisayo E. Ogunyemi,
PhD
v
Chapter Twenty One

Perceived Influence of Social Media Skits on Behavioural Change among Tertiary 233
Level Students in Edo State, Nigeria;
Florence O. Chukwuebuni; David S. Tam & Omowumi Bukola Olaseinde, PhD
Chapter Twenty Two

African Traditional Religion and Nation Building; 241
Gabriel Independence, PhD
Chapter Twenty Three

Media Approach to COVID-19 Reportage; 249
Ifedayo Akinwalere, PhD; Kehinde Grace Adeosun, PhD & Olujoke Funmilayo
Asekere, PhD
Chapter Twenty Four

Attitude of Deltans towards Media Campaigns on Okowa's Vice Presidential 260
Nomination;
Kassim Jonathan Onwubuoya; Cleta Nentawe Gaba & Agnes O. Ezeji, PhD
Chapter Twenty Five

Auchi Residents’ Perception of Broadcast Media Coverage of the 2020 Lekki Toll 271
Gate Killings;
Loveth Anorue; Peter O. Awofadeju, PhD & Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD
Chapter Twenty Six

Benin Residents’ Perception of Broadcast Media Coverage of the 2020 EndSARS 282
Protest in Nigeria;
Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD & Emeke Precious Nwaoboli
Chapter Twenty Seven

Mass Media, Insecurity and the Western Nigeria Security Network (Amotekun); 290
Titiloye Oyeyinka Ojo, PhD
Chapter Twenty Eight

Nsibidi as Visual Communication aid to Media Art Development in Nigeria; 302
Holyns Hogan; Eme Ohain; Elizabeth Egbe & James Effiom
Chapter Twenty Nine

A Theoretical Discourse on Psycho-Cognitive Correlate of Addicted Film Exposure 316
and Social Change in Nigeria;
Holyns Hogan, Elizabeth Egbe, James Effiom & Eme Ohain
Index 328
vi
Notes on Contributors
1. Faith Godwin Ebunuwele teaches in the Department of Mass Communication,
Ambrose Ali, Ekpoma, Edo State, Nigeria. Her contact email is
febunuwele@gmail.com
2. Dr. Daniel O. Ekhareafo is a Senior Lecturer and the Ag. Head of the Department
of Mass Communication, University of Benin, Edo State, Nigeria. His contact
email is talk2ofomegbe@gmail.com
3. Prof. Ezekiel S. Asemah is a Professor of Public Relations, Advertising and
Behavioural Change Communication and the Dean, College of Management and
Social Sciences, Glorious Vision University (formerly Samuel Adegboyega
University), Ogwa, Edo State, Nigeria. He is the Deputy National President of the
African Council for Communication Education, ACCE Nigeria Chapter and also a
Fellow of the African Council for Communication Education. His contact emails
easemah@sau.edu.ng; asemahezekiel@yahoo.com; asemahshegun@gmail.com
4. Aisha Egwa is a Postgraduate student in the Department of Mass
Communication, Glorious Vision University (formerly Samuel Adegboyega
University), Ogwa, Edo State, Nigeria. Her contact email is
aishaegwa7@gmail.com
5. Isaac Imo-Ter Nyam, PhD teaches in the Department of Mass Communication,

Faculty of Social Sciences, Veritas University, Abuja, Nigeria. His contact emails
are nyami@veritas.edu.ng and overtoisaac@gmail.com
6. Emmanuel Olurotimi Olubodede is a Lecturer in the Department of Mass

Communication, Faculty of Social Sciences, Adekunle Ajasin University,
Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria. His contact email is olubodede@gmail.com
7. Olaide Zainab Cole is of the Department of Mass Communication, Glorious

Vision University (Formerly Samuel Adegboyega University), Ogwa, Edo State,
Nigeria. Her contact email is olaidecole9@gmail.com
8 Dr. Stella Chinyere Enyindah teaches in the Department of Cinematography and

Broadcast Studies, Rivers State University, Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Her contact
email is stella.enyindah1@ust.edu.ng
9. Jamiu Mohammed Abubakar is a Postgraduate Student in the Department of Mass

Communication, University of Benin, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria. His contact
email is jamiu.abubakar@uniben.edu
10. Dr. Tsegyu Santas, SACCE, is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Mass
Communication, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria. His core research
vii
interest areas are Journalism and Media Studies, Digital Media and Development
Communication. He is the Deputy National Secretary of the prestigious African
Council for Communication Education (ACCE), Nigeria. His contact email is
tsegyu@nsuk.edu.ng
11. Isah Abdulazeez is a Postgraduate student in the Department of Mass

University), Ogwa, Edo State, Nigeria. His contact email is
Isahabdulazeez234@gmail.com
12. Osamagbe Lesley Egharevba is a Postgraduate Student in the Department of Mass

email is osamagbelesley1@gmail.com
13. Christian Nelson Davies is a postgraduate student in the Department of Mass

Communication, Rivers State University, Port Harcourt, Nigeria. His email contact
is chrisdaviesa@yahoo.com
14. Blessing Osariemen Osagie is a Postgraduate Student in the Department of Mass

Communication, University of Benin, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria. Her contact
email is blessingosemwenkha@gmail.com
15. Victoria Ugbedeojo Ikani is a Postgraduate Student in the Department of Mass

Communication, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria. Her email contact is
brainnyvikky@gmail.com
16. Dr. Faith Ozikor Amah is a Lecturer in the Department of Public Relations
and Advertising Rivers State University, Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Her contact email
is ozikorbabe@gmail.com
17. Linda Dooshima Kuku is a Postgraduate Student in the Department of Mass

email is kukudooshimalinda@gmail.com
18. Dr. Josiah S. Kente is an Associate Professor of Public Relations and Behavioural
Change Communication and the Acting Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences,
Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria. His contact email is
kentemails@yahoo.com
19. Lucky Ejobotodo Oyibo is a Postgraduate Student in the Department of Mass

email is luckytodo78@gmail.com
viii
20. Adenike Omotayo Okeya-Olayinka, PhD is a Lecturer in the Department of

Broadcasting Information and Media Science, Faculty of Communication and
Media Studies at the Ajayi Crowther University, Oyo, Nigeria. Dr. Okeya-Olayinka
has to her credits, scholarly publications in academic journals and associated
scholarly outlets and has also attended learned conferences. She has a strong
passion for research, teaching and community service. Her major areas of research
include Broadcast Journalism, Film and Cinematography, Health Communication,
Development Communication Studies and Media and Society. She is an active
member of African Council for Communication Education (ACCE), Association of
Communication Scholars and Professionals of Nigeria (ACSPN), Advertising
Practitioners Council of Nigeria (APCON), International Literacy Association
(ILA), Association of Media and Communication Researchers of Nigeria
(AMCRON), International Association of Religion Journalists (IARJ’s) and
Gender and African Studies Group (BUGAS). Her contact email is
omotayookeya@gmail.com
21. Peter O. Awofadeju, PhD is a Senior Lecturer and the Acting Head of the
Department of Mass Communication, Joseph Ayo Babalola University, Ikeji
Arakeji, Osun State, Nigeria. His contact email is pawofadeju@jabu.edu.ng
22. Dr. Adeline O. Nkwam-Uwaoma lectures in the Department of Mass

Communication, Imo State University, Owerri, Nigeria. She is a member of
several professional bodies and has several publications to her credit.
23. Eloho Patience Oziwele teaches in the Department of Mass Communication,

Faculty of the Social Sciences, Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria. Her contact
emails are roziwele@gmail.com and eoziwelep@delsu.edu.ng
24. Jude Orah is a Postgraduate Student in the Department of Mass

email is orahjude1@gmail.com
25. Emeke Precious Nwaoboli is a Postgraduate student in the Department of Mass

University), Ogwa, Edo State, Nigeria. His contact email is
emekenwaoboli@gmail.com
26. Olayemi Abiodun Ajibulu is a Postgraduate Student in the Department of Mass

email is olayemiajibulu@gmail.com
ix
27. Victor Oladele teaches in the Department of Mass Communication, Glorious

Vision University (formerly Samuel Adegboyega University), Ogwa, Edo State,
Nigeria. His contact email is oladelevictor29@gmail.com
28. Dr. Ikaderinyo Ibambo Furomfate lectures in the Department of Mass

Communication, University of Africa, Toru - Orua (UAT), Bayelsa State, Nigeria.
His contact email is ikass2006@gmail.com
29. Dr. Nassir Abba-Aji is an Associate Professor in the Department of Mass

Communication, University of Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria. His contact email
is click2nass@unimaid.edu.ng
30. Adamkolo Mohammed Ibrahim is of the Department of Mass Communication,

University of Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria. His contact email is
adamkolo@unimaid.edu.ng
31. Dr. Hajara Umar Sanda is an Associate Professor in the Department of Mass
Communication, Bayero University, Kano, Kano State, Nigeria. Her contact email
is husanda2003@yahoo.com
32. Augustine Alaba Ayeni is a postgraduate student in the Department of Mass

Communication, University of Benin, Edo State, Nigeria. His contact email
is austinealaba9@gmail.com
33. Dr. Oluwafisayo E. Ogunyemi is the Acting Head of the Department of Mass
University), Ogwa, Edo State, Nigeria. Her contact email is
abdulfizzy@gmail.com.
34. Florence O. Chukwuebuni teaches in the Department of Mass Communication,

Dennis Osadebey University, Asaba, Delta State, Nigeria. Her contact email is
orezichuks1@gmail.com
35. David S. Tam teaches in the Department of Mass Communication, Dennis

Osadebey University, Asaba, Delta State, Nigeria. His contact email is
david.tam@dou.edu.ng
36. Dr. Omowumi Bukola Olaseinde is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Media
and Performance Studies, Bamidele Olumilua University of Education, Science and
Technology, Ikere-Ekiti (BOUESTI) Ekiti State, Nigeria. Her contact email is
omowummyolaseinde@gmail.com
x
37. Dr. Gabriel Independence is a Lecturer in the Department of Religious Studies

Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Nigeria. His contact emails are
efngabriel@gmail.com and independenceg5@gmail.com
38. Dr. Ifedayo Akinwalere teaches in the Department of Mass Communication,

Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria. His contact email
is ifedayo.akinwalere@oouagoiwoye.edu.ng
39. Dr. Kehinde Grace Adeosun teaches in the Department of Communication and
General Studies, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State,
Nigeria. Her contact email is adeosunkehinde68@gmail.com
40. Dr. Olujoke Funmilayo Asekere teaches in the Department of Mass

Communication, Yaba College of Technology, Lagos State, Nigeria. Her contact
email is asekereolujoke@gmail.com
41. Kassim Jonathan Onwubuoya is a Postgraduate Student in the Department of

Mass Communication, University of Benin, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria. His
contact email is kassimjoe90@gmail.com
42. Cleta Nentawe Gaba teaches in the Department of Mass Communication, Plateau
State Polytechnic, Barkin Ladin, Plateau State, Nigeria. Her contact email is
cletagaba10gmail.com
43. Dr. Agnes O. Ezeji is an Associate Professor in the Department of Mass

Communication, Rhema University, Aba, Abia State, Nigeria. Her contact email is
chionyeagnes@gmail.com
44. Loveth Anorue is of the Department of Mass Communication, Glorious Vision

University (formerly Samuel Adegboyega University), Ogwa, Edo State, Nigeria.
Her contact email is akpasubiloveth2017@gmail.com
45. Dr. Titiloye Oyeyinka Ojo lectures in the Department of Mass Communication,
KolaDaisi University, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. His contact email is
ojo.titiloye@yahoo.com
46. Holyns B. Hogan lectures in the Department of Mass Communication,

University of Cross River State. Hogan is a widely published scholar of the African
Council for Communication Education (SACCE) and Cambridge Scholar. He has
several indexed peer-reviewed local and International journal articles publications
to his credit. His research interest areas include Media Education, Film and
Multimedia and Media Criticism. His contact email is holynsb1111@gmail.com
xi
47. Eme Ohain is a Radio-TV Broadcasting Lecturer in the Department of Mass

Communication, University of Cross River State. Her contact email is
eme.ohain@gmail.com
48. Elizabeth E. Egbe is a doctoral student in the Department of Mass
Communication, University of Cross River State. Her research interest area is in
Print Journalism. Her contact email is lizzyegbe1@gmail.com
49. James U. Effiom lectures in the Department of Mass Communication, University
of Cross River State, Calabar, Nigeria. He is a doctoral student with research
interest in Public Relations and Organisational Communication. His contact email
jimiko503@gmail.com
xii
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD
Communication is generally seen as an important part of the world and every part of human
life and existence (Asemah, 2011a). It is through communication that human beings mould
and control the society (Asemah, 2011a). Man is able to mould and control the society
through the use of mass media channels like radio, television, newspapers, books,
telephone or through face to face communication. These media of mass communication are
consequently regarded as the features of every modern society. Communication plays a
very crucial role in our society; among the functions of communication in our society are
agenda setting, information, entertainment, advertising, status conferral, campaigns and
information. Thus, Asemah (2011b) notes that communication is a phenomenon that can
best be explained by the impact or the effect it causes. Mass media here means
communication through a number of physical transmission modes such as print, audio,
visual, audio-visual and electronic forms to a general mass of common persons,
irrespective of their position, intellectual attainments or social status. The media are
channels through which the members of the society get to know what is happening around
them. Thus, the book titled ‘‘Communication, Media and Society’’ takes a look at various
aspects of communication and media studies. The book is in twenty nine chapters that
interrogate various topics within the field of communication and media studies. The
chapters are scholarly thoughts on communication and media studies.
In chapter one, Ebunuwele; Ekhareafo & Asemah examined the Obi brand of
politicking in the changing political space. They argued that Peter Obi introduced a politics
of standard, integrity, credibility and intellectuality in to the Nigerian political arena which
can change the political trajectory of the county and lead to a shift from the old political
itinerary of money bags, mediocrity, tribal ethnic and religion focused politics. Chapter
two is on the use of social media for creating awareness about COVID-19 preventive
measures by the government of Edo State, Nigeria. Egwa & Asemah noted that the
government of Edo State used social media to create awareness about COVID-19
preventive measures and the social media channels used were Facebook, WhatsApp and
Telegram. In chapter three, Imo-Ter Nyam & Olubodede did a self-affirmative discourse
on select theories of persuasion and perception.
In chapter four, Asemah, Cole & Enyindah examined the influence of Television
Continental COVID-19 campaign on the health behaviour of residents of Ikeja, Lagos
State, Nigeria. They found that the respondents were highly exposed to COVID-19
messages on television continental in Ikeja and that the messages were very effective as
majority of the respondents answered to that effect. The authors also found that the
messages positively affected the behaviour of the people. Asemah, Cole & Enyindah
concluded that the COVID-19 campaign messages on television continental in Lagos
positively affected the health behaviour of the respondents. In chapter five, Abubakar;
Asemah & Santas focused on newspaper framing of COVID-19 pandemic and the health
behaviour of residents of Edo State, Nigeria. They concluded that the newspapers used
gain frames in their coverage of COVID-19 and the frames were effective in changing the
1
health behaviour of the respondents; hence they recommended among others that
newspapers should place greater attention to gain framing as it is most effective in
behaviour change communication.
The focus of chapter six is on the responsiveness of Edo State Residents to COVID-
19 Media Campaigns. Abdulazeez & Asemah observed that Edo residents were highly
exposed to media campaigns on COVID-19 and were exposed to media campaigns via
conventional media and social media. They further argued that the media campaign had
positive influence on Edo residents. In chapter seven, Egharevba, Davies & Santas argued
that celebrity endorsement has a crucial role to play in the advertising process as it
stimulates the patronage of goods and services; they recommended that organisations need
to use celebrities regularly to advertise their goods and services so as to win more
customers. In chapter eight, Osagie, Ikani & Amah argued that there exists a significant
relationship between high patronage of Fast Moving Consumer Goods and social media
advertisement. In chapter nine, Kuku, Amah & Kente concluded that celebrities are used
for building images and products of a company.
In chapter ten, Oyibo, Ikani & Okeya-Olayinka focused on the attitude of Asaba
women towards media messages on gender violence. They concluded that the women had
poor attitude towards the campaign; while in chapter eleven, Awofadeju, Nkwam-Uwaoma
& Egwa focused on new media and the challenges of publishing in Nigeria. The focus of
chapter twelve is on village square as an indigenous communication channel for curbing
youth restiveness in the Niger Delta. Oziwele argued that the village square as an
indigenous communication channel can be effectively used to disseminate information that
strong enough to develop a positive mindset in the Niger Delta youth. In chapter thirteen,
Orah & Asemah focused on the use of digital media for evangelisation by Catholic
Archdiocese of Benin City during the 2020 COVID-19 lockdown. In chapter fourteen,
Nwaoboli & Asemah focused on the perception of social media trial of Chidinma Ojukwu’s
alleged murder case among select Edo residents. They observed that the social media
channels through which the respondents were exposed to the social media trial of the
alleged murder case were Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, WhatsApp and YouTube. This
underscores the popularity of social media platforms over mainstream conventional mass
media as radio, television, newspaper and magazines; while Ajibulu & Asemah focused on
the framing of COVID-19 vaccination reports on Facebook and Youtube in chapter fifteen.
Oladele, Ekhareafo & Asemah focused on the perception of media coverage of
environmental degradation among residents of select Oyo communities in chapter sixteen.
They argued that media practices powerfully shape and negotiate meaning, influencing
how citizens make sense of and value the world. Media representations bridge different
ways of knowing about the environment and often mediate public perceptions, attitudes,
perspectives and behaviours related to environmental issues. Furomfate focused on the
opinions of journalists in Yenagoa metropolis on fake news and misinformation in citizen
journalism practice in Nigeria in chapter seventeen. They noted that citizen journalism
practice is widely enmeshed with fake news and misinformation and that it is a clear
violation of the pen profession’s code of ethics and the social responsibility of the media.
They observed that fake news and misinformation in citizen journalism practice are
attributable to the inherent nature of the technology, lack of gatekeeping and to a certain
2
extent of citizen journalists' unawareness of the professional codes of ethics. Chapter

eighteen was also handled by Furomfate. He focused on the factors that induce the
conundrum of objectivity in mass media reportage. He identified media station, news
commercialisation, media ownership and control, reporter’s affiliation, reporter’s
background, transient event and structures as factors that induce objectivity.
In chapter nineteen, Abba-Aji, Ibrahim & Sanda focused on the influence of
misinformation on the voting behaviour of select University Students in North East
Nigeria. They argued that despite the fact that most of the university students can
differentiate between fake news and political advertising in the digital media, political news
on digital media still affects their perception of candidates. In chapter twenty, Ayeni,
Nkwam-Uwaoma & Ogunyemi focused on the influence of "Obidatti" online campaign on
the political behaviour of youth in Benin during the 2023 Nigerian presidential election.
They observed that the “Obidatti” online campaign movement had great influence on the
political behaviour of Benin youth. The campaign movement did not only change their
negative disposition towards Nigerian politics, but also motivated them to participate
actively in the build-up to 2023 general elections.
In chapter twenty one, Chukwuebuni, Tam & Olaseinde examined the perceived
influence of social media skits on behavioural change among tertiary level students in Edo
State, Nigeria. They concluded that social media skits can effectively be used to show the
negative effects of bad behaviour, show an experience in a different perspective and
promote products, lifestyles and good behaviour. The focus of chapter twenty two is on
African traditional religion and nation building. Independence argued that African
traditional religion has aided nation-building, in as much as it makes its adherents loyal to
the state and regimes. In chapter twenty three, Akinwalere, Adeosun & Asekere focused
on media approach to COVID-19 reportage; while Onwubuoya, Gaba & Ezeji focused on
the attitude of Deltans towards media campaigns on Okowa's vice presidential nomination.
In chapter twenty five, Anorue, Awofadeju & Asemah focused on Auchi residents’
perception of broadcast media coverage of the 2020 lekki toll gate shootings, while
Asemah & Nwaoboli examined Benin residents’ perception of broadcast media coverage
of the 2020 EndSARS protest in Nigeria in chapter twenty six. In chapter twenty seven,
Ojo wrote on mass media, insecurity and the Western Nigeria Security Network
(Amotekun). Hogan, Ohain, Egbe & Effiom wrote on Nsibidi as visual communication aid
to media art development in Nigeria in chapter twenty eight, while in chapter twenty nine,
Hogan, Egbe, Effiom & Ohain focused on psycho-cognitive correlate of addicted film
exposure and social change in Nigeria.
The text has touched some critical areas in communication and media studies.
Readers will find it worthwhile. Scholars can, therefore, take advantage of the essays
presented in this edited book project as they have theoretical and empirical value. Happy
reading.
References
Asemah, E. S. (2011a). Mass media in contemporary society. Jos: University Press.
Asemah, E. S. (2011b). Selected mass media themes. Jos: University Press.
3
CHAPTER ONE
ANALYSIS OF THE OBI BRAND OF POLITICKING IN THE
CHANGING POLITICAL SPACE
Faith Godwin Ebunuwele; Daniel O. Ekhareafo, PhD & Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD
Introduction
The political antecedence of the Nigerian state has been characterised by political
behaviour, especially among the youth. Ajodo-Adebanjko (2018) observe that the typical
political behaviour of the Nigerian youth depicts disinterest, disagreement, apathy and a
worrisome level of ignorance on political issues. This attitude has to a large extent,
contributed to the stunted growth in the country’s electoral and democratic process (Sule,
Sani & Mat, 2017). However, it is paramount to recognise that the political behaviour of
the people in a polity is a product of its inherent political culture. This implies that the
political behaviour of a society is a response to the existing political culture in the society.
The reality of the Nigerian political culture has over the years enmeshed in corruption.
Madubuegwu, Agudiegwu, Onyia, Odoh & Egbo (2020) attest that corruption and
insecurity of the Nigerian political process had permeated the voter’s apathy in the political
space particularly among the youths. In a similar vein, Ojo (2014) accentuates that the
malpractice and violence has become a reoccurring reality in the Nigerian political sphere
as almost all election activities have been plagued by violence. A research by Adejoh
(2018) titled ‘‘Youth, Voter Apathy and the future of democracy in Nigeria: Insights from
university of Lagos’’ also corroborated the assertions of Ojo (2014). The researcher
adopted a cross-sectional survey to generate data for the study. The findings of the study
revealed that a lot of youths express a high level of cynicism and voters apathy in election
and electoral process in Nigeria due to the corruption, violence and malpractice that has
marred the process. Adeleke & Ezeji (2022) also contributed that the Nigerian political
activities lacked depth and standard as electoral campaigns were characterised by
monetisation, zero substance propaganda and identity politics of personalities.
However, the advent of Peter obi as a presidential candidate appears to have
changed the political trajectory of the country and awaken the political consciousness of
the youth. This is evident with the massive active youth engagement and participation in
the 2023 electoral presidential campaigns. Peter Obi presidential candidate has birthed the
“OBIdients” movement which is predominantly a youth movement with a reputation of
being aggressive and vicious in their campaign and support for candidate. Peter Obi seems
to have galvanised youth become active participants and stakeholders in elections and
politics breaking the youth voters’ apathy narrative. It is on this premise the researcher
seeks to analyse the brand of politicking that Peter Obi have introduced to the Nigerian
political table which appears to be changing the political narratives of the country.
Statement of Problem
Before the advent of the presidential candidacy of Peter Obi, the political participation of
the youth was seemly low and Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) used
to spend millions of Naira on voters education. In 2014, the INEC Chairman, Professor
4
Attahiru Jega lamented over the menace of poor voters’ participation in Nigeria. One of
the reasons as noted by Professor Jega was the low participation in electoral activities
(Ndiribe, 2014). Furthermore, study by Okafo, Odigbo & Okeke (2022) established that
the increasing manifestation of voters’ apathy in the Nigerian political space has negatively
impacted the electoral and democratic process of the country. However, it appears that the
presidential candidacy of Peter Obi changed this narrative and trajectory as the youth have
become active participants and stakeholders in politics. The OBI-dent movement which is
predominantly a movement created awareness and spread information about registration
and collection of Permanent Voters Card during the 2023 electioneering, an activity that
was previously considered to be responsibility of INEC. It is against this back drop that
the researchers sought to investigate the brand of politicking that presidential candidacy
Peter Obi has brought to the political table that engendered the change in the political
behaviour of the youth and their response to it.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
1. What brand of politicking did Peter Obi bring to the political table that propelled the
change in the political behaviour of the Nigerian Youth?
2. What are the Frames Youth responses of Peter Obi brand of politicking?
Social Media and the Meteoric Rise of Peter Obi Popularity

The meteoric rise of Peter Obi as the one the most discussed presidential candidate in the
Nigerian political space, despite his late entry in to the political arena as the labour
presidential candidate has been the highlight of the Nigerian political discourse. Peter Obi’s
willingness to avail himself for political debates, media interviews and public scrutiny
endeared a lot of Nigerians, especially the youth to his candidacy. One of the hallmarks of
electoral campaigns is opportunity of electorate to scrutinise political candidates and this
is achieved when candidates presents themselves to communicate their agenda and
programs in the media and other public platforms (Heywood, 2019; Nichter, 2008). Quite
a number of people have attributed this rapid popularity to his youthful followers who use
their social media platforms, particularly Twitter to confer status of prominence on him.
Asemah &Edegoh, 2013; Asemah, Illah & Edegoh (2013); Edegoh & Asemah (2014);
Asemah (2015) describe social media as activities, practices and engagements among
communities of people who congregate online to share information, knowledge and
opinions on an interactive media.
A study conducted by Okunbor (2022) titled influence of political mudsling on
political cynicism in Nigeria. The researcher adopted a survey research method and
anchored the study on rational choice theory. One of the findings of the study revealed that
when politicians engage in issue based politics during electoral campaigns it will build
genuine trust, confidence and support of masses in the candidate. Asemah (2016) expressed
that the media has the power to confer status on individual. Peter Obi supporters who are
predominantly the youth all used their social media platform to confer status of prominence
on him and all his activities and even made all Obi’s political activities and campaigns an
agenda for public media discourse. Furthermore, Peter Obi’s social media followership and
5
labour party followership also rapidly increased. Raji (2022) submits that, although, Peter
Obi is not the most presidential candidate on social media; nevertheless, social media has
been in favour of the Labour party presidential candidate Peter Obi and his Obi-dents
supporters in the 2023 presidential race. Raji (2022) also agrees that going by engagements,
Peter Obi is a force to be reckoned with as he has dominated the social media space.
Social Media and OBIdents’ Mobilisation

One of the most visible and ubiquitous medium of political mobilisation in recent times is
the social media. Goodman, Wennerstrom & Springgate (2011) attributed the success of
Barack Obama’s presidential campaign in 2008 to the use of social media to foster effective
political participation among the American youth. Adebusuyi & Ebunuewle (2021) assert
that social media has revolutionised and broadened the scope of political participation and
participatory democracy in Nigeria. The potency of social media in Nigerian electoral
process was demonstrated in 2015, when it was used as a political tool by then opposition
party All Progressive Congress (APC) to successfully de-market ruling People’s
Democratic Party (PDP). The impact of social media in the Nigerian political arena
electoral arena has grown tremendously since 2015 as several studies have established the
potency of social media as a political tool in elections and and democratic process.
Odoyi, Omego & Olatunji (2020) conducted a research titled ‘‘social media usage
among youth and grassroots mobilisation in Rivers state Nigeria.’’ The findings of the
study revealed that 72% of respondents use social media platforms daily and while 25%
patronise social media haphazardly. The researchers established that a significant majority
of the respondent in Ahoada East Local Government of Rivers State use social media for
communication, mobilising and organising grassroots issues like politics, religious,
economy and traditional matters.
OBIdents movement used social media, particularly Twitter as a mobilisation
platform to campaign and show their solidarity for Peter Obi. Social media was used to
organise the nationwide One million marches for Peter Obi which took place in Abuja, Ed+
o, Bayelsa, Ogun, Kaduna, Rivers, Cross River, Nasarawa, Kwara, Niger, Ebonyi,
Bauchi, Sokoto Enugu, Imo and Benune. The dates and timetable for these solidarity walks
and marches for Peter Obi were mobilised on twitter. One of the most memorable marches
in the series of million marches is the marches that disrupted October 1st independent
celebration which took place simultaneously in virtually all the states in Nigeria and outside
Nigeria. Furthermore, other solidarity initiatives such as the medical outreach for Peter
Obi, Car drive rally for Peter Obi and the Peter Obi campaign support funds were all
mobilised on twitter by the OBIdents movement. The OBIdents movement also used social
media to youth to register for their Permanent voters card (PVC) and collected their PVC
which they tagged “Peter ObI Victory Card.”
Dungse, Mato, Makinde & Chidozie (2018) carried out a study to examine the role
of social media, particularly, Twitter as a tool political mobilisation and participation in
Nigeria. The researchers found out Twitter engagements were used as tools for
participation and mobilisation. It was revealed that most of the Twitter discussions were
steered by citizens through the use of hashtags for mobilisation, advocacy and information.
The researchers concluded that while social media alone cannot decide the outcome of
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political process; however, it cannot be ignored in political process due to its

complementary role in influencing political participation and mobilisation.
Theoretical Framework
This study is anchored on the source credibility theory and rational choice theory. Source
credibility theory is an offshoot theory developed from Aristotle work on the rhetoric which
broke down the route to persuasion from the ethos, pathos and logos standpoint. Source
credibility theory attributed by Hovaland, Janis and Kelly in 1963 posits that receivers are
more likely to be persuaded when the source perceived as credible (Asemah & Ogwo 2013;
Umeogu, 2012). Credibility as noted by Asemah & Ogwo (2013) is believability, accuracy,
trustworthiness and completeness of information. Asemah, Nwammuo & Nkwam-
Uwaoma (2017) explain that the acceptance or reception of a message is hinged on
perceived credibility of the source of communication. This implies that individuals are
more likely to support a cause or an action if the initiator is perceived to be credible by the
people. Every communicator seeks to present himself or herself as credible but it is the
perceived credibility the people that determines their level of reception to the message.
Relating the source credibility theory to politics Asemah & Ogwo (2013) notes there is a
higher tendency for people to support a political candidate if the electorate perceive the
candidate as credible.
Rational choice theory was propounded by philosopher and Political Economist,
Adam Smith 1776 and popularised by Nobel Memorial prize winner, Gary Becker who
applied the rational choice model widely (Cook & Grimesley 2021; Ogu, 2013). The
central tenet of the theory is that individuals are rational or right thinking beings who are
capable making the right decisions and select the right choice that will benefit their needs.
Rational choice theory in politics is premises on the assertion that people are political
entities who can make political choices that benefits them. Asemah & Umoro (2022) assert
that electorate are rational beings who are apt enough to make decisions about their
political inclination based on the ability of the candidate to meet their needs. The
champions of the relational choice theory believe that capacity of a political candidate
honour campaign promises can propel electorate to vote in their favour (Asemah & Umoro,
2022). The central tenets of the source credibility and the rational choice theory are
manifested in the youth decision to campaign and build the OBIdents movement around
Peter Obi. The Nigeria youth perception in the credibility of of character and integrity of
Obi due to his leadership antecedence and the fact Obi is the only candidate believed to
have a realistic plan for the growth and development for the Nigerian youths propelled their
decision to choose Peter Obi as the presidential candidate of the youth.
Method of Study
The researchers adopted the hermeneutic approach to textual analysis; this method of
textual analysis is utilised to provide in depth description and interpretation of fundamental
structures expressed in a media text (Ekhareafo & Umoro, 2020; Fuster, 2019).
Hermeneutic approach was used to explain the meanings, interpretation and implication to
narratives opined in the ♯PeterObi trends on twitter. Hermeneutic approach to textual
analysis was used to interpret the social media text and categorised them in to broad frames.
7
The population of study is 15.5K (15,500) Twitter trends on ♯PeterObi. The researchers
employed a purposive sampling technique to select forty two data sets relevant to the study.
Purposive sampling is a method that allows the researcher to purposively choose data
suitable and relevant to the study (Asemah, Gujbawu, Ekhareafo & Okpanachi, 2022).
Twitter was also purposively selected among other social media platforms due to its
popularity among the youths and the intellectuality that is associated with the medium. The
researcher interpreted the data and broke the data into 7 categories and each of the 7
categories had 6 political viewpoints which brought the sampled data media text to 42. The
first 3 categories reflected the brand of politicking which Peter Obi brought to the Nigerian
political table and the last 4 categories reflected the frames of response to Peter Obi brand
of politicking.
Data Presentation and Analysis
Breaking the Politicking Status quo (A Brand of Standard)

@vincentchidi6: Before Peter Obi, aspirants used to roast corn, sell akara, drink sachet
water or do petty stuff. Now they’re all granting interviews and quoting economic statics
that they don’t understand. Thank you @PeterObi for teaching them how to campaign
@adokwuandy: No more eating of corn on the roadside or making hair in market places,
this is the new Nigeria that we want come and tell us your ideas Peter Obi finally happened
to politicking in Nigeria.
@Emmanuel_Udukaa: Suddenly no one is roasting corn and frying corn all because of
one man, Peter Obi changed the status quo. Tinubu and Atiku can’t do the usual
@Deborahgaji: Peter Obi raised the bar! By now, Tinubu and Atiku would have started
roasting corn, frying Akara and other useless stuff. All of them are now trying to even catch
up with Obi’s pace. Good thing!
@OkwuchukwuGA: So Obi has changed the narrative of roasting corn in the media space,
eating with kids in public schools & the likes exhibited by directionless politicians in the
eve of elections or campaigning seasons to bring to the table what one’s got to offer, the
why and how.
@SaviourAnietiew: Do you know that @PeterObi has raised the bar in our politics? By
now politicians would have been buying corn and been frying on the streets to identify with
people. Like Dino they would have been hawking groundnuts. Everyone is sitting up now
Raising the Political Bar (A Brand of Character in Politics)

@distinguished_n: Peter Obi has placed his mark on Nigerian Politics. He has raised the
bar so high that other contestants feel so small, he has simplified the issues and opened our
eyes to what we should demand in Governance.
8
@vincentchidi6: Peter Obi’s body Language has started raising the bar and changing the
game of politics in Nigeria already. No doubt about what he will do as president in Nigeria.
@Eze_Carly So Obi actually came to change the sphere of Nigerian Politics, we’ve a lot
to thank him for. This alone is a victory on its own.
@1amegraon: A Peter Obi presidency sets the tone to a new political system and breed of
world class leaders in Nigerian politics. Being in the race alone has raised the bar
significantly to issue & solution based campaign. Time for Nigerians to take back their
country
@edema_victory: If @PeterObi becomes president the bar for politics will be raised,
servant leadership in Nigerian politics will be the order of the day. We cannot afford to get
is wrong this time.
@gabrielakwaja: Incontrovertible! Peter Obi raised the bar! of the conversation for
governance and elective leadership. Going forward hence, leadership recruitment will be
at an ideological cost contenders….
Issue Based Politicking (A Brand of Intellectuality)

@AlabaOginni: Peter Obi, thank you for delivering us from politics and campaign of
roasted corn and roadside sellers to one of issues.
@ChukkyOparandu: Never seen this level of command of issue based conversations,
empathy for the plight of citizens, understanding of core issues of governance, debt, breath
& charisma displayed by Peter Obi on Arise TV since this campaign began.
@Wolexz: See Peter Obi all over the place telling the world how he plans to rule Nigeria,
even if he is not the best candidate his effort speaks volume.
@Kcmayon …..the man brought American standard to politics in Nigeria
@iam Turaki: PO has really changed the campaign dynamics; I wish they will gather all
aspirants in one hall for debate. Wahala go dey oo.
@jobenz24: Finally, a new dimension in discussion of politics! Peter Obi has raised the
bar in conversation to issues of education, development, energy and wealth creation. No
more echoes, real issues on the front burner.
Youth Support (Frame of Partnership)

@eddy_chuks: Peter Obi has change Nigerian tho we may not realise it now. The envy of
every politician have on him is the fact that he enjoys a lot of support for free. Something
I’m not sure have happened anywhere in Africa.
9
@RolandIkeobi: Free as in free publicity. People doing Tshirts, caps banners willing and
free without asking for kobo, this can’t be in Nigeria but it’s happening because of peter
Obi
@CHLemchi: Incredible. I have never seen a thing like this before. A 73-year-old Matthew
Okpebholo just donated this entire building to the Peter Obi campaign.
@urmamarshall: My salary is 2000k but I can donate 50k monthly from it until election in
2023 so that I and my unborn children don’t eat Agbadoo
@ ianmdlaw2: Dear @PeterObi, we are ready to donate sir. Awaiting the approved
GoFundMe link. Like I said a few months ago I have my 200k already fixed to contribute
towards your campaign I no want make my children chop agbodo!
@Dawa419: I will donate the proceeds from my farm for Labour Part’s victory in 2023.
@Micheal24216064: I am ready to be donating 10k of my little salary every month till the
month of the election. It’s not for Peter Obi but for me and my children if I chop agbodo
now, I don’t know what they will feed my children with if I doubt fight for them now.
@MinChinonso: First time in history of this nation that citizens are willing accepting to
fund a political campaign without being compelled to do so.
Fighting for a Secured Future (Frame of Security)

@ObadOffical: Labour today to avoid suffering tomorrow! Peter Obi is that figure that will
help us to secure the future for our kids. Sorry to say Nigeria will never improve with these
current set of criminals switching parties to do the same evil. Now is the change that with
your vote for Obi
@distinguished_n: Apart from the ♯EndSARS movement, there have never been a time
Nigerians were this United together in fighting for a good cause until Peter Obi came in to
the picture. Peter Obi has raised the bar away from money politics, party politics to
competence and character politics.
@earlmarshalls: We are faced with two desperate people people that want the number one
seat of the nation, they are look alike in every way and their parties two. Nigerians too now
have an option @PeterObi to do the right thing and secure the future of our unborn children
@JGagariga: ♯SayNoToOldMoneyBags think about your future, 2023 is a do or die for the
younger generation, secure your future with a credible candidate so you don’t have to do
money rituals or yahoo yahoo, get your PVC and support a candidate who has your interest
for me its peter Obi!
@Bibi2477: In times of war, you cannot stay neutral. Next year election will be a fight for
our lives, to restore our dignity, to regain our lost position as the giant of Africa, with
@PeterObi as our leader there is hope for a better Nigeria.
10
Youth Hope for Better Nigeria (Frame of Hope)

@Davidgorithm: An average Nigerian is already losing hope in the country. But peter obi
came to rekindle our hope.
@d_motivator1: When you listen to Peter Obi, you have a renewed hope in Nigeria
@mbahderek: It is safe to say that if @Peter Obi loses the election that a lot of Nigerian
youths will leave this country, meaning his our only hope we see for a better Nigeria and
not just for the youths but our future kids.
@Sucess_imamun: You take away hope from a people they are left with nothing.
Regardless of the amount of resources at their disposal. Hope has been taken away in the
last 8 years. @PeterObi & @dattibabaahmed is restoring it back to Nigerians. Hope! For a
better Nigeria.
@Davidebdan1: The truth is when you listen to @Peter Obi, regardless of your religion,
ethnicity and political affiliation, you still have hope for a better Nigeria.
@isaiahtwits: Listening to @Peter Obi Stimulates intelligent thinking and bring hope for a
better Nigeria. God help us in Jesus name, amen.
@Abirhire_Ufuoma: Now the youths can freely and boldly dream yet again. They can yet
again hope for a better Nigeria, all thanks to Peter Obi picking Dr. Yusuf Datti Ahmed as
running mate and vice president.
@SargeMix: @Peter Obi has given me hope for the first time in 20 years! The feeling of
being part of a fight for a better Nigeria is one I will never forget in a hurry. The thought
of 16 years of Obi and then Yusuf is the best sales pitch I’ve ever woken up to.
The Gospels Peter Obi (Frame of Evangelism)

@Psymorn_: Told my workers yesterday that they have to register for their PVC or their
job is at stake. You have to secure your future with our own hands instead of sitting on the
fence, Next, I’m gona market Peter Obi to them all, the rest is their choice.
@PaAdebanjo: My advice to you all, as I have commenced massive mobilisation across,
you should go out beyond social media and propagate the gospel of Peter Obi, I am sure
he will make a good president.
@Nero_nero92: Go ye in to the world. Make Obidents and Yusfulness of all Nigerians.
Baptising them with the name of Peter Obi & Yusuf Datti. Teaching them the need to join
the OBIdients movement & to vote PO come 2023. That they may have a better Nigeria.
Our hope for a better Nigeria.
@hilkrest: Very nice! We will own the campaign. We all should be able to do what we can
do to preach the gospel of @Peter Obi & @YDBaba_Ahmed to all nook and crannies of
Nigeria. They are our Hope for a better Nigeria.
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@sammysiliver55: Therefore be Obident and preach the gospel of @Peter Obi to the
northerners. Because he is the change we Nigerians and our beloved Country Nigeria need
at this very moment. In this Obident movement there is no tribalism but one Nigeria.
@franklin2times: Not just my money. I’m ready to spread the gospel of peter obi. Nigeria
must be better. I’an tired of this bad government.
@his_victorious: I’m proudly spreading the gospel of Peter Obi everywhere I go, it’s now
a lifestyle and our Labour shall never in vain for their’s dignity.
@Aniebreads: If you as an imam and pastor ain’t preaching the gospel of Peter Obi for a
better Nigeria, then you are one of the problems of Nigeria!! Gbam! It is not about you but
it’s also about your unborn generation, but we must stand from them.
Discussion of Findings
The emergence of Peter obi as a presidential candidate rapidly changed the political
narratives and trajectory of the Nigeria Sate. The previous political campaign strategies in
the Nigerian polity were characterised by money, mediocrity and politics of personalities
with elite politicians creating publicity pictures and videos of themselves eating with the
poor, selling in the market, carrying water and even hawking food items in the market to
create an illusion homophily with the masses and buy their votes and after they get the
votes of the electorate, they retreat to their ivory towers with their doors shut to the plights
of the people. Overtime, the electorate, especially the youth have seen through the illusions
created by the political class and have developed an attitude of nonchalance and apathy
towards political activities, except with the right political incentives. However, the
presidential candidacy of Peter Obi seems to have brought a change in the political space
and the attitude youth in the electoral process and political activities.
The first research question that guided this study was geared towards investigating
what brand of politicking did Peter Obi bring to the political table that propelled the change
in the political behaviour of the Nigerian Youth? Netizens perspectives Peter Obi in the
#PeterObi on twitter trend was analysed and hermeneutically interpreted in to 3 brands of
politicking- brand of Standard in politics, brand of Character in Politics, and a brand of
intellectuality in politics. It was discovered that these brands of politicking that has
propelled the shift in the attitude of the youth in Nigeria. This finding is in alignment with
the source credibility theory which express that people are more likely to buy in to an idea
or an ideology if the individual the piloting the ideology is perceived to be credible by the
people (Asemah & Ogwo, 2013). Although, this position seems to contradict Adeleke &
Ezeji’s (2022) assertion that political campaigns in Nigeria are not issue-based, however,
the findings of this study indicates a gradual shift from from a lack of issue-based politics
to a politics of defined issues, intellectuality and good character.
The second research question was to provide answers to the frames of youth’s
responses to Peter Obi brand of politicking. The responses of Peter Obi brand of politicking
was hermeneutically interpreted in to four frames- frame of partnership, frame of security,
12
frame of hope and frame of evangelism. The frame of partnership expressed the wiliness
of people to not only support but also use their financial and material resources advocate
for the presidential candidacy of Peter Obi. The frame of security revealed the netizens’
readiness to join Peter Obi in the fight to secure a better country with a bright future for
youth, children and the generation unborn. The frame of hope embodied a revitalised dream
in the possibility that the country can be better and frame of evangelism gave voice to the
testimony and the good news of Peter Obi candidacy. This finding is in concurrence with
the rational choice theory as it relates to politics which articulates people are political
beings that can make logical political choices of candidate whose ideologies and
manifestos that benefits and appeals to them. This position is also in agreement with study
by Okunbor (2022) who opined that if politicians engage in issue-based politics during
electoral campaigns it will build genuine trust, confidence and support in the eyes of the
electorate.
Conclusion and Recommendation

From the findings of this study, it is apt to conclude that Peter Obi introduced a politics of
standard, integrity, credibility and intellectuality in to the Nigerian political arena which
can change the political trajectory of the county and lead to a shift from the old political
itinerary of money bags, mediocrity, tribal ethnic and religion focused politics. The
researchers, therefore, recommend that the Nigeria State should embrace Peter Obi brand
as a step in the right direction that has the capacity to usher Nigeria in to an era of issue-
based, result oriented and character driven politicking where citizens can enjoy the best of
governance and never settle for anything and anyone less than the best.
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Ogu, M. (2013). Rational choice theory: Assumptions, strengths and greatest weakness in
applications outside the Western Milieu context. Arabian Journal of Business and
Management Review, 1(3), 20-29.
Ojo, O.V. (2014). Turbulent election history: An appraisal of precipitating factors in
Nigeria. International Journal of Politics and Good Governance, 5(5.2), 1-18.
Okafor, C.O., Odigbo, J. & Okeke, R.C. (2022). Two decade of electoral democracy:
Voters apathy and democratisation process in Nigeria. Social Science and
Education Research Review, 9(1), 84-94.
Okunbor, V. (2022). Influence of poltical mudslinging on poltical cynicism in Nigeria. In
E. S. Asemah., D.O. Ekhareafo & T. Santas (Eds). Thoughts on Political
Communication in Nigeria (pp 249-258). Enugu: GO University Press.
Raji, M. (2022). Atiku, not Peter Obi has the highest number of followers on social media.
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Sule, B., Sani, M.A.M. & Mat, B. (2017). Political behaviour and voting patterns in
Nigeria: A study of the 2015 presidential elections. Asia Pacific Journal of
Education, Arts and Sciences, 4(4), 1-13.
Umeogu, B. (2012). Source credibility: A philosophical analysis. Open Journal of
Philosophy, 2(2), 112-115.
15
CHAPTER TWO
USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA FOR CREATING AWARENESS ABOUT
COVID-19 PREVENTIVE MEASURES BY THE GOVERNMENT OF
EDO STATE, NIGERIA
Aisha Egwa & Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD
Introduction
COVID-19 is a disease caused by a new strain of corona virus. The “CO” stands for corona,
“VI” for virus, and “D” for disease, while the suffix “-19” stands 2019, the year the
outbreak of disease was first known in 2019 (Komiti & Asemah, 2021; Ajayi, Fatukasi &
Asemah, 2021). The COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria is part of the worldwide pandemic of
coronavirus disease 2019 caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2-
SARA-CoV-2 (Acheme, Amah, Ezeji & Asemah, 2021; Asemah, David & Akpabio,
2022).
COVID-19 is a contractible disease caused by a novel coronavirus which has not
been found previously in people. The symptoms include respiratory problems, fever and
cough which lead to pneumonia and death. The virus like SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory
Syndrome) spreads through droplets from sneezes. With no available vaccine then at the
initial stage, the virus spread to nearly every country in the world. On March 11 2020, the
World Health Organisation announced that the virus was officially a pandemic after
spreading through 114 countries and killing 118,000 in three months. Then in December
2020, it had infected 75 million people and led to more than 1.6 million deaths. The first
confirmed case of the virus in Nigeria reported on February 27, 2020, was of an Italian
citizen who visited the country, tested positive for the virus. On March 9, 2020, a second
case reported at Ewekoro, Ogun State was of a Nigeria citizen who had contact with the
Italian index case. Edo State was not an exception in the battle against the coronavirus
infection and the index case of the coronavirus in Edo State was, confirmed to have been
the Speaker of the State House of Assembly, Mr. Frank Okiye, on March 25, 2020
(Premium Times, 2021).
Alpha, Beta, Gamma and Delta are the four mutations that the World Health
Organisation (WHO) has classified as variants of concern. The rapid spread of the Lambda
strain, which was first identified in Peru in December, has now spread to 28 countries
which is inclusive of the four additional variants, of Eta, Iota and Kappa. By December,
the Alpha virus, which was first identified in southeast England in September 2020, had
spread to about 60% of all new COVID-19 cases in the UK. The 17 genetic changes in the
Alpha variant make it extremely contagious. Brazil, California and other places saw the
emergence of various variants. More contagious variants, like the Beta, which first
appeared in South Africa, made it easier to re-infect individuals who had recovered from
earlier coronavirus strains and made some of the newly created vaccines somewhat
resistant.
The Delta variant known as B.1. 617. 2 firstly acknowledged in India triggered a
16
harmful outbreak there in April and May. It is now the most quickly dominant strain inside
the United States this year, it is right now all over the world and individuals travelling
around the globe will probably experience it. It is usually the most transmissible so much
and research shows it really is top rated to higher rates of hospitalisation for those infected.
Unvaccinated individuals and children should strictly adhere to mask wearing, physical
distancing and hygienic safety precautions and stay away from international travel. Being,
fully vaccinated for COVID- 19 may prevent you from the Delta variant, but breakthrough
infections might sometimes occur. Most infected people will develop mild to modest illness
and recover without hospitalisation. Fever, a dry cough, and fatigue are the most typical
symptoms. A headache, aches and pains, conjunctivitis, sore throat, diarrhoea, and loss of
taste or smell are the least frequent symptoms (Vanguard, 2021).
Social media are, however, the fastest, quickest and most easily accessible channels
of information dissemination; so their impact on information collection and dissemination
cannot be disregarded. As long as they have access to the internet, the elderly and young
can easily access social media platforms. They can browse, surf, conduct research and
engage in other activities that they deem appropriate for their particular needs.
Furthermore, due to their reach and speed, these social media platforms are doing a much
better job of spreading information about the COVID-19 pandemic than the mainstream
media which has pushed the traditional media to the side in terms of information
dissemination. The way people communicate, interact, relate to one another, and interpret
the world around them is impacted by how social media has evolved into the window
through which they view it. It can be compared to a traditional village square in Nigeria
that has gone digital. Burgess & Green (2009, p. 7) note that YouTube is just a "cultural
public sphere" because “it is a pricey enabler of encounter with culture variations and the
development of politics 'listening' across perception systems and identities"(as cited in
Okpara, 2019).
The COVID-19 global health crisis has had a disproportionately negative impact
on many facets of life. In contrast to previous global pandemics, people today have instant
access to a wealth of information, including social media. One of the essential components
of outbreak communication is risk communication which necessitates a thorough
understanding of key stakeholders and groups in order to effectively respond to the
COVID-19 pandemic. Social media can be beneficial for risk communication because it
makes it possible for experts and the general public to quickly spread and gather
information. However, it can also cause widespread fear and misinformation (Utami,
2021).
To communicate health messages about COVID-19, the new normal behavioural
changes mandated by the World Health Organisation (WHO), health workers like
paramedics, nurses, doctors and other non-medical personnel heavily relied on social media
platforms. The new norm calls for the use of hand sanitisers, regular temperature checks,
social/physical distancing and using of face masks. Thus, it is crucial to ascertain the extent
to which the government of Edo State used social media to raise awareness about COVID-
19 preventive measures.
17
Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study were to:
1. Determine the level of usage of social media among the residents of Edo state.
2. Ascertain the extent of exposure to COVID-19 preventive measures from Edo state
government.
3. Find out the social media channels through which Edo residents receive COVID-19
preventives measures messages from the government.
4. Determine the perception of the COVID-19 preventive measures messages among
the residents of Edo State.
5. Determine the level of compliance with the COVID-19 preventive measures
messages among Edo State residents.
Conceptual and Literature Review

The Nigerian Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) and the presidential Task Force on
COVID-19 (PTF-COVID- 19) have established training for health professionals and
developed protocols for the country's fight against the pandemic of COVID-19. This
includes enforcing health and other regulatory requirements, such as movement
restrictions, lockdowns in epic states and a nationwide ban on travel, as well as the closure
of businesses, institutions of higher learning (Amzata et al 2020) and the COVID-19 virus
according to Cligiuri, Cieri, Minbaeva, Verbake & Zimmerman (2020) has changed the
work environment, cities, countries and continents because it spreads through close
contacts and because an infected person (who is not necessarily symptomatic) may deposit
respiratory droplets on surface areas or in the air (shared environment) forcing
organisations to face grand challenges more turbulent than climate change, severe
economic downturns and political instability (Carnevalea & Hatab, 2020) and escalating a
people-based crisis causing insecurity, disempowerment and vulnerability for the
individuals and organisations (cited in Ifaka & Obi, 2021). The researcher is mainly
sticking to the Edo State audience which is already aware of the coronavirus disease
prevention measures has the responsibility of perceiving this information in their own
unique ways and interpreting that information to determine how best to handle the given
problems. This explanation revolves around perception. Because perception is unique to
you as a person, it can be said to be relative and subjective. Social media may have
influenced the perceptions of health-related information among the Edo state audience.
They become aware of this information, organise it into a coherent and meaningful pattern
(noting) and draw conclusions from it (interpreting).
Chris Shipley popularised the term "social media" in 2004 to describe a brand-new
generation of online content publishing and trading. Social media are internet-based
applications that enable user-generated content creation (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010) and
build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0.The ability of the poor
to communicate and establish an online presence has helped the mobile internet in
developing nations like Nigeria close the gap left by other forms of internet access. There
happens to be even plans to 'weaponise' frontier technologies like the Artificial Intelligence
18
(Mugged & Kavanaugh, 2018) and in fact, Kuziemski (2017, p. 20) concludes that"… in
some ways, the net has provided and exacerbated our problems.’’ In addition to the
aforementioned and the problem of fake news, social media platforms like Facebook,
Instagram, Wechat, YouTube, LinkedIn, Snapchat, WhatsApp, Pinterest, 2go, Twitter and
TikTok— some of the most well-known among so many— have been able to instantly
provide information as an online media, particularly in the western region/ part of the world
through the internet cited in (Guanah, Nwammuo & Obi, 2020). It is also known as virtual,
social, digital and web-based media. To "communicate the necessary information to
consumers," these online platforms are paving the way through social networking sites. It
is a domain that lacks geographic, temporal and spatial boundaries.
Social media platforms are frantic forms of communication technology that, in
addition to being novel, have digitised and are widely accessible for use as communication
tools (Nwanne, 2014, p. 34). New media (social media) are significant and affect society
in various ways. Every day that goes by, new media grow and become more active. In other
words, social media play a variety of roles in people's daily lives (Seyfi & Guven, 2016),
and the new media has opened up new possibilities for how people interact with one
another (Asemah, 2011). People adopt these new media and integrate them into their daily
lives, making them components of their social spaces that help build new social ties and
new communication potentials (Asemah, 2011). The Edo State government also makes use
of social media to spread awareness of COVID-19 preventive measures. There is no
denying that new media is a major source of information and behaviour adoption for both
urban and rural residents. Every new media platform, including Facebook and WhatsApp
chat rooms, video conferencing, and YouTube, is therefore, anticipated to include
information on preventive COVID-19 measures for sharing and interactivity purposes as
well as behaviours exchanging. This will fight against the ineffective use of conventional
media, such as television, radio, newspapers, and magazines, which are primarily used in
urban areas (Nwalaka & Nwala, 2020). The researcher has observed that user-generated
content, easier, faster and having wider access to information dissemination are benefits of
new media or social media, which are based on the internet or data subscriptions. This is
despite the fact that the majority of news stories posted on these platforms have some basis
in reality. Despite this, social media has been hailed as the ninth wonder of the world
because of its ability to break news stories before mainstream or traditional media even
know what is happening. As a result, it has effectively pushed the monopolisation of
conventional media in the past, which made it the only source of public information, to the
side. This invariably means that using social media platforms to inform the public about
the COVID- 19 preventive measures in Edo State will go a long way in building the
audience's perception of the disease. This proves that the majority of mainstream media
have internet-based channels that can be easily accessed, but it cannot be the same in
information dissemination, where many of these various platforms can share such
messages in the case of Facebook. Omosotomhe & Olley (2018) carried out research to
determine where interpersonal media fit into modern credit reporting. The new media
theory served as its foundation. The finidngs showed that majority of the journalists agreed
19
that interpersonal media was an essential tool for gathering and disseminating information
and that it had a substantial impact on many facets of journalism, including expanding
audience reach and boosting coverage.
Orji & Okolie (2021) conducted research on how Imo state residents perceive social
media's ability to raise awareness of government COVID-19 preventive measures. The
findings showed that Imo residents have a high level of awareness of government COVID-
19 pandemic prevention measures. Thus, the researchers came to the conclusion that social
media had a significant impact on spreading awareness of the government's COVID-19
preventive measures, but it had no effect on respondents' adoption of those measures.
In 2020, Oke, Meribe & Iwok examined how young people in Uyo metropolis
perceived social media health-related information. A survey of 120 young people (aged 18
to 35) in Uyo metropolis was conducted using stratified and purposive sampling techniques
and the study's foundation was perception theory. According to the research, young people
in Uyo typically use social media to access health-related information. Some young people
believe that the health-related information they access through social media is reliable and
authentic, while others believe it to be false and deceptive.
The study was anchored on perception theory and health belief model. As noted by
Asemah (2009), a theory is simply seen as a set of interrelated construct (concepts),
definitions and prepositions that present a systematic view of a phenomenon or explanation
and prediction of a phenomenon. The perception theory was introduced by Berelson &
Steiner (1964) and the theory holds that mass communicators want audiences to pay
attention to their messages and make appropriate changes in attitudes or beliefs or produced
the desired behavioural responses (Anaeto, Onabajo & Osifeso, 2008; Asemah, Nwammuo
& Nwam-Uwaoma, 2017). According to the perception theory, interpreting messages
involves a complex process, making it possible for the objective to be challenging. This
theory becomes relevant to this study because the residents of Edo state who have access
to social media messages on government preventive measures about COVID-19 may
interpret the messages differently, depending on the structural and functional influences
that affect their perception as at the time of exposure to these messages.
Gamble & Gamble (2002, p. 83) define perception as "the procedure of selecting,
organising and subjectively interpreting sensory data in some significant ways that allow
us to get sound information of all from our world." It is some process of merchandise of
planning and interpreting sounds (sensory information from external materials or events)
into meaningful signs (Chandler & Munday, 2011). The frames of reference are a result of
what we are aware of and how our senses— sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch respond
to environmental cues (Watson & Hill, 2006). Akpan (2011) emphasises three crucial
aspects of perception; namely: observing, organising and interpreting. A phenomenon can
only be understood in terms of perception. Communication depends on it. Understanding
and appreciating why people view a particular idea, innovation or phenomenon differently
is made possible by our understanding of perception. Because perception is unique to you
as a person, it can be said to be relative and subjective. Social media may have influence
the perceptions of health-related information among the Edo state audience. They become
20
aware of this information, organise it into a coherent and meaningful pattern (noting), and
draw conclusions from it (interpreting). This suggests that Edo State's audience engages in
social perception, a process whereby social media information is used to explain,
comprehend and form opinions about health.
The health belief model as noted by Becker (1974), cited in Sutton (2001) was made
in the1950s because of a band of social psychologists functioning in the field of public
welfare who were seeking to simplify why many people do not employ health services such
as immunisation and screening. The theory implies that a person's willingness to change
their very own health behaviour is mainly scheduled to their health perceptions. Health
belief model explains how a person may continue to indulge in a bad health habit, despite
of the possible known consequences which may be utilised to some of the viewers of Edo
state on federal government preventive measures about COVID-19. When you have a
health problem or when there is an health issue that affects all, there is an alternative of
making sure you have access to a means of information that can help to provide the best
way to handle such health emergencies which is where the use of social media comes in to
help sensitise about the preventive measures about the COVID-19 disease which can be
applied to the Edo State residents.
Methodology
The researchers used survey research design. Survey research technique focuses on a
representative sample derived from the entire population of study and was adopted as the
quantitative design. Babbie (1973), cited in Asemah, Gujbawu, Ekhareafo & Okpanachi
(2012) says survey research is very necessary when a researcher intends to collect data on
occurrences or happenings that may not be observed directly. The population of this study
consists of three towns in Edo State; these include Auchi, Ekpoma and Benin. The
population of Auchi is 62,907, Ekpoma is 83,822 and that of Benin is 1,781,999. The
population figures were retrieved from the World Population Review (2021). Therefore,
the population of the study is 1,928,728. The researchers adopted the Cochran 1963 sample
size determination formula to determine the sample size. The formula is:
Where:
e is the desired level of precision (i.e. the margin of error),
p is the (estimated) proportion of the population which has the attribute in question,
q is 1 – p.
1. p=0.5
q=0.5
z=1.96
e=0.05
21
2. n=no/1+(no-1)/N
3. no=(1.96)2 (0.5) (0.5)/(0.05)2=384.16=384
4. n=384/(1+(383/ 1, 928, 728) =383.9=384
Therefore, a sample size of 384 was drawn from this study. The data obtained in
this study were analysed quantitatively. The data from the questionnaire were analysed
using percentage frequency tables, mean score response analysis was performed on the
research items.

Table 1: Responses on Knowledge of COVID-19
Variables Frequency Percent
Yes 338 88
No 46 12
Total 384 100
The data reveal that 88% of the respondents said they were aware of COVID-19 preventive
measures. This shows that majority of the people are aware of COVID-19 prevent
measures.
Table 2: Responses on access to Social Networking Sites

Strongly agree 164 42.7
Agree 164 42.7
Disagree 53 13.8
Strongly disagree 3 0.8
Total 384 100
The data in the above table show that majority of the respondents have access to social
networking sites. This is based on the fact that majority of the respondents answered to that
effect (85%).
Table 3: Percentage Analysis on the Extent of Access to social networking sites

Very low extent 6 1.6
Low extent 32 8.3
Average 98 25.5
High extent 166 43.2
Very high extent 82 21.4
Total 384 100
The results indicate that the respondents make extensive use of social media. This is due
to the fact that 64.5 percent of the respondents answered in that direction.
22
Table 4: Percentage Analysis on social networking sites mostly accessed

Facebook 55 14.3
WhatsApp 76 19.8
Telegram 114 29.7
Instagram 107 27.9
2go 24 6.3
LinkedIn 7 1.8
Others 1 0.3
Total 384 100
According to the information in the table above, most respondents use Facebook,
WhatsApp, Telegram and Instagram. This is due to the fact that more people than others
used the aforementioned social media networking sites.
Table 5: Percentage Analysis of Edo Government using Social Media for Preventive
Measures of COVID-19
SD D UN A SA Mean Score
Edo State Government uses social media
for creating awareness on COVID-19 1.3 9.1 19.3 48.7 21.7 3.67
preventive measures.
5- Strongly Agree (SA), 4- Agree (A), 3-Undecided (UN), 2- Disagree (D), 1- Strongly
Disagree (SD).
The percentage item analysis of research items measuring the Edo State Government's use
of social media to spread awareness of COVID-19 preventive measures was shown in table
5. Majority of the respondents believe that the Edo State Government used social media to
create awareness about COVID-19 preventive measures. This is based on the mean score
of 3.67.
Table 6: Percentage Analysis of the Extent to which Edo Government use Social
Media to create Awareness on Preventive Measure of COVID-19
Very lowLow Average High Very high
extent extent extent extent
Extent to which Edo State Government uses
social media for creating awareness about 8.1 14.1 28.4 30.7 18.8
COVID-19
The data in the above table show that Edo State Government used social media to spread
information about COVID-19. Majority of the respondents, according to the mean score of
2.93 think that the Edo State Government used social media to create awareness of COVID-
19.
23
Table 7: Responses on Compliance with Social Media COVID-19 Preventive

Measures Campaigns
SD D A SA
I comply with the social media COVID-19
1.8 11.7 19 67.5
preventive measures campaigns
I wear face/nose mask 5.7 18.2 38 38
I practise social distancing 9.6 17.4 39.1 33.9
I wash my hands regularly 6.8 16.7 37.8 38.8
I have avoided large crowd 5.7 10.2 42.4 41.7
4- Strongly Agree (SA), 3- Agree (A), 2- Disagree (D), 1- Strongly Disagree (SD)
The respondents' average score of 2.81 indicates that they had followed the COVID-19
preventive measures’ campaigns on social media. Majority of the respondents, according
to the mean score of 3.45, practised social distance, washed their hands frequently and
shunned large crowds.
The findings showed that majority of the respondents either use one type of social media
or the order. The data showed that the respondents mostly use Facebook, WhatsApp,
Telegram and Instagram. It was observed that the residents were highly good exposed to
COVID- 19 preventive messages from Edo state government via social multimedia. The
rude score of 3. 67 shows that majority of the participants were of the viewpoint that Edo
Local government used social media for creating awareness about COVID- 19 preventive
procedures. Furthermore, the mean score of 2.93 shows that the majority of respondents
think the Edo State government used social media to spread awareness about COVID-19.
It was further found that Edo state government used Facebook, WhatsApp,
Instagram and Telegram to spread awareness about COVID-19 preventive measures. This
is consistent with earlier research that indicated Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, and
Telegram were the most popular social media platforms in Edo. The finding is in line with
Oke, Meribe & Iwok's (2020) finding that Uyo youth typically use social media to access
health-related information. Some young people believe that the health-related information
they access through social media is reliable and authentic, while others believe it to be false
and deceptive. Healthcare professionals continue to be the most reliable sources of health
information, according to Oke, Meribe & Iwok (2017), even though people can learn more
about their medical conditions by accessing health-related information on social media.
It was also found that social media are successful tools for disseminating COVID-
19 safety measures. The results also showed that the respondents thought the campaign
was excellent. This is based on the fact that the vast majority of respondents gave that
response. The mean score of 3.30 shows that the majority of respondents thought it was
excellent. The discovery also demonstrated how well-coordinated the Edo State
government's COVID-19 preventive measures messages were on social media. This is
based on the fact that 2.91 concurred that the Edo State government's social media
messages promoting COVID-19 preventive measures were well-packaged to effect
24
positive attitudinal change. The implication is that Edo residents were pleased with the
government's use of social media to spread awareness of COVID-19 preventive measures.
Majority of the respondents believed that Edo State's COVID-19 preventive measure
messages on social media had increased their awareness of the risks associated with the
disease.
The data also showed that they have complied with COVID-19 preventive measures
as a result of being exposed to social media messages about it. The average score of 3.45
indicates that face/nose wear is generally accepted among respondents. The results also
revealed that the majority of respondents now engage in social isolation and that during the
COVID-19 lockdown, respondents regularly washed their hands and avoided crowded
areas. The results are consistent with the perception theory which is one of the study's
theoretical frameworks. According to the theory, people interpret things and base their
perceptions on those interpretations. It implies that message interpretation is a complicated
process and that achieving the objective might be challenging. A meaningful and coherent
picture of the world is created through the complex process of selection, organisation and
interpretation of sensory stimulation (Berelson & Steiner, 1964). Residents of Edo
interpreted the social messages as positive; so, the messages about COVID-19 preventive
measures have a positive impact on them. Additionally, it is consistent with the health
belief model, which states that a person's perceptions of their health are the main factor
influencing their willingness to alter health behaviors.
This suggests that attitudinal change can be positively impacted by social media
health communication. As a result, social media is altering the global communication
culture (Oke, Meribe & Iwok, 2017). They are generally regarded as a collection of online
activities that support online users' interpersonal interactions, information sharing,
teamwork, and crowdsourcing. Over two thirds of adult internet users worldwide are now
active on social networking sites, according to (Mander, 2015).
Conclusion and Recommendations

According to the results of the study the government of Edo State used social media to
create awareness about COVID-19 preventive measures. Facebook, WhatsApp and
Telegram were the primary social media platforms used by Edo state residents to receive
government messages about COVID-19 preventive measures. Even though the people had
access to such messages, the compliance was very low. Thus, the following
recommendations are hereby given:
The study based on the results and conclusion, the following recommendations are
hereby given:
1. As a means of increasing knowledge and exposure to COVID-19 preventive
measures, health professionals should be trained, retrained and encouraged to use
social media.
2. Edo state government needs to re-orient people in Edo State based on their use of
social media tools for COVID-19.
25
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on social media health. Related information. The Nigeria Journal of
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of Ikeja and Lagos Island in Lagos State, Nigeria. Novena Journal of
Communication, 9, 193-199.
Omosotomhe, S. I. & Olley, W. O. (2018). Utilisation of social media for newsgathering
and dissemination by journalists in Edo State, Nigeria. The Nigerian Journal of
Communication, 15(2), 375-390.
Orji, U. F. & Okolie, U. R. (2021). Perception of the effectiveness of social media in
creating awareness on government COVID-19 preventive measures among
residents of Imo State. Pandemic in 21ST Century: Multi-dimensional approaches.
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State.2ND College of Management and Social Sciences, 2021Conference.
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contract-in-Lagos
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of the Social and Behavioural Sciences.
Utami, D. (2021). The use of social media in risk communication during COVID-19: An
analysis of stakeholders’ messages on social media (Doctoral Dissertation,
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Use of Social Media in Risk Communication during COVID-19: An Analysis of
Stakeholders’ Messages on Social Media. Retrieved from
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London: Honder Arnold.
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https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/cities/nigeria.
27
CHAPTER THREE
A DISCOURSE ON SELECT THEORIES OF PERSUASION AND
PERCEPTION
Isaac Imo-Ter Nyam PhD & Emmanuel Olurotimi Olubodede
Introduction
A theory is a reasoned explanation of why particular actions lead to certain outcomes
(Christians, Glasser, McQuail, Nordenstreng & White, 2009). According to Rudner, cited
in Asemah, Nwammuo & Nkwam-Uwaoma (2017) ‘‘a theory is a systematically related
set of statements, including some laws like generalisations that are empirically testable and
the sort of systematic relatedness is deductive relatedness.’’This definition is the most
suitable in the context of this writing. Therefore, the review of persuasion and perception
is understood in this context.
Cherry (2020) avers that it is a symbolic process in which communicators try to
convince other people to change their attitudes or behaviours regarding an issue through
the transmission of a message in an atmosphere of free choice (as cited in Asemah, Kente
& Nkwam-Uwaoma, 2020). Persuasion appears to deal specifically with efforts towards
acceptance of an idea, person(s), and event(s). Persuasion is very important in life. It is at
the core of media messages. For instance, persuasive messages are at the core of
development communication, public relations and advertising, to mention, but a few. In
view of the value of persuasion, several social scientific theories have been postulated.
Petty & Brinol (2008, p.137) in affirmation goes further to say that:
Persuasion is everywhere, playing an essential role in politics, religion,
psychotherapy, education, and day-to-day social interactions. Given that
people attempt to influence others and are also targets of influence, they have
learned something about how persuasion works thorough trial and error.
It is in the light of this that persuasion theories are very popular among
communication scholars. The theories of persuasion are logical constructs that tend to
predict the variables constantly needed for any message to be influential and efficient. The
source credibility theory seems to be the first attempt at persuasion studies. According to
Anaeto, Onabajo & Osifeso (2008, pp.76), it was Hovland and Weiss, who in 1951,
“…designed an experiment in which the same messages were presented to some people as
coming from a high-credibility source and to other people as coming from low-credibility
source.” The experiment enabled the researchers to understand how the “source-variable”
alone enhanced persuasion. The postulation is, therefore, thus: once an information source
is considered credible, the tendency to become persuaded increases.
The major setback of the source credibility theory is that other variables were not
emphasised even as further research showed that source credibility is not the only major
factor. Since it appeared to be at the beginning of persuasion studies, it would become
eminent that other studies would follow. Close tied to the source credibility theory is the
learning theory. In fact, the principles of the learning theory were also the earliest attempts
28
at understanding persuasion, starting since 1930 (Hovland, Janis & Kelley, 1953, cited in
Petty & Brinol, 2008, p.138; Anaeto et al 2008, p.85). The main components of the learning
theory were efforts at facilitating attention, comprehension and then learning. Thus, while
the theory insisted on the credibility of the message, anything that would enhance attention
and comprehension would ultimately lead to attitude change because of the learning that
would have taken place; but “…anything that would disrupt those learning processes would
be bad” (Petty & Brinol, 2008, p.138). The progress made on persuasion theories were
because of inadequacies of what was considered the single effect, process, and
consequences.
In thinking that once certain factors like attention, comprehension, consequences
(fear) and source credibility were intact, the message would be effective, persuasion studies
based on the earlier paradigm of Learning Theory soon become compounded with
inadequacies and complications. In this regard, Petty & Brinol (2008, p.138) argue that
first, any one variable (example: an expert source, fear) was shown to be good for
persuasion in some studies but was found to be detrimental in others. Second, here was no
compelling support for a single mechanism by which persuasion worked. Third,
researchers have struggled for decades to determine why attitude changes sometimes
seemed to be relatively durable and impactful (example: guiding behaviour) but were rather
transitory and inconsequential at other times. To this end, other theories of persuasion
“…evolved to account for multiple effects, processes and consequences.” As a result of the
argument and the ensuring duality of persuasion theories, many other studies and theories
followed. Today, due to the foregoing positions, there are several persuasion theories. It is
in respect of the situation that Petty & Brinol (2008, p.140) recalls that:
[a]s researchers found more evidence that variables could produce multiple
and opposite effects and that multiple processes could underlie these diverse
outcomes, the time was ripe for new theories that could accommodate these
findings. Thus, the 1980s saw the emergence of several such theories in
social psychology generally and in the field of persuasion….
Thus, more theories of persuasion are considered herein as enunciated by the like of
Anaeto et al (2008, pp.77-84). However, as earlier influence of Kelman (1958), in Petty
& Brinol (2008, p.140) still appears to persist, many of the contemporary theories of
persuasion tend to deal with persuasion in terms of message internalisation (acceptance of
the message arguments) versus message identification (agreeing because one likes the
message source). Notably, persuaded changes in the two contexts (message internalisation
and message identification), were deemed real. “…in the former case, the change would
persist in the absence of the source, whereas in the latter case, attitude change depended on
one’s continued liking of the source.” Example, message internalisation can be seen in the
way mobile telecommunication companies in countries such Nigeria promote relative
services and products -wherein the message is often crafted to give the impression of
‘interest of the customer’ (Nyam & Olubodede, 2017).
29
Theories of Persuasion
In view of the foregoing, the other theories of persuasion beside the Learning Theory are
briefly reviewed. The theories of persuasion as considered herein are enunciated by Anaeto
et al (2008).
The Fear Appeal Theory: Propounded by Irving Janis and Seymour Feshbach in 1953,
same year as the learning theory, the theory states that once the strong fear appeal is
activated during message dissemination, there would be increased arousal towards greater
attention and comprehension, which in turn, would motivate acceptance of
recommendations embedded in the communication (Hovland et al 1953, in Anaeto et al
2008, p.77). Asemah (2022) notes that fear appeals are intended to arouse fear to the extent
that the only solution to avoid the undesirable situation abide by the prescribed action. The
fear appeal theory fits the message internalisation perspective, which is the acceptance of
the message based on the arguments. Citing Dillard et al (1996); Anaeto et al (2008, p.78)
hint that the fear appeal can be accompanied with other similar emotions like surprise and
anger which can become counterproductive. Using the Aids media campaign, one could
perceive how fear-appeal can lead other factors like stigmatisation or negative reaction to
message. This has served as one of the major criticisms of the fear appeal theory.
The Protection Motivation Theory: Theory is structured around the inadequacies of the
fear appeal theory. Postulated by R.W Rogers, the theory assumes that magnitude of
noxiousness; probability of occurrence of the noxious event and the extent of efficacy of
recommendations would all lead to cognitive appraisal which in turn would cause attitude
change. In other words, the attitude change is caused by the need and motivation to protect
self and perhaps, others. The cognitive appraisal enables that to happen. There is no exact
criticism of the theory.
The Attitude Change Theory: Daniel Katz; Irving Sarnoff and Charles McClintock
propounded this theory in 1960, stating that humans are of different rational capacities and
as such are not bound to the same level of attitude change -noting that the same attitude
can have a different motivational basis indifferent people and insisted that except the
psychological needs are understood, there would be constant poor prediction of when and
how change will occur irrespective of persuasive message.
Anaeto et al (2008, pp. 80-81) note that Katz et al (1960) illustrate the instrument,
adjustment or utilitarian function (attitude change persuaded by the need to maximise
rewards and minimise penalties); Ego-defensive function (attitude change persuaded by
need to protect ego from own unacceptable impulses or from knowledge of threatening
forces); the value-expressive function (attitude change due to need for positive expression
of central values); the knowledge function (attitude change due to desire for more and better
knowledge). The implication for these hypotheses is that “…persuasive messages must be
tailored to correspond to the motivation based for which an attitude is held. The attitude
change theory fit into the two perspectives of the message internalisation and message
30
identification. While rewards and punishments are part of message identification, ego-
defence, value-expression and knowledge function are all part message internalisation.
Nevertheless, there is no substantial critique of this theory.
The Information Processing Theory: This theory is the brain output of Williams
McQuire in 1968. The theory states that for messages to lead to attitude change, there are
six strictly succeeding steps that must be considered; they are: the message is
communicated in the first instance; receiver(s) attended to the message; message is
comprehended by receiver(s); conviction; sustenance of new position and expected or
desired behaviour occurs (Anaeto et al 2008, p.81; Asemah, 2011). While the theory is
encompassing (deals with message internalisation and message identification), McQuire
(1976) again presented a summary of the six steps, but expanded them to eight, thus:
exposure, perception, comprehension, agreement, retention, retrieval, decision making and
action. McQuire (1989) further expanded the information processing theory to include
twelve steps thus: exposure; attention; liking; comprehension of what; skill acquisition
towards how; attitude change; memorisation and agreement, information search and
retrieval, deciding bases for retrieval, behaving in accordance with decision, reinforcement
of desired acts and post-behaviour consolidation.
The Behaviour Theory: This theory holds that the extent of influence of any persuasive
message depends on the behaviour of the receiver which is a product of both the
environment and the internal state of mind. The implication of the theory is thus: while the
factors taken care of while communicating a persuasive message may be the same, the
efficacy of the message would vary because individuals rarely react the same way to the
environment, neither do they have equally aligned internal stimulus or pre-action state-of-
mind. The behaviour theory acknowledges the message internalisation (in the form of
internal stimulus) and message identification (in the form of environment or other external
factors) aspects of persuasive communication, emphasis is laid on peculiarities in human
behaviour.
The foregoing does not pretend to be exhaustive of persuasive studies and theories,
as far as the contemporary sense is concerned. This is because persuasion is appearing to
be complex subject and experience, therefore, modern scholars are continuing their exploits
towards more niche theorising and application. This tends to be relevant due to the
expansions and diversification and proliferation of media forms and channels. One
example of this efforts is the elaboration likelihood model (Shrum et al 2012, pp.6-7),
where persuasion is seen in two distinct routes (the central route and the peripheral route),
all referring to attitude changes that occur through different levels of evaluative processing.
Theories of Perception
Démuth (2013, p.7) asserts that “perception after all is one of the basic ways of meeting
reality and for many it actually is the reality. Despite this, it is usually the last thing we
think of in our research.” This statement may be pondered because perception reflects a lot
31
in action to situation, and the reactions to them. Communication is no exception. Indeed,

Démuth (2013, p.7) insists thus: “if we want to learn something about the reality we meet,
we should know something about the way we capture it or how the meeting with reality is
constructed.” Further down the line, Démuth (2013, p.11) argues that the roots of
perception theories lay in cognition. This can well be seen as the ability and experience of
visualising for senses. The position is that perception is about what cognition is, its
conditions, as well as its validity and limits. Other aspects of interest in perception studies
are the mechanisms for acquiring cognition or what determines it (Shrum, Min, Mark &
Tina, 2012).
Of serious concern is the fact that Démuth (2013), just as the persuasion paradigms
of Kelman (1958) in Petty & Brinol (2008, p.140) which talks about message
internalisation (acceptance of the message arguments) and message identification
(agreeing because one likes the message source), also hints that “most thinkers are
convinced that the sources of cognition can be divided into two basic groups according to
whether the sources exist within the subject or outside of it” -The internalist and
externalists. The former leading towards the concept of a priori (pre-existing residuals of
knowledge considered to be within the subject prior upon new information), while the latter
is hinged on tabula rasa (information imprinted on a blank-us).
Démuth (2013, p.13) has this more to say:
Both basic theories — externalism and internalism — face the question of
how to explain the awareness of new reality in our consciousness, how
information (external or internal) is elicited or, in other words — how we
meet the world. Some critical philosophers are convinced that the world is
a sum of information surrounding the subject. What we call the world is
nothing else, but a set of various perceptions, feelings and ideas.
It would be noted herein that these two perspectives tend to constantly shape or
influence thinking on perception theories. The study and application of theories of
perception is vital to mass communication because mass media messages and other forms
communication are capable of complex interpretation, some of which may be at variance
with the original intention of the sender. In the light of this position, Anaeto et al (2008,
p.66) opine that mass communicators want audiences to pay attention towards desired
behavioural outcome. However, perception theories imply that achieving desired influence
via “mere” media messages is not as simple as it seems.
Anaeto et al (2008, pp.65-73) sustain the following as theories of perception. The theories
are reviewed here under, in a descending order, thus:
The Uses and Gratifications Theory: Anaeto et al (2008, p.71); Yaroson & Asemah
(2008) note that it may be understood that while the uses and gratifications theory deals
more about the value of media type and content, the entire postulation hinges on the
audiences’ ability to discern. And use media and media contents to their oriental and
peculiar advantage, hence perception. The theory was propounded in 1974, by Elihu Katz,
Jay Blumler and Michael Gurevitch.
32
The Schema Theory: Fiske and Kinder propounded the Schema Theory in 1981, stating
that the challenge and complexity posed by information interpretation forces people into
cognitive economy via simplified mental models. The Schema Theory, therefore, simply
implies that perception the result of a seemingly simplified process meaning making, which
otherwise would make cognition difficult.
Media Effects Theories

Media effect theories tend to be among the most interesting, but controversial discuss in
media studies. At the tune of 1920s through 1930s, media effects studies become popular
due to the feeling and desire to use media messages to influence public opinion in political
systems (Sherry, 2004).
Suspicion that media have some effects led Lasswell, in 1948 to develop sustaining
model of Who-Says what-On which channel-To whom-With what effect? Much of the
theories of media effects that would follow, were directed at two dominant positions –the
all-powerful media theory (hypothermic needle theory) and the limited media effects
theory. According to Sambe (2005, p.208), it was after the First and Second World of Wars,
that a special study was funded to investigate media effects. One of the studies, headed by
Herbert Blumer, concentrating on the effect of movies on children, concluded that media
content has a direct effect on people. This was to become the hypodermic needle theory of
media effects. However, by 1960, other research done by the like of Joseph Klapper argued
that “mass communication does not ordinarily serve as a necessary and sufficient cause of
audience effect, but rather, functions through a nexus of mediating factors,” hence the
beginning of the limited media effects theory.
Nevertheless, the Cantrail Study in the United States of America concluded that
nothing was sacrosanct about media effects because the individual’s level of exposures and
knowledge prior to exposure to media content was far more fundamental. Worthy would it
be to recall that while the media may not absolutely or directly affect audiences, the media,
nonetheless, “…exert great impact on their audiences/receivers” (Sambe, 2005, p.209).
Further positions about media effects studies tend to go beyond nature perspectives and
look more into the nurture perspective, thereby insinuating that media studies are a more
complex subject than hitherto thought (Sherry, 2004, p.84). In view of the foregoing,
Sambe (2005, pp.215-217) enunciates media effects theories into four categories: magic
bullet theory (hypodermic needle), active audience theory, medium theory and cultural
studies. The magic bullet postulates the audiences as passive and unrestraint to the
influence of the mass media. This seemingly broad classification, have the likes of the
following:
Status Conferral Theory: The theory was propounded by Paul Lazarsfield and Robert
Merton in 1948. It says that by regularly featuring some persons, the media automatically
confers status on some persons.
33
Gate Keeping Theory: It was propounded by Kurt Lewin in 1947 and it states that media
content is automatically understood by audiences according to the professional and
discretional censorship of content editors and as such would only be interpreted as such.
The Stimulus-Response Theory: The theory was propounded in 1957 by B.F. Skinner,
stating that media information is powerful enough to directly influence audiences for the
benefit of those who “construct” such messages.
The Knowledge Gap Theory: -It presupposes that as media output and access grows, so
are the audiences’ tendencies to be informed. This implies that those accessing more media
contents are automatically more knowledgeable than those accessing less media content.
The theory insinuates that economic means to access media implies a disposition to be
more informed; hence, a knowledge gap that persists until satiation point for those with
earlier access and contact with media content. The theory was postulated by Tichenor,
Donohue & Olien, in 1970.
Agenda Setting Theory: This theory by McCombs and Shaw, proposed in 1972 says that
through priming, audiences tend to consider important, the issues most reported by the
mass media (Anaeto et al 2008, pp.86-111).
Another broad classification is the active audience theory, which has the following
theories:
Uses and Gratifications: It is already mentioned under perception theories, but it also
relatse to how audiences are not just docile in the face of exposure to media content
(Sambe, 2005, p.217).
Diffusion of Innovation Theory: Enunciated by Everett Rogers, the theory states that
media information leads to varying levels of adoption of new ideas- from innovator to early
adoptors, to early majority and finally, to late majority (Sambe, 2005, p.217).
Dependency Theory: It says that audience members will only depend on media contents
to meet certain, but not all information needs. The theory was enunciated by Sandra –Ball-
Roacheach and Melvin De Fleur in 1976 (Anaeto et al 2008, p.96).
The Catharsis Theory: The theory states that audiences only react to media content
towards relieving personal frustrations accumulated over the course of daily life. The
theory was propounded by De Fleur, Ball-Rocheach, Burgoon & Rufner, in 1975 through
1978 (Anaeto et al 2008, p.106).
Aggressive Cues Theory: The theory, which was propounded by De Fleur, Ball-
Rocheach, Bandura, Berkowitz through the years -1958; 1969 and 1975, states that daily
34
life events that may already be frustrating result in character hints and cues that media
content may only serve to reactivate.
Medium Theory is also a broad category of media effects theories, under which
include the likes of:
Technological Determinism Theory: This theory by Marshall McLuhan states that the
medium is the message, meaning the type of medium determines the level of media reach
and influence, which could be political, economic, and socio-cultural.
Sense Extension Theory: Propounded by M. McLuhan in 1965, the theory states that the
media is an extension of the physical environment, an audience does indulge in media not
just for the content, but for what is termed “hot” or “cool” media environment (Anaeto et
al 2008, p.99).
The fourth in the line of the foregoing broad classification is the cultural studies
perspective, which contain the following:
The Critical Theory: That power social structures and institutions use media towards
hegemonic interests (Sambe, 2005, pp.218-219).
The Cultivation Theory: Propounded by Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M. &
Signorielli, N. in 1976, the theory states that media exposure, especially, exposure to
television serves as vital acculturation tool (Anaeto et al 2008, p.103).
The Social Learning Theory: It says that media serves as an extension of the socialisation
and learning process. It is like the reinforcement theory of Joseph Klapper (1960) which
says that the audiences are likely to learn more when media content is like already learned
habits, showing rewards and punishments in the process. The social learning theory was
propounded by Albert Bandura in 1977 (Anaeto et al 2008, p.102).
Note: While the foregoing re-classification may not be mutually exclusive, the
classification may help refresh the perspective and limit the possible confusion that perhaps
is associated with the several theories of media effects that have been debated over the
years.
References
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CHAPTER FOUR
INFLUENCE OF TELEVISION CONTINENTAL COVID-19

CAMPAIGN ON THE HEALTH BEHAVIOUR OF THE RESIDENTS
OF IKEJA, LAGOS STATE, NIGERIA
Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD; Olaide Zainab Cole & Stella Chinyere Enyindah, PhD
Introduction
Health communication is a key strategy to inform the public about health concerns and to
maintain important health issues on the public agenda. The use of the mass media to
disseminate useful health information to the public, increases awareness of specific aspects
of individual and collective health, as well as, importance of health in development, cannot
be over-emphasised. Health communication is directed towards improving the health status
of individuals and populations. Research shows that theory-driven mediated health
promotion programming can put health on the public agenda, reinforce health messages,
stimulate people to seek further information and in some instances, bring about sustained
healthy lifestyles (Glik, 2004, cited in Asemah, 2011).
Coronavirus disease originated first in Wuhan Hubei province in China as a health
crisis that struck the global community causing dismal repercussions; it began late
December 2020, when China reported a cluster of pneumonia-like diseases in a family
setting, SARS-CoV-2 has spread fast all over the world to involve over 200 countries,
making itself a pandemic. The illness according to scientists is caused by the virus strain
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and has affected people
in more than 173 countries (Raluca, Veronica-Oana & Alexandra, 2020, cited in Egwuaba
& Nnatuanya, 2021). This made World Health Organisation (WHO, 2020) declares the
illness as a global pandemic because of its increased morbidity and mortality rate. Globally,
over 10.2 million have been infected with the illness, with 5.15 million recoveries and
502,000 deaths as at 28th June 2020 (OurWorldinData, 2020, cited in Egwuaba &
Nnatuanya, 2021).
It is the responsibility of the media to inform people living in every echelon of the
society about the happenings within and without and this in turn, will help members of the
society to make valid judgements. According to Poopla (2015, cited in Akpoveta, 2021),
the mass media provide information about the meaning and significant of events in the
society by making it possible for millions of people throughout the world to have access to
information. The mass media are able to set their schema to produce the desired result
within the society for the people living in that specific society. According to Maxwell &
McCombs, media (mainly the news media) are not only successful in telling us what to
think but they are mainly successful in telling us what to think about (McComb, Maxwell,
2005, cited in Akpoveta, 2021). Perception plays essential part in making some issues
paramount and some unimportant. This may be due to some reasons, sometimes perception
are affected by so many other things.
Through the mass media, we get to be educated. The mass media generally have
messages that are meant for instruction and teaching. The mass media broaden and deepen
one's perspectives. They give knowledge and skills. Information is central in all forms of
37
human activity no matter the field, be it medicine, agriculture, tourism and engineering.
There is the need for exchange of information to ensure completion of tasks. Inefficiency
results where this exchange of information is slow or there is a break down. For this reason,
information is regarded as a vital resource that needs to be properly developed because it
has boomerang effect on society. Consequently, a society that has poor communication
and information infrastructure perpetually lags behind others that have efficient
information infrastructure. Information technology has spanned beyond the obvious, it
touches on most striking and very important and necessary advances. The media, both
print and electronic, have been in the vanguard of the campaign for creation on awareness
about the deadly coronavirus causing havoc in the entire globe. It, therefore, becomes
pertinent to determine the influence of the coronavirus media campaign on television
continental in Lagos on the residents of Ikeja in Lagos State, Nigeria.
Statement of the Problem

Mass media campaigns are widely used to expose high proportions of large populations to
messages through routine uses of existing media, such as television, radio and newspapers.
Exposure to such messages is, therefore, generally passive. Such campaigns are frequently
competing with factors, such as pervasive product marketing, powerful social norms and
behaviours driven by addiction or habit (Locken, 2014). Several studies have been
conducted on Covid-19 and other health-related studies; for example, Umor & Amangala
(2021) conducted research on the application of radio as a reaching tool during COVID-19
lockdown. Also, Egwuaba & Nnatuanya (2021), did a study on COVID-19 pandemic and
health seeking behaviour among Awka-South residents, Anambra State, South-East,
Nigeria.
Due to the novelty of this virus, there are little researches on the causes, vaccines,
preventive measures and theoretical applicability to the virus. During this early period,
many studies have been published exploring the epidemiology, causes, clinical
manifestation, diagnosis, prevention and control of the novel coronavirus. Thus far, most
studies have focused on the epidemiology and potential causes. It is, however, worthy to
note that none of the above studies delved into the influence of media campaigns on the
audience. This has thus created a research gap in relation to the novel virus. This research
intends to cover the aforementioned research gaps as studies in this domain are urgently
needed to minimise the impact of the outbreak and to create new theories for better
understanding of the virus. This is the gap this study fills. Therefore, this study was
motivated by the need to determine the influence of television continental COVID-19
messages on the residence of Ikeja, Lagos State, Nigeria.

1. Determine the extent of exposure to TV Continental COVID-19 messages among
Ikeja residents.
2. Find out how Ikeja residents perceive TV Continental COVID-19 Messages.
3. Determine the influence of TV Continental COVID-19 programme on the health
behaviour of Ikeja residents.
38
Conceptual Review and Review of Related Literature

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by a newly discovered
coronavirus. Most people infected with the COVID-19 virus will experience mild to
moderate respiratory illness and recover without requiring special treatment. Older people
and those with underlying medical problems like cardiovascular disease, diabetes, chronic
respiratory disease, and cancer are more likely to develop serious illness (World Health
Organisation, 2021). The best way to prevent and slow down transmission is to be well-
informed about the COVID-19 virus, the disease it causes and how it spreads. Protect
yourself and others from infection by washing your hands or using an alcohol based rub
frequently and not touching your face (World Health Organisation, 2021). The COVID-
19 virus spreads primarily through droplets of saliva or discharge from the nose when an
infected person coughs or sneezes, so it is important that you also practice respiratory
etiquette (for example, by coughing into a flexed elbow (World Health Organisation,
2021).
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is defined as illness caused by a novel
coronavirus called severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2;
formerly called 2019-nCoV), which was first identified amid an outbreak of respiratory
illness cases in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China (Cennimo, 2021). Pneumonia caused
by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection emerged in
Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China in December 2019. By Feb. 11, 2020, the World
Health Organisation (WHO) officially named the disease resulting from infection with
SARS-CoV-2 as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). (Shi, Wang, Xiao-peng, Jing-
wen, Zheng, Zhu, Zheng, Yang & Chen, 2020). Coronavirus disease is an infectious disease
caused by a newly discovered coronavirus. The virus belongs to the coronaviridae family
in the Nidovirales order as corona represents crown-like spikes on the outer surface of the
virus; consequently, it was named as a coronavirus by the International Committee on
Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) (Cui, Li, Shi, 2019; Lai, Shih, Ko, Tang & Hsueh, 2020,
cited in Nwaoboli, Chukwu, Arijeniwa & Asemah, 2021 ).
Sequel to that, in December 2019, Wuhan in China experienced an outbreak of a
novel coronavirus that killed more than eighteen hundred and infected over seventy
thousand individuals within the first fifty days of the epidemic (Adnan et al 2020, cited in
Nwaoboli et al 2021).
Nigeria had its first fatality of COVID-19 on 23rd March 2020. To manage the
pandemic in Nigeria, the Director General of the Nigeria Centre for Disease Control
(NCDC) Dr. Chike Ihekweazu was one of ten global health leaders invited by the World
Health Organisation to visit China and understudy their response approach which some
were implemented in Nigeria. Furthermore, the Nigerian government provided an initial
intervention fund of fifteen billion naira (N15b). In addition, a Presidential Task Force
(PTF) was set up to develop a workable National Response Strategy reviewed on a daily
basis as the requirements changed. In the same vein, the president of Nigeria, Muhammadu
Buhari on March 29, 2020 ordered the cessation of all movements in Lagos, Ogun and the
FCT for an initial period of 14 days with effect from 11pm on Monday, 30th March 2020.
Beside the total movement restriction in the aforementioned states, the federal government
declared a suspension of all academic activities with effect from March 23, 2020; all civil
servants from grade 1-12 were asked to work from home; and non-essential commodity
39
sellers were requested to lock them their stores as failure to comply to the order required
certain penalties (Nwaoboli et al 2021).
Health communication encompasses several areas, including edutainment or enter-
education, health journalism, interpersonal communication, media advocacy,
organisational communication, risk communication, social communication and social
marketing. In this respect, health communication becomes an increasingly important
element to achieving greater empowerment of individuals and communities (Glik, 2004).
Communication about health in the popular media comprise both planned and unplanned
content, which has the potential to communicate positive, neutral or negative health
messages to the public. Planned messages follow specific strategies for design and
placement and are intended to change public beliefs, attitudes and behaviours (Glik, 2004,
cited in Asemah, 2012). Although, the power of the news media to reach and influence
large number of persons is indisputable, news media credibility is often criticized (Glik,
2004, cited in Asemah, 2012).
Health communication describes the process of passing information to the public,
to create awareness about health issues. This implies that health communication plays a
significant role in the society. This perhaps explains why Nwabueze (2010) describes
health communication as the process of using or adopting communication strategies to
enlighten the public on health related issues or matters and influence individual,
government or community decisions that positively affect or impact on health.
Communications about health in the popular media comprise both planned and unplanned
content, which has the potential to communicate positive, neutral or negative health
messages to the public. Planned messages follow specific strategies for design and
placement and are intended to change public beliefs, attitudes and behaviours (Glik, 2004,
cited in Asemah, 2012).
Asemah (2011, p. 49) notes that “the essence of using the media for campaign is
that it is believed that the mass media are persuasive in nature; they can be used to convince
the audience to accept a particular idea, whether from the government or individuals” and
“this is usually done by designing and presenting messages primarily to convince audience-
members to support their argument.” Ashonibare (2014, p.32, cited in Asemah, 2011) notes
that “what is emphasised by the media is what the society prioritises.’’ The convergence
of the internet with traditional media has only made the reach of the media wider and faster.
Thus, media campaigns remain a vital tool for information dissemination and attitude
change. Media campaigns are widely recognised as useful public health tools, particularly
given that mass media campaigns can, by themselves, change health behavior without the
need for multiple channels of communication (Apollonia & Mallone, 2009). The mass
media are intensively employed in public health. Mass media campaigns have long been a
tool for promoting public health (Noar, 2006, cited in Asemah, 2011) being widely used to
expose high proportions of large populations to messages through routine uses of existing
media, such as television, radio and newspapers. Exposure to such messages is, therefore,
generally passive (Wakefield, 2010). Such campaigns are frequently competing with
factors, such as pervasive product marketing, powerful social norms, and behaviours driven
by addiction or habit.
Media campaigns can be of short duration or may extend over long periods. They
may stand alone or be linked to other organised programme components, such as clinical
or institutional outreach and easy access to newly available or existing products or services,
40
or may complement policy changes (Loken, 2014). The great promise of mass media
campaigns lies in their ability to disseminate well-defined behaviourally-focused messages
to large audiences repeatedly; over time, in an incidental manner and at a low cost per head
(Loken, 2014). Mass media campaigns are widely used to expose high proportions of large
populations to messages through routine uses of existing media, such as television, radio
and newspapers. Active involvement with communication is related to greater amounts of
information processing and involvement, when an issue is positively associated with
information-seeking related to that topic.
Nwaoboli et al (2021) examined the application of the status conferral theory of the
mass media on coronavirus campaign in Benin City. The objectives of the study were to
find out the extent to which Edo State residents were exposed to coronavirus information
on the mass media, x-ray Edo State residents’ perception of coronavirus due to mass media
status conferral on the virus and to ascertain the degree to which the mass media have
conferred status on Coronavirus in Edo State. The research method was the survey; the
questionnaire was the research instrument. The findings study showed that the mass media
conferred a great status on COVID-19 in Benin City through its recurrent reportage about
the virus, but that despite the status conferral of the media on the virus, some Benin City
residents still doubt the truism of the virus. Based on the findings, the researchers
recommended that the mass media should ensure their status conferral on coronavirus is
representative and genuine and that Edo State government should adopt more preventive
measures with the media to avoid further spread of the virus.
Egwuaba & Nnatuanya (2021) sought to ascertain Awka-South residents’
knowledge of illnesses experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic, determine the
barriers toward health-seeking behaviour among Awka-South residents' during the
COVID-19 pandemic, examine Awka-South residents' experience of signs and symptoms
during the COVID-19 pandemic and investigate Awka-South residents’ reaction to
symptoms of illness experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic. The researchers relied
on the health belief model in explaining the social phenomena studied. This study is a
cross-sectional study which utilised the multi-stage sampling techniques procedure to reach
and elicit responses from 600 selected samples. Structured questionnaire was used as the
primary instrument of data collection. Data were analysed using the Statistical Package for
Social Sciences (SPSS) software. The findings showed that majority of the respondents’
experienced one form of signs and symptoms of illness during COVID-19 pandemic. Also,
many of the respondents' experienced headache as major signs and symptoms during the
Covid-19 Pandemic. Furthermore, fear of being diagnosed with COVID-19 was the major
barrier to health-seeking behaviour during COVID-19 pandemic while taking of local herbs
was used by majority of respondents’ during COVID-19 pandemic. Based on the findings,
the study recommended, among others, that health experts as well as all other stakeholders
in the health sector should develop health promotion and intervention programme tailored
toward improving health-seeking behaviour of residents' during and after COVID-19
pandemic.
In a similar vein, Akpoveta (2021) carried out a study on the perception on mass
media reportage of COVID-19 pandemic among students of select tertiary institutions in
Delta State. The study was carried out to determine the perception of mass media reportage
of COVID-19 pandemic among students of select tertiary institutions in Delta State. The
41
survey research design was adopted and the questionnaire was used as instrument for
gathering data. The researcher employed the purposive sampling technique to select Delta
State University (DELSU), Abraka, Delta State Polytechnic (DSPZ), Ozoro and College
of Education (Technical) (CET), Asaba. Thereafter, one faculty or school each was selected
from among the tertiary institutions. The faculty of Social Sciences, School of Business
Studies and School of Vocational Studies were chosen from DELSU, Abraka, DSPZ and
CET, Asaba respectively. The population of these three institutions as gotten from the
institutions’ websites was 37,000 with a population of 22,000 in DELSU, 10,000 in DSPZ
and 5,000 in CET, Asaba. Using the simple random sampling technique, 150, 80 and 70
students were sampled from DELSU, Abraka, DSPZ and CET, Asaba respectively. This
brings the sample size to 300. Findings revealed that the perception of media reportage of
COVID-19 among tertiary institutions’ students in Delta State was very high. It was
recommended that the media should continue their reportage against the dreaded
coronavirus to ensure that the audience continues to observe social distance, avoiding
overcrowding, frequent hand washing among others.
Orji & Okolie (2021) carried out a study on the perception of the effectiveness of
social media in creating awareness on government COVID-19 preventive measures among
residents of Imo State. The study is on the perception of the effectiveness of social media
in creating awareness on government COVID-19 preventive measures among Imo State
residents. The objectives of this study were to find out Imo state residents' level of
awareness of government COVID-19 pandemic preventive measures based on exposure to
social media message; examine the effectiveness of social media in influencing the
behaviour of Imo state residents in embracing government COVID-19 preventive measures
and Identity factors affecting the effectiveness of social media in ensuring Imo State
residents compliance to government COVID-19 preventive measures. The study was
anchored on Health belief Model. Survey research method was employed for this study. A
sample size of 385 was drawn from the population of 5,241,093 using Australian online
calculator. Likert rating scale was used for data collection. Findings revealed that Imo state
residents’ level of awareness of government COVID-19 pandemic preventive measures
based on exposure to social media is high (weighted average mean =3.33). In essence the
finding is that social media is not effective in influencing Imo state residents attitude
towards embracing government COVID-19 preventive measures (weighted average mean
= 2.28). Therefore, the researchers concluded that social media player significant role in
the dissemination of information needed to create awareness on government COVID-19
preventive measures but failed to influence respondents’ adoption of these measures.
Therefore, the researcher(s) recommended that government and stakeholders in health
should endeavour to make social media gadget and network available to all and sundry as
it has proven to be reliable channel of information on outbreak of disease.
The study is anchored on Yale’s persuasion theory. Yale’s attitude change theory is the
social psychology study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change
their attitudes in response to persuasive messages. This approach to persuasive
communication was first studied by Carl Hovland and his colleagues at Yale University in
the 1940s and 1950s and thus, was later on known as the Yale attitude change approach
42
(Anonymous, 2016, cited in Asemah et al 2017). The theory states that there are several
factors that will affect how likely a change of attitude through persuasion can be. The three
most prominent factors are: the source, the message and the audience. The Hovland-Yale
model says the content of the message is an important factor. So, an argument is more
effective if you show both sides of the argument, but then show why your opinion is correct
(Cook, 2012). The foregoing implies that the source or the person who is presenting a
message can influence its persuasiveness. This concept is frequently referred to as source
credibility. It makes sense that we should be more likely to be persuaded by the words of
experts than of those who are clueless. Similarly, if we do not trust the source of a message,
we almost certainly will not be persuaded by that person. Three important areas of
investigation into the content of persuasive messages are message arguments (quality and
quantity of arguments), evidence and fear appeals. Research demonstrates that argument
strength is directly related to attitude change. This means the stronger the argument, the
more the attitude change it creates and the weaker the argument, the less attitude change it
creates. It makes sense that arguments that are stronger or of higher quality, would be more
persuasive than arguments that are weaker or of poorer quality. Messages with more
arguments are more persuasive than those with fewer arguments. The more arguments in a
message, the more likely it will seem to be true or the more likely that a message will
include at least, one argument that appeals to the audience. These factors probably
influence persuasion.
The theory also includes a six step process to changing people’s attitude concerning
an issue; the steps are: presentation, attention, comprehension, yielding, retention and
behaviour. Presentation describes persuasive message; messages presented must be
persuasive and well presented. Secondly, people cannot be persuaded by messages they
ignore, so after the message is presented to the audience, the next step in the persuasion
process is paying attention. Third, the audience must comprehend the message before it
can influence their attitudes; yielding is a term for acceptance, the point at which attitude
change occurs. When a persuasive message succeeds at changing a listener’s attitudes, the
receiver has yielded to the message. The fifth step is retention and it concerns how long
the attitude change lasts. The last step in the process of change is behaviour which is the
ultimate goal of persuasive discourse.
The relevance of the theory to the study cannot be overemphasised; this is because
every communication is aimed at positively affecting the behaviour of the receiver and for
the receivers to be persuaded, the above six steps must be followed. This implies that
campaign messages on COVID-19 must cover the six stages if they must positively
influence the attitude of the audience
Methodology
The researchers employed survey research design. The survey research technique
according to Asemah, Gujbawu, Ekhareafo & Okpanachi (2017) is a method of collecting
and analysing social data through highly structured and often very detailed interview or
questionnaire. The survey method was chosen based on its general acceptance as an
effective method of gathering and analysing opinions and attitudes. Survey was, therefore,
adopted because the study population was too large and it required a representative sample
to be drawn and studied.
43
The population of this study comprises the residents of Ikeja local government in
Lagos State, Nigeria. According to NPC, Ikeja Local Government Area population as at
2006 population census was 317,614. Considering the fact that 2006 census is too a far a
time, the researchers did a projection of 14 years using an annual growth rate of 3.3 percent
(UNDP). The population projection formula provides that:
PP= GP × PI × T
Where:
PP= population projection
Gp= given population
Pi= growth rate
T = 2020-2006 =14
Thus:
Pp= 317,614, Pi= 3.3% or 0.033, T= 14
Pp= 317,614 × 0.033 × 14
Pp= 146,738
Pp= 146,738 + 317,614
Pp= 464,352
Table 1: 2020 Projected Population of Ikeja LGA by Sex

State Local Govt. Male Female Total Projected population
Lagos Ikeja LGA 171,782 145, 832 317,614 464,352
Total 317,614 464,352
Source: Lagos State Ministry of Science and Technology
According to the Lagos Bureau of Statistics and Lagos State Ministry of Science and
Technology (2019) projection of the 2006 census figure, using the annual growth rate of
3.3%, there are four hundred and sixty-four thousand, three hundred and fifty-two
(464,352) people living in Ikeja local government, Lagos State. Nigeria. The following
projection density and also with the use of the Owuamalam (2012) calculator, the study
was able to come with a projected population of 2020 as 464,352. Therefore, the population
of the study is 464,352.
The researchers used Cochran formula to determine the sample size of the study. In
this segment, the researchers opted for the selection of a wieldy and representative sample
size that produced valid results because of the largeness of the population (464,352). A
basic sample size of 384 was drawn using Cochran formula.
A multi-stage sampling technique was used by the researchers. Multi stage
sampling requires a researcher choosing his samples in stages until he gets the required
sample (Asemah et al 2017). In the first stage, random sampling was used to pick 6 areas
in Ikeja. Random sampling offers opportunity for any samples in a population to be chosen.
The areas selected include: Anifowoshe/Ikeja, Ojodu/Omole, Opebi/Allen, GRA/Police
Barrack, Adeniyi Jones/Ogba, Alawusa/Oregun. In the second stage, the researcher used
pick and drop method of simple random sampling to pick three areas out of the six. These
areas are Alawusa/Oregun, Ojodu/Omole, Adeniyi Jones/Ogba. In third stage, the
researchers used systematic sampling to pick house hold with the interval of five in the
select areas; that is, one house hold with the interval of five to choose the next. In the final
44
stage, the researcher used the balloting method of simple random sampling to select or to
pick samples in each of the house hold. This enables the researcher to select the three
hundred and eighty four (384) respondents for the study. The questionnaire was the
instrument used for the study in a bid to elicit accurate response to the research questions.

Three hundred and eighty four (384) copies of questionnaire were distributed to the
respondents. Out of the 384 copies distributed, only 381 copies were retrieved and they
were all found useful. Thus, the presentation and analysis was based on the 381 copies.
This is considered adequate because it represents 94% of the return rate of the
questionnaire.
Table 2: Knowledge of COVID-19 Pandemic

Response Frequency Percentage
Yes 381 100
No 0 0
Total 381 100
The question in table 2 was designed to ascertain whether the respondents have knowledge
of customer relationship. The data show that all the respondents have knowledge of
COVID-19 Pandemic. This is based on the fact that all the respondents ticked yes.
Table 3: Knowledge of Television Continental in Lagos

Yes 381 100
No 0 0
Total 381 100
The question in table 3 was designed to ascertain whether the respondents have knowledge
of television continental. The data show that all the respondents have knowledge know
about television continental. This is based on the fact that all the respondents ticked yes.
Table 4: Responses on Exposure to Television Continental in Lagos

Strongly agree 109 21
Agree 262 69
Undecided 10 10
Disagree 0 0
Strongly disagree 0 0
Total 381 100
The data in the above show that the respondents are exposed to television continental. This
shows that the respondents have the ability to provide answers to the questions on the
subject matter.
45
Table 5: Responses on Exposure to COVID-19 Messages on Television Continental in

Lagos
Agree 96 25
Undecided `19 6
Disagree 59 15
Total 381 100
The question in table 5 was designed to ascertain whether the respondents are exposed to
COVID-19 messages on television continental in Lagos. The data show that the
respondents are exposed to COVID-19 messages. This is based on the fact that majority of
the respondents answered to that effect. Out of the 381 respondents, 44% strongly agreed,
25% agreed, 5% ticked undecided, 15% strongly disagreed, while the remaining 10%
strongly disagreed. This shows that majority of the respondents agreed.
Table 6: Responses on the Extent of Exposure to COVID-19 Messages on Television

Continental in Lagos
Very great extent 100 26
Great extent 133 37
Undecided 28 7
Low extent 80 20
Very low extent 40 10
Total 381 100
Table 6 shows the extent to which the respondents were exposed to COVID-19 messages
on television continental in Lagos. Out of the 381 respondents, 26% said it was to a very
great extent; 35% ticked great extent; 7% ticked undecided; 21% ticked low extent, while
the remaining 10 ticked very low extent. This implies that the respondents were highly
exposed to COVID-19 messages on television continental.
Table 7: Responses on the Perception of the Respondents on the Effectiveness of the

COVID-19 Messages on Television Continental in Lagos
Very effective 177 46
Effective 124 33
Can’t tell 9 2
Less effective 25 7
Not effective 46 12
Total 381 100
The question in table 7 sought to determine the extent of effectiveness of the COVID-19
messages on television continental. The data show that the messages were very effective
46
as majority of the respondents answered to that effect. Out of the 381 respondents, 46%
ticked very effective, 33% ticked effective, 2% ticked can’t tell, 7% went for less effective
while the remaining 12% ticked not effective.
Table 8: Responses on the Level of Satisfaction with the COVID-19 Messages

Highly satisfied 177 46
Satisfied 124 33
Can’t tell 9 2
Less satisfied 25 7
Not satisfied 46 12
Total 381 100
The question in table 8 sought to determine the level of satisfaction with the COVID-19
messages on television continental in Lagos. The data show that the respondents were
highly satisfied with the messages. This is based on the fact that majority of the respondents
answered to that effect (79%).
Table 9: Responses on the Influence of the Messages on the Respondents

Positive 280 73
Negative 66 17
Can’t tell 35 10
Total 381 100
The data in table 9 showed that the COVID-19 messages had positive influence on the
respondents. This is based on the fact that majority of the respondents (73%) answered in
that direction.
Table 10: responses on Compliance with the COVID-19 Messages on Television

Continental in Lagos
Agree 150 39
Undecided Nil Nil
Disagree 70 18
Total 381 100
The question in table 10 was designed to determine whether the respondents comply with
the messages. The data gathered showed that the respondents normally comply with the
messages. This is based on the fact that out of the 381 respondents, 30% strongly agreed,
39% agreed, none ticked undecided, 18% disagreed, while the remaining 13% strongly
disagreed.
47
Table 11: Response on the Extent of Compliance

Very great 186 49
Great 85 22
Undecided 30 8
Low Extent 20 5
Very Low Extent 60 16
Total 381 100
The data in table 11 showed that the extent to which the respondents complied with the
COVID-19 messages was high. This is based on the fact that majority of the respondents
agreed to that effect.
The findings showed that the respondents are exposed to COVID-19 messages. This is
based on the fact that majority of the respondents answered to that effect. Out of the 381
respondents, 44% strongly agreed, while 25% agreed; this shows that majority of the
respondents agreed. The findings also showed that the respondents were highly exposed to
COVID-19 messages on television continental. Audience exposure to media messages
goes a long way in affecting the attitude of the people towards media programmes. The
more people are exposed to media messages, the more they tend to behave positively
towards an action. The finding is in line with Ogbada, Okoduwa & Asemah (2021) who
observed that the people of Edo State were highly exposed to COVID–19 messages.
The data also showed that the messages were very effective as majority of the
respondents answered to that effect. Out of the 381 respondents, 46% ticked very effective,
33% ticked effective, 2% ticked can’t tell, 7% went for less effective while the remaining
12% ticked not effective. The data further showed that the respondents were highly
satisfied with the messages. This is based on the fact that majority of the respondents
answered to that effect (79%). The foregoing findings are in line with Akpoveta (2021)
who notes that the students of tertiary institutions’ in Delta State had positive perception
about COVID-19 media campaigns.
The data further showed that the COVID-19 messages had positive influence on
the respondents. This is based on the fact that majority of the respondents (73%) answered
in that direction. This further shows that the messages were well-crafted; hence, they had
positive influence on the people of Ikeja in Lagos State, Nigeria. This is in line with
Asemah (2012) who observed that the use of the mass media, especially television to
disseminate useful health information to the public, increases awareness of specific aspects
of individuals and collective health, as well as, importance of health in development.
Asemah (2012) further notes that television has a very crucial role to play in the promotion
of health in the rural and areas.
The findings further showed that the messages have positive influence on the
residents of Ikeja. The data gathered showed that the respondents normally comply with
the COVID-19 messages on television continental in Lagos. This is based on the fact that
out of the 381 respondents, 30% strongly agreed, 39% agreed, none ticked undecided, 18%
disagreed, while the remaining 13% strongly disagreed. What this means is that the
48
messages positively affected the health behaviour of the respondents. This perhaps explains
why Inuwa (2007), cited in Ogbada et al (2021) notes that countries where people were
more exposed to modern media have favorable attitudes towards modernisation and
development.
To further buttress the fact that the messages have positive influence on the
respondents, the data in table 10 showed that the extent to which the respondents complied
with the COVID-19 messages was high. This is based on the fact that majority of the
respondents agreed to that effect. Out of the 381 respondents, 49% ticked very great, 22%
ticked great, 8% were undecided, 5% ticked low extent, while the remaining 16% ticked
very low extent. This is in line with the Yale’s persuasion theory which says that messages
with more arguments are more persuasive than those with fewer arguments. The more
arguments in a message, the more likely it will seem to be true or the more likely that a
message will include at least, one argument that appeals to the audience. These factors
probably determine attitude change. Every communication is aimed at positively affecting
the behaviour of the receiver and for the receivers to be persuaded, they must be convinced.
So, an argument is more effective if you show both sides of the argument, but then show
why your opinion is correct (Cook, 2012). The foregoing implies that the source or the
person who is presenting a message can influence its persuasiveness. This has contributed
to the influence the COVID-19 messages on television continental has on Ikeja residents.
The finding also aligns with the agenda setting theory which says that the media set agenda
for the public to follow. The mass media, whether print or electronic, set agenda for the
public to follow. In the context of this study, the media have been able to set public health
agenda for the residents of Ikeja.

The researchers focused on the influence of television continental COVID-19 messages on
the residents of Ikeja in Lagos State, Nigeria. The findings showed that the respondents
were highly exposed to COVID-19 messages on television continental in Ikeja. It was also
discovered that the messages were very effective as majority of the respondents answered
to that effect. More so, the findings showed that the messages positively affected the
behaviour of the people. Based on the findings, the researchers, therefore, conclude that
the COVID-19 campaign messages on television continental in Lagos positively affected
the health behaviour of the respondents. Based on the findings, the researchers, therefore,
recommend that:
1. Health communication must first spread awareness of the need for utilisation
behaviours, offer additional concrete understanding about what the behaviour is,
and incorporate into other public health interventions that address external factors
in order to provide admissible, necessary details and resources for implementing
the behaviour.
2. There should be a deliberate effort by the mass media to continue to package
messages meant for the women generally in a more understandable manner. This
will enable them to continue to be abreast with happenings around them and thereby
taking the precautionary measures where necessary.
49
3. The media should accord more prominence to issues that have to do with human
health, especially sensitive issues such as Pandemics and vaccination against
deadly diseases as failure to do this might have negative ripple effect on other
sectors of national development.
References
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among students of select tertiary institutions in Delta State. In Asemah, E. S.,
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CHAPTER FIVE
NEWSPAPER FRAMING OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC AND THE
HEALTH BEHAVIOUR OF RESIDENTS OF EDO STATE, NIGERIA
Jamiu Mohammed Abubakar; Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD & Tsegyu Santas, PhD
Introduction
The media play crucial roles in shaping public opinion and perception of issues such as
COVID-19 pandemic. The way the media frame the pandemic has great impact on how the
public responds to it, and whether to take a precautionary measure or not (Nwakpu, Ezema
& Ogbodo, 2020). The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, which was first reported in
Wuhan, one of the most populous cities in China, in December 2019 (Forster, Renfrew &
Forster, 2020; World Health Organisation, 2020a; Yang, Zhang & Chen, 2020). The virus
spread internationally within 1 month of the first identification and was transmitted via
close human-to-human contact (Huang et al 2020). The outbreak of the virus was declared
a public health emergency of international concern as well as a pandemic on 30 January
2020, and 11 March 2020, respectively, by the World Health Organisation (Farzanegan et
al 2020). COVID-19 virus put a hold on global economy, human free movement, and led
to the death of millions in the world. In fact, in recent times, no pandemic has hit the world
the way coronavirus has hit the world.
The first COVID-19 case in sub-Saharan Africa was reported by the Nigerian
Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) on January 28, 2020 while Nigeria received her
shipped-in share of the novel coronavirus through an Italian consultant who arrived in
Nigeria on February 27. The rate at which COVID-19 spread in Nigeria caused serious
health issues due to the country's inadequate healthcare system, as predicted by the World
Health Organisation (National Bureau of Statistics, 2015, WHO, 2016, Oyekale, 2017).
Inadequacy and challenges in health system include lack of human and material resources,
an unfavourable attitude toward the new healthcare system, nonemployment of social
workers in primary health centres, zero levels of public involvement, and ineffective
service provision (Krumkamp, Sarpong, Kreuels, Ehlkes, Loag & Schwarz, 2013;
Okwaraji, Cousens, Berhanem, Mulholland & Edmond, 2012; Oyekale, 2017, Uzochukwu,
Onwujekwe, Mbachu, Okeke, Molyneux & Gilson, 2018; Okoye, 2019). These problems
therefore cast doubt on the reality and viability of Nigeria's healthcare system, particularly
in rural areas, to contain a full-fledged coronavirus outbreak.
The media have an essential role to play in health promotions, awareness creation
and containment of COVID-19 through media report. Quattrin, Filiputt & Brusaferro
(2015) corroborate that public health programmes may benefit from the use of mass media
to promote positive health behaviours. Constructions of frames are one of the strategies
through which the media could influence health issues. Framing describes the type of angle
promoted by the media. Odoemelam & Okoro (2013) aver that one manner in which news
media shape perceptions of key events is through the act of 'Framing'. In framing, the
number of stories is not as important as the angles projected. In order to promote a specific
52
problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and treatment recommendation

for the item described (Entman, 1993), it is necessary to frame. This is done by choosing
some aspects of perceived reality and making them more salient in communicating text.
Framing issues is thought to have an impact on how the general public perceives them.
According to de Vreese, Boomgaarden & Semetko (2010), news framing has a significant
impact on public opinion. Based on the problem at hand, understanding framing is looked
at. For instance, the lances of political behaviour will be used to examine how political
issues are framed. So also, will health issues be used for health behaviour.
A change in behaviour intended to encourage healthy living is known as health
behaviour. Health behaviour, according to Kasl & Cobb (1996) in Adegoke (2010), is any
action taken by a person who believes they are healthy in order to prevent disease or to
stop it before it manifests itself. The diseases involved are typically used to examine health
behaviour. Such actions may include control, treatment, or preventive behaviour. The
Centre for Disease Control (2020) says the necessary health behaviour for COVID-19
include washing hands, using hand sanitizer, wearing a face mask and social distancing to
reduce the risk of contracting or spreading the virus, even after one has been fully
vaccinated against COVID-19. Recent studies have grouped health behaviours influenced
by COVID-19 pandemic under two different categories which are good (COVID-19
vaccination uptake; eating behaviour and nutrition; physical activity and sedentary
behaviour; preventative health services and help-seeking,) and bad (sleep disorders,
increased psychological distress, social isolation and loneliness, Tobacco smoking, alcohol
consumption, and substance use) health behaviours. The health behavioural changes such
as physical distancing precautions, greater use of online platforms for many daily activities,
the intention to undergo preventive diagnostic tests, attitude to preventive vaccinations and
increasing fruit and vegetable consumption or physical exercise served as the prism with
which this study examined the influence of newspaper framing of COVID-19 pandemic on
health behaviour of residents of Edo State.

The COVID-19 global health crisis has had a disproportionately negative impact on many
facets of life and featured as a serious health threat in Nigeria. The Federal Ministry of
Health and other pertinent organisations have stepped up their efforts to raise public
awareness of disease prevention. According to Msughter & Phillips (2020) the media in
Nigeria, especially the newspapers have also framed COVID-19 using different frames
with a view to promoting the desired health behaviour. In line with this, Widmar, Nagel,
Ho Benziger & Hennig (2009) assert that health behavioural change is considered pivotal
to the success of health campaign and realising the desired impact. Recent studies (e.g.,
McBride & Chilcot, 2021; Arora & Grey, 2020) identified various health behaviours that
have changed as a result of the dreadful COVID-19 pandemic with no empirical
relationship with media framing. Nonetheless, the closest study to answer the research
enquiry was conducted by Nwakpu, Ezema & Ogbodo (2020) as they put forward how
Nigerian media framing of COVID-19 influences audience’s response, but failed to
53
provide any responses that relate to health behaviour instead helped in ‘flatten the curve’
of awareness and containing the spread of the virus. Consequently, the present study sought
to examine the influence of newspaper framing of COVID-19 on health behaviour.

1. Determine how newspapers frame COVID-19.
2. Ascertain the influence of newspaper framing of COVID-19 on the health
behaviour of residents of Edo State.
3. Determine the most effective in influencing health behaviour between gain and loss
framed messages in Edo State.
Concept Review and Review of Related Literature

The mass media of communication are critical to the promotion of health campaigns. The
mass media play a fundamental role in educating people about diseases and ailment,
outbreaks, prevention, control and treatment (Asemah, 2015). Catalán-Matamoros (2011)
posits that huge amounts are expended years for materials and salaries that go into the
production and distribution of booklets, pamphlets, exhibits, newspaper articles, and radio
and television programmes. Such media are used at all levels of public health for three
broad objectives: (1) the learning of correct health information and knowledge, (2) the
changing of health attitudes and values and (3) the establishment of new health behaviour.
This tripod is relevant to the current study because when newspapers frame stories on
COVID-19, it is expected that such frames will provide adequate information to enable
people possess adequate knowledge about the disease and engineer change in health
behaviour.
Noar (2006) posits that the mass media campaigns have long been a tool for
promoting public health such that they are significantly used to expose high proportions of
large populations to messages through routine uses of existing media, such as television,
radio, and newspapers. Anwumablem & Asemah (2021) further reiterate the extent to
which the newspapers were used to report the virus and the pandemic situation. The mass
media frame health messages promotions in different ways. Jonathan, Robert, Marieke &
Hein (2010) say that health-promoting messages can be framed in regarding the gains
associated with healthy behaviour or the losses associated with unhealthy behaviour.
Jonathan et al. reveal that it has been argued that gain-framed messages promoting physical
activity are more effective than loss-framed messages, but empirical findings are
inconsistent. On the other hand, Rothman, Wlaschin, Bartels, Latimer & Salovey (1993),
posit that gain-framed messages will be more efficient in promoting prevention behaviours,
while loss-framed messages will be more efficient in promoting detection behaviours.
Rothman et al (1993) say this is because detection behaviours could lead in the discovery
of an illness; they are as riskier than prevention behaviours which are mainly taken to
maintain current health status.
54
The framing of health promotion has gained prominence in literature, although

most of such studies are conducted by people different from the field of communication.
However, the argument about the effectiveness of such framing has often revolved around
framing patterns like loss versus non-gain framing, loss-framing versus non-gain-framing
versus gain-framing and negative vs positive framing. Positive frame describes positive
outcomes, while a negative frame describes negative outcomes. Bosone and Martinez
(2017) add that the negative outcome could lead to the presence of something negative (i.e.
loss) or the absence of something positive (i.e. non-gain). The gain-framed result to the
presence of something positive (gain). In this study, the researcher examined the
manifestations of these framing patterns and how they influence health behaviour about
newspaper framing of COVID-19 in Nigeria.
Mass media framing of health issues also affords the media the opportunity to
expose a health problem, state the causes, and also influence the perception of the audience
about the legitimacy of the various solutions to the health issue (Asemah, 2014). Over the
years, the mass media has reported various health issues with different media frames, and
these frames have had tremendous impact on how the world has viewed the health issues
(Asemah, 2011). These health issues include breast cancer, abortion, HIV AIDS, polio,
malaria, and the outbreak of several diseases or infectious virus. Nisbet (2012) notes that
media framing of health issues is so germane because health issues are complex and it
usually have high level of uncertainty about the causes and the solutions to adopt, thereby
making the media to take up researches on the health challenge in order to know how best
the issue can be framed. The mass media also have the sole ability to decide on what frame
to use in reporting health issues in the society (Asemah, 2013). Although, some people
have misinterpreted framing to be a kind of one-way persuasion and communication
process because they feel that the mass media is one. This myth is untrue because mass
media exist in various forms, and each media frame its health reports in various kind of
ways to fit into the context in which they want people to see it from (Asemah, 2011).
In the same vein, Coronavirus as a health issue has also been reported by the mass
media through different frames. The Nigeria mass media have been said to report the
COVID-19 issues with panic frames that helped Nigeria residents to take precautionary
measures against the viral disease (Nwakpu et al 2020). Mass media framing of health-
related issues also affect the way the media audience feel about societal health issues, and
how they act on the issues, and this can be attributed to the fact that frames elicit the
public’s emotional reactions towards the health issue. Media framing permits the mass
media to emphasise on one dimension of a health issue over the others and calls attention
to the emphasised issue (Nisbet, 2012). Through media framing of health issues, the media
shape the public and political attitudes towards policy interventions to improve societal
health. Australian National University (n. d) states that the media carry out researches in
order to deeply understand what a health issue or challenge is, and how it can be reported
in order to shape the public, as well as public health advocates’ attitude towards the health
issue. Odoemelan (2021) reveals that media framing makes the public to know about the
mass media roles in reporting health issues in the society, as well as other kind that ranges
55
from economic, political, social, or cultural. He went on to say that the Nigerian mass
media reported the COVID-19 pandemic, public healthcare crisis, economic issue,
corruption in the health sector, health workers strike, as well as the other issues with a
negative tone framing. Wallington et al (2010) outline the variables used in developing
media frames for societal health issues as:
a. To disseminate new and accurate information about a health issue.
b. To provide entertainment to the public in order to calm their nerves down.
c. To educate the public about health issue in order to enhance them in making
informed decisions.
d. To develop public health and scientific literacy in the society.
e. To influence the public’s health attitude and behaviour.
In addition, the media framing of health issues is usually through the public impact
angle, economic impact angle, controversial new information angle, human interest angle,
or need to change personal behaviour or attitude angle (Nisbet, 2012). Leask, Hooker &
King (2010), in the same vein note that the mass media have a huge potential of influencing
health-related behaviour or attitude through the usage of frames. The media also set
agendas for health issues, and they have the ability to influence health practices that can be
either positive or negative (Asemah & Okeya, 2020). The media messages on health issues
and its framing have great implications on public health because the masses perceive and
interpret media messages through the frames that were used to communicate it to them.
In milieu of this, there are some health behavioural change as a result of COVID-
19 pandemic. According to Country Health Ranking and Roadmaps (n. d), people's actions
which have impact on their health are known as health behaviours. These health
behaviours include behaviours that promote good health, such as eating perfectly and
exercising, while behaviours like smoking, drinking too much alcohol and engaging in
risky sexual behaviour that leads diseases or death are attributed to bad health behaviour.
Health behaviour during a pandemic is multifaceted, as a result of the danger posed by
COVID-19. In the first few months of the pandemic, the behaviours that were encouraged
included proper handwashing with soap and water, wearing a face covering if one was
showing symptoms, social distancing, and staying at home except for essential trips. The
rapid uptake of these behaviours is essential in slowing and potentially stopping the spread
of infectious agents. The use of a face covering for asymptomatic people was
recommended by the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) on April 3, 2020
(CDC, 2020).
However, recent studies suggest contextual changes implemented/recommended to
mitigate the spread of COVID-19 have led to substantial changes in health behaviours.
There have been negative impacts on physical activity, mixed findings for dietary
behaviours and indications that COVID-19 has contributed to psychological distress as
well as negative emotional impacts of COVID-19 including distress and increases in work,
financial, and family stress. Emerging evidence has suggested that tobacco quit rates and
attempted quit rates have improved since the pandemic. The charity Action on Smoking
and Health reported that over 1 million people had stopped smoking by July 2020, and
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440,000 had attempted to quit. This suggests that the pandemic may present an opportune
moment for promoting tobacco control policies and smoking cessation services.
Another critical health behaviours during the pandemic are the general mistrust in
vaccines and concerns about future side effects which was also listed as key barriers to
optimising population immunity (Paul, Steptoe & Fancourt, 2020). A large proportion of
the variance (86%) in COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy was explained by perceptions of lower
collective importance, lower vaccine efficacy, potential side effects, and concerns
regarding the speed of vaccine development. COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy brought about
considerable bane for Nigerian health experts in ensuring immunity against COVID-19
because of dissent reasons, deliberate decision and distrust of government (Abubakar,
Nwoko & Alikor, 2022). Vaccine hesitancy was associated with socio-demographic factors
including female gender, younger age, lower income and ethnicity, but overall, these only
explained 9.8% of the variance in the hesitation to get the vaccine (Freeman et al 2020). In
contrast, data in clinically vulnerably populations confirm high willingness for vaccination.
For example, patients with chronic respiratory disease, 86% of respondents wanted to
receive the vaccine (Williams et al 2020). Willingness to receive the vaccine has been
associated with beliefs regarding the value to personal health, health consequences for
others, concerns regarding vaccine safety and perceptions of COVID-19 severity (Paul et
al 2020; Williams et al 2020).
Food products consumed also appear to have shifted, findings revealed that people
are eating less healthily than usual (McAtamney, Mantzios, Egan & Wallis, 2021). A recent
study indicated that people have consumed on average one portion of fruit and vegetables
less per day than before the pandemic (Naughton et al 2021). A potential mechanism for
changes to eating behaviours may be emotion dysregulation, with those reporting changes
to their eating behaviours during the pandemic also displaying greater levels of depression
(Herle et al 2021; McAtamney et al 2021). Barriers to weight management have, for
example, included reports of lower motivation to eat healthily and lower control over eating
(Robinson et al 2021)
Increased prevalence of sleep disorders through COVID-19 has been highlighted
in the research literature across different countries. Studies have examined the effect on
sleep of SARS-CoV-2 infection and explored confounders related to isolation, quarantine,
anxiety, stress, or financial losses (Partinen, 2021). It is thought that symptoms of insomnia
could be related to psychosocial factors and the impact of confinement (Altena et al 2020).
A large UK study found poor quality sleep was associated with the occurrence of adverse
events through the pandemic. Adverse events included, for example, illness with COVID-
19, financial difficulty, loss of paid work, problems with sourcing medicine, difficulties
accessing food, and perceived threats to personal safety (Wright, Steptoe & Fancourt,
2020)
Vulnerable populations reported engaging in around half a day less of 30 minutes
of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity each week through the first lockdown period
(Naughton et al 2021). Another survey found that 57% had either maintained or increased
their levels of physical activity during lockdown. However, only a third met recommended
57
physical activity guidelines of 150 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity per week
(Spence et al 2021). Changes in physical activity were found to be associated with
components of the COM-B model (Michie, van Stralen & West, 2011), notably reduced
physical opportunity and reflective motivation (Spence et al 2021). However, it is
important to reflect on that not everyone has the chance to make healthy and balanced
decisions.
The researcher reviewed the previous related empirical studies to further guide the
present study. Lee, Brown & Blood (2000) conducted a study in which participants were
given a pamphlet describing how to detect skin cancer. The gain-framed pamphlet stressed
the positive consequences of skin self-examination (e.g. "by doing the self-examination…
you will be alert to changes in the number, size, shape and colour of pigmented areas"), the
loss-framed pamphlet underlined the absence of such positive consequences resulting from
not engaging in skin self-exams (e.g. "by not doing the self-examination…you will be less
alert to changes in the number, size, shape and colour of pigmented areas"). The study
found that participants' intentions to comply did not differ between loss- and gain-framed
messages.
Coleman, Thorson & Lee (2011) investigated how changes in the way news stories
report on health can influence readers' perceptions of obesity, diabetes, immigrant health,
and smoking. In a controlled experiment, the researchers changed two variables: the quality
of sourcing (the number of sources and their expertise) and the framing (moving from an
episodic, traditional frame to a thematic frame that included information on context, risk
factors, prevention strategies, and social attributions of responsibility). The findings
revealed that a thematic frame increased readers' support for public policy changes and
encouraged them to improve their health behaviours. However, it did not alter how they
viewed the larger social factors rather than blaming specific people for health issues.
Readers did not find the thematic stories to be more interesting, pertinent, believable,
important or informative, nor did richer sources increase these effects. Additionally, story
topics that represent uncontrollable effects led to differential results.
Balbo (2010) conducted an online experiment in which he randomly selected 209
women and presented them with a pamphlet promoting the Pap test. The pamphlet was
either gain- or loss-framed, emphasising the Pap's prevention or detection function. The
researchers sought to confirm the results regarding the correspondence between message
framing (gain vs. loss) and perceived behaviour function (prevention vs detection). They
hypothesised that message framing that corresponded to the perceived behaviour function
(i.e. gain-framed messages for prevention behaviours and loss-framed messages for
detection behaviours) would result in a higher intention to follow the recommended
behaviour. The researchers discovered that only when the message was loss-framed did the
fit result in higher intention.
In a study on 'newspaper coverage of health issues in Nigeria,’ Onyeizu & Binta
(2014) sought to establish the extent to which the media are working to set public agenda
for the health sector in order to mobilise both the government and the governed towards
achieving a healthy state. Content analysis was used as the research methodology, and
58
purposive sampling technique was used. AMPS 2010 newspaper readership data was used
to select The Guardian and The Punch newspapers. The study lasted a year and a half. On
the selected health issues, a total of 554 health reports were discovered and analysed.
According to the researchers, the single disease that received the most media attention was
HIV/AIDS, and the most reported genre was a straight news story. The researchers also
discovered that health issues were not given enough attention in the media. The researcher,
on the other hand, paid little or no attention to COVID-19 framing in the press.
Gantiva, Jiménez-Leal & Urriago-Rayo (2021) in their research work titled
‘COVID-19 Crisis: The Role of Loss/Gain Frames and Content,’ examined the role of
message framing in bringing about effective communication of self-care behaviours during
COVID-19 pandemic. The researchers made use of the experimental research design to
study 319 participants in order to answer the study’s research questions, and they found
out that gain-frame health messages on COVID-19, increased the intentions of people to
adopt self-care behaviours during the pandemic. In addition, the researchers found out that
the loss-frame health messages on COVID-19 improved risk perception, and the urge to
avoid contracting the virus. It was recommended that health policy makers should consider
the best frames to use in communicating health messages to the public.
The researcher used the framing theory and health belief model for the study. The framing
theory was postulated in 1974 by Goffman. It maintains that the media's frame (Druckman,
2001) is more important than the volume assigned to a specific issue. People use
interpretational packages known as frames to make sense of their experiences, according
to the theory. A story is said to be framed when it is slanted in one direction. According to
Bryant & Miron (2004), the most widely used research methodology in the field of
communications science is framing theory, which has recently replaced agenda setting and
cultivation theory (Asemah, Nwammuo & Nkwam-Uwaoma, 2017). This theory is
essential to the current study because it provides perspectives on how newspapers can
project some angles about COVID-19.
The Health Belief Model (HBM) is an intrapersonal (within the individual,
knowledge and beliefs) model used in health promotion to design intervention and
prevention programmes. This theory encourages people to engage in positive health actions
by focusing on the need to avoid negative health outcome as the primary motive. Three
psychologists, Irwin Rosenstock, Godfrey Hochbaum & Stephen Kegels (Burke, 2013),
conducted research in response to the public's dissatisfaction with the federal government
of the United States' 1950s offers of free health prevention programs. The HBM is made
of some components including perceived susceptibility (one’s judgment of the likelihood
of developing a health condition), perceived seriousness (perceived seriousness includes
beliefs that an illness will cause pain, disability, social stigma, or death. the seriousness of
COVID-19, such as death, may motivate people to take action), perceived benefits of
taking action (the options available to the individual and their belief in their effectiveness
that influences decision-making) barriers to taking action (hesitation may still occur despite
59
knowing a belief that a particular course of action may decrease a health threat) and cues
to action (a stimulus that has the potential to "trigger" appropriate health behaviour
(Rosenstock, 1966, as cited in Maguire 2010). This can be internal, such as physical
discomfort, or external, such as a message conveying the severity of a disease. This is
where media messages on COVID-19 symptoms become relevant. Individuals who
perceived the seriousness of symptoms can get cues from the media to adopt certain health
behaviours as preventives measures. The researcher found the health belief model
appropriate for the study because it provides the framework for understanding how media
framing can affect the health behaviour of receivers in line with the COVID-19 pandemic.
Methodology
The researcher adopted a mixed method of content analysis and survey research design to
achieve its aim. The content analysis was to examine newspaper stories on COVID-19
while the survey was to ascertain its influence on the health behaviour of the respondents
(Asemah, Gujbawu, Ekhareafo & Okpananchi, 2017). The population of the survey was
made up of three towns in three senatorial districts of Edo State; which include Auchi,
Ekpoma and Benin with 62,907, 83,822 and 1,781,999 numbers of people respectively.
Therefore, the population of the study is 1,928,728 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2015).
The sample size for the survey was made up 384 respondents. The sampling technique for
the survey population were cluster random and purposive sampling to arrive at the selected
senatorial districts which are the towns that have highly educated people who could provide
reliable information on the subject matter and to get respondents who are exposed to
newspaper stories on COVID-19 pandemic. Questionnaire instrument with 5-point likert
scale was used to collect data for the survey design. The criterion mean score of 3.5 was
the zone of acceptance Therefore, any score that falls below 3.5 was rejected. In the
analysis of data for the study, the researcher used simple percentage and Statistical Package
for Social Sciences (SPSS) to achieve the research objectives.
Additionally, the researcher content analysed four Nigerian dailies (The Punch,
Vanguard, The Nation and The Guardian newspapers). These newspapers were selected
because the 2019 newspapers web ranking ranked these newspapers as the top four in
Nigeria. The population of the editions of The Punch, Vanguard, The Nation and The
Guardian newspapers between the period of February 27th, 2020 and August 27th, 2020
which marked the time of outbreak of COVID-19 and lockdowns in Nigeria. A total of 186
editions were published by each newspaper totalling 744 editions for the select newspapers
within the period. The sample size of the study was 104 editions of the select Nigerian
newspapers. This size was chosen based on the recommendation that selecting one edition
per week would be appropriate for a newspaper study extending up to a period of six
months and since this study is up to six months, selection of one newspaper edition per
week would be considered suitable (Basden et al 1997, cited in Asemah, 2021). Hence,
for each of the four newspapers used in this study, 26 editions were selected (one from
each of the 26 weeks that make up the six months period (27th February-27th August
2020). However, not all the daily editions were used; the reviewed editions were picked
60
alternately. For the first week of each newspaper, Monday edition was chosen. For the
second week, Tuesday edition was selected and this was used for the remaining weeks and
months. This format helps to gather a total of 104 editions across the four selected
newspapers.
The unit of analysis for this study was news stories from the four newspapers
selected. For inclusion in the content analysis, articles that reported on COVID-19 in
Nigeria; thus, articles on COVID-19 that focused on other countries were excluded. More
so, articles that only mentioned COVID-19 in the body were also excluded. The code sheet
was used to collect data from the select newspapers. Two content categories were
developed to aid the coding of the newspaper materials analysed:
Loss Frame: Frames that were more effective to motivate high-risk behaviours like job
lost and economic crisis due to staying at home and news on potential lives lost, could lead
to a negative outcome like contracting of COVID-19.
Gain frame: Frames that were more effective to motivate low-risk behaviours (i.e., health
advice given by your healthcare provider, your national and local public health authority
as well as news on potential lives saved,) could lead to something positive like non-
contracting of COVID-19. These frames were used to provide insights into the kind of
frames that newspapers promoted in their coverage of COVID-19.
Results
The result of this study showed that a total of 1308 articles were published between
February 27th and August 27th 2020. However, after categorizing the newspapers contents,
389 articles were found useful for analysis. Concerning the questionnaire, only 344
(representing 90%) out of the 384 copies administered were retrieved.
Table I: Framing of COVID-19 in the Select Newspapers

Frames
Newspapers Loss Frame Gain Frame Total
The Punch Count 45 66 111
% of Total 11% 17% 28%
Vanguard Count 47 40 87
% of Total 12% 10% 22%
The Nation Count 43 50 93
% of Total 11% 13% 24%
The Guardian Count 40 58 98
% of Total 11% 15% 26%
Total Count 175 214 389
% of Total 45% 55% 100%
61
Table 1 shows the newspapers framing of COVID-19 in Nigeria. The result showed
that gain frame was most used in the framing of stories on COVID-19 pandemic.
Comparatively, The Punch newspaper had the highest number of gain-framed stories,
followed by The Guardian and then The Nation while Vanguard had the highest number
of loss-framed stories. Consequently, gain-frame which help motivate low-risk behaviours
in curbing COVID-19 is the most popular among Nigerian dailies.
Table 2: Health Behaviour influenced by Exposure to Newspaper Stories on

COVID-19
Items Mean SD Decision
Improved physical activity 3.6 1.14 Accepted
Proper handwashing with soap and water 4.6 0.56 Accepted
Good dietary behaviours 4.5 0.58 Accepted
COVID-19 Vaccination uptake 3.4 1.12 Rejected
Wearing face masks 4.4 0.68 Accepted
Quit smoking 1.5 1.23 Rejected
Criterion Mean (3.5)
Using the mean scores of items in table 2, a large of the respondents agree that
newspaper framing of COVID-19 are significant to improved physical activity
(x=3.6±1.14), proper handwashing with soap and water with (x=4.6±0.56), good dietary
behaviours with (x=4.5±0.58) and wearing face masks (x=4.4±0.68) while the framing has
no significance to COVID-19 Vaccination uptake (x=3.4±1.12) and quitting smoking
(x=1.5±1.23). The above items were used because they have also been promoted by the
Centre for Disease Control and the World Health Organisation as ways of preventing
COVID-19.
Table 3: Newspaper Frames and Respondents' Health Behaviour

Health Behaviour
Frames
COVID-19
face masks
behaviours
Vaccinatio
handwashi
soap and
Wearing
Physical
quitting
ng with
activity
dietary
Proper
smoke
Total
Good
water
Framing Loss Count 18 19 20 42 5 9 113

frame % of 5% 6% 6% 12% 1% 3% 33%
Total
Gain Count 32 41 37 20 101 - 231
frame % of 10% 11% 10% 6% 30% 67%
Total
Total Count 50 60 57 62 106 9 344
% of 15% 17% 16% 18% 31% 3% 100%
Total
62
Table 3 shows the relationship between newspapers’ frames and specific health behaviour
of respondents. The result shows that gain frames were more successful at influencing the
respondents to preventing the spreading COVID-19 pandemic since the respondents agree
that gain frame promotes physical activity, good dietary behaviours, wearing face masks
as well as proper handwashing with soap and water. The loss frames were more successful
at COVID-19 vaccination uptake and smoke quitting.
The first query of the study was to determine how newspapers frame COVID-19 in Nigeria.
The findings showed that most of the newspaper stories on COVID-19 promoted the gain
frame. This result has implications on the framing theory and the health belief model. First,
concerning the framing theory, the result provides practical evidence in understanding the
power of the media in projecting certain aspects of an issue in their coverage (Entman,
1999). There may be other aspects to be projected, but the newspapers studied decided to
settle for the gain frame. Concerning the Health Belief Model, the result confirmed the
presence of the perceived benefits of taking action as projected by the health belief model
(Maguire, 2010). This is in contrast to the findings of Balbo (2010) and Lee, Brown &
Blood (2000) that higher intention to follow the recommended behaviour will only surface
when the message was loss-framed and that participants' intentions to comply were no
different between the loss- and gain-framed messages respectively.
The second inquiry was to find out the influence of newspaper framing of COVID-
19 on the health behaviour of residents of Edo State. Findings revealed a significant
relationship between newspaper frames and health behaviour like improved physical
activity, proper handwashing with soap and water, good dietary behaviours and wearing
face masks while the framing has no significance to COVID-19 vaccination uptake and
smoke quitting by respondents. In this regard, health behaviours like improved physical
activity, proper handwashing with soap and water, good dietary behaviours and wearing
face masks have been influenced by newspaper framing of COVID-19 pandemic. This
result is consistent with that of Coleman, Thorson & Lee (2011) who found that media
reports influence health behaviour. In addition, this confirms the theoretical assumptions
of framing theory postulated in 1974 by Goffman that people rely on the media to make
sense out of their experiences. This is in cognisance with Onyeizu & Binta (2014) that the
media help mobilise both the government and the governed towards achieving a healthy
state.
The third objective was to determine the most effective in influencing health
behaviour between gain and loss framed messages in Edo State. Findings showed that gain
frame was most effective in health behaviour modification. The gain framed was found to
have influenced some of the recent health behaviours identified by McBride & Chilcot
(2021) such as improved physical activity, proper handwashing with soap and water, good
dietary behaviours and wearing face masks. This result is in consistent with Gantiva,
Jiménez-Leal & Urriago-Rayo (2021) that gain-frame health messages increased intention
to adopt self-care behaviours. Based on the result of this study, the researcher argues that
63
newspaper frames are effective tools for health behaviour modification. This is in
consonant with the assumption of health believe model that people tend to change health
behaviour due to the relevant media messages on health crisis (Burke, 2013).

The researchers examined newspaper framing of COVID-19 and its influence on the health
behaviour of residents of Edo State. Based on the result of this study, the researchers
conclude that newspapers used gain frames in their coverage of COVID-19 and the frames
were effective in changing the health behaviour of respondents. Thus, the following
1. Newspapers should place greater attention to gain framing as it is most effective in
behaviour change communication.
2. There is a need for further study to be replicated in other parts of the country for
better comparison.
3. Other researchers should explore other factors that influence the health behaviour
of respondents with regards to COVID-19.
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69
CHAPTER SIX
RESPONSIVENESS OF EDO STATE RESIDENTS TO COVID-19
MEDIA CAMPAIGNS
Isah Abdulazeez & Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD
Introduction
An unknown sickness was reported to the World Health Organisation on December 31st,
2019 (Elnadi, Ismaih Obasanjo, Ahmed, Ochulor & Ahmed, 2020). SARS-cov-2 or
COVID-19 became the official designation for the illness. COVID-19 was ravaging the
world at the time of its emergence because there was no known treatment or medication
for the sickness at that time. On a daily basis, death and illness rates rose exponentially,
even in the most technologically advanced countries of the global community. Developing
countries like Nigeria were alarmed by this. In fact, the ex-wife of Bill Gates predicted that
the streets of the less developed nations will be covered with dead bodies because of the
devastating effect of COVID-19 on developed nations.
Many Nigerians viewed COVID-19 as a white man's illness that would never
extend to their home before the World Health Organisation (WHO) declared the disease a
global public health challenge and pandemic. Nigerians and their government ignored the
appearance of COVID-19 in their territory, delaying the adoption of early preventative
measures that would have saved money and protected the population from unnecessary
exposure to the virus. People in Nigeria's north-central area and other parts of the country
resumed their daily routines and social activities without observing Nigeria Centre for
Disease Control's initial vague preventative measures (NCDC, 2020).
The Lagos University Teaching Hospital's Virology Laboratory validated Nigeria's
index case of COVID-19, one of the few laboratories in Nigeria capable of diagnosing
COVID-19 at the time. Since then, Nigeria has seen an increase in the number of infections,
with Lagos originally serving as Nigeria's pandemic epicentre. As of this writing, the virus
has spread to various towns and cities in Nigeria (Alagboso & Abubakar, 2020).
In the absence of a vaccine or proven therapy for COVID-19, most countries
throughout the world, including Nigeria, have taken steps to prevent and control the
disease. Regulations such as a nationwide lockdown, mandatory quarantine at home, a
prohibition on public gatherings, and international and local flight restrictions are among
these measures. Mandatory face masks, sanitizers containing alcohol and hand-washing
practices of social distancing are required. There were also a number of government and
non-governmental organisations that carried out public sensitisation enlightenment
campaigns. Efforts were made to educate the public about the importance of proper hygiene
and social isolation in an effort to stop the spread of the illness. Self-isolation was urged
for persons returning from countries with confirmed COVID-19 cases and temperature
screenings were undertaken at airports. Additional efforts were also made by the NCDC
and state governments to identify probable victims as well as their contacts. Government
officials in Lagos State were told on March 18, 2020, to stay at home for the next four
70
weeks as a result of a four-week ban on all gatherings of more than fifty individuals
(Ewodage, 2020).
Several steps have been put in place since the discovery of COVID-19 in Nigeria.
There have been numerous health, economic, security and social responses to the disease
in Nigeria since its first case was identified in the nation. According to a report in the New
York Times on March 20, 2020, all borders have been blocked; all interstate movement has
been forbidden and all non-essential services have been shut down (Alagboso & Abubakar,
2020).
Similar measures taken by the Federal Government on March 30, 2020, included
the closure of national borders and airspace; the cancellation of mass gathering events; the
lockdown of the Federal Capital Territory and Lagos and Ogun states for an initial fourteen
days; and a lockdown of the FCT and Lagos for an additional fourteen days (Radio Nigeria,
2020). Lagos, Abuja and Irrua in Edo State have COVID-19 testing laboratories while state
governments have constructed isolation centres and imposed dawn to dust curfews
throughout their jurisdiction.
Preventive interventions are only effective if people are made aware of them and
encouraged to adhere to them. When it comes to halting the spread of the COVID-19
pandemic, it's crucial for individuals to have enough information and awareness. Because
information is a form of power, it follows that this is a logical connection. When it comes
to delicate matters like COVID-19, good communication and awareness are necessary in
order to get the public on board. Pandemic control requires knowledge of the disease's
transmission mechanisms, as well as appropriate measures. While scientists are still
working on potential vaccines or medications for the virus, it is predicted that individuals
will take action to prevent and control epidemics if they have enough information. When
it comes to preventing widespread infections in the workplace, knowledge such as the
importance of hand washing and utilising hand sanitizer, as well as the importance of
respiratory etiquette, social distancing and self-isolation when unwell are critical
(Olapegba, Ayandele, Kolawole, Oguntayo, Gandi, Dangiwa, Ottu & Iorfa, 2020).
As a result of the media's surveillance role, the media are the public's eyes and ears.
It is the media's responsibility to supply the public with accurate and timely information in
order to avoid being swayed by unverifiable information that could have a negative impact
on the public's health (Lasswell, 2007). It is the media's responsibility to keep tabs on the
environment and report back to the public in order to avoid potential threats. The media's
surveillance function happens when they (the media) scan society for potentially dangerous
actions and make those activities known to the public through their various programmes,
according to this author's observations (Asemah, Nwammuo & Nkwam-Uwaoma, 2017).
Countries responded to that proclamation by instituting measures such as a
prohibition on international travel and the use of face masks, among others. International
and national media outlets, including Fox News, CNN, Al-Jazeera and BBC, Channel TV
and AIT, The Punch newspaper and the Guardian, The Nation and Facebook among others,
saw a rise in the information function of the mass media as the global health crisis gathered
speed. The media's goal in all of this was to raise awareness about the COVID-19
71
pandemic's dangers. Additionally, they are designed to educate the public about the virus's
route of transmission and encourage them to take the COVID-19 preventive measures. Due
to the fact that there was no known medical solution at the time of the media campaign's
emergence, it took various forms, such as talk shows, news stories, magazine features and
articles, to inform the public about the disease's symptoms, effects, and prevention
strategies. COVID-19 safety standards were emphasised in the public awareness efforts.
This awareness was created through the usage of the media (Isah, Kadiri & Asemah, 2021).
While on DSTV and GOTV, TVC News (2020) broadcasts a preventive campaign
message that goes like this: "Wash your hands thoroughly with soap under running water
for at least 30 seconds, avoid contact with people's hands and hard surfaces, always sneeze
into a piece of tissue, avoid crowded spaces, stay at home if you feel unwell, and seek
medical help if you have fever, cough, or other symptoms of the flu. "Despite government
and non-governmental organisations' extensive media and social mobilisation initiatives,
as well as the efforts of the Nigerian media and individuals to prevent sickness, the number
of infections continued to rise. Nigeria's media's COVID-19 prevention programme has
been questioned by the rise of infections despite daily media campaigns on nearly all media
platforms. It is, therefore, based on the foregoing that the researcher sought to determine
the awareness, perception and attitude of Edo residents towards COVID-19 media
campaigns.

After the outbreak of COVID-19, the globe was left in disarray. COVID-19's destructive
effect on the world will continue for more than a decade, according to the World Health
Organisation (WHO) (WHO). COVID-19, a disease often known as COVID-19, emerged
following the devastating epidemic of the deadly Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
(SARS) or Asian flu and Ebola virus (Udende, Akpede & Adisa, 2020).
Aside from Ebola, Lassa Fever and Monkey Pox, the outbreak of COVID-19 was
more devastating than any of these other diseases. Elnadi et al (2021) reported that the rate
of COVID-19 infection in the African continent was increasing on a daily basis, citing the
African CDC. There were more than 382,600 confirmed cases of COVID-19 in Africa as
of June 29, 2020, with 9700 fatalities and 47,000 recoveries, according to the WHO. As of
June 29, 2021, Nigeria has a total of 167,430 confirmed cases, 63,931 discharged cases,
and 2,119 deaths, according to the Nigerian Center for Disease and Control.
The numbers were alarming and disturbing. Some of these tactics included a total
lockdown, social distance practise, mandatory quarantine, and the usage of face masks as
a preventative precaution, among others. There are, however, number of research on
COVID-19, particularly in regard to how media messages are received by audiences. A
recent study on COVID-19: An Epidemiological Survey in North Central Nigeria, for
example, was undertaken by Rine, Margaret, Saleh & Ejembi (2020). There was also a
research done by Santas in Nigeria in 2021, which looked at the effect the media plays on
public knowledge of COVID-19. On the other hand, a study by Ekwe, Cole, Egbeyon &
Chukwuebuka (2021) examined the impact of the NCDC SMS campaign on
72
undergraduates at Samuel Adeboyega University, Ogwa, Edo State. Few studies have
examined Edo citizens' knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of COVID-19 media efforts.
This study fills this void.

The objectives of this study were to:
1. Determine the extent of exposure of Edo residents to COVID-19 media campaigns.
2. Find out the Channels through which Edo residents accessedCOVID-19 media
campaigns.
3. Ascertain the perception of Edo residents towards the COVID-19 media
campaigns.
4. Determine the attitude of Edo residents towards COVID-19 media campaigns.
5. Find out the influence of COVID-19 media campaign on Edo residents.
Literature Review
Media coverage of diseases like as COVID-19 can help the public better comprehend the
severity of the illness as well as its associated danger, according to Joshua, Paul & Joel
(2021). This is based on Catalan-Matamoros (2011) and Zexin (2016). Precautionary
measures are likely to be rejected by the public because the sickness is still relatively new.
Changing one's attitude and outlook is critical here.
In other words, health communication cannot be considered without mentioning the
importance of changing people's attitudes. An individual's attitude is commonly seen as a
prerequisite for avoiding or minimising the danger of poor health by Newton, Loin,
Crawford; Cartis, Elmadfa, Feunetres, Cheryl, Lowe, Meijer, Pradeep, Redly, Sidibe &
Vavy (2012). People need to adjust their behaviour at all levels of society in order to
improve their health: individuals, families, communities, countries and the globe at large.
The goal of health communication is to raise awareness. When employing
communication, this is the minimum expectation and acceptable requirement to show that
learning has occurred. As soon as the individual has gained information, it is anticipated
that he or she will put it to use when necessary or at a convenient moment (Munodawafa,
2008). Communication in health encompasses the study and application of communication
strategies to inform and influence individual and community health decisions (Garcia,
2001). As the nexus of communication and health, this field is quickly emerging as a
critical component of enhancing individual well-being as well as that of the general
population. In a variety of contexts, health communication can play a role in illness
prevention and health promotion (Coiera, 2006). Health communication encompasses a
wide range of topics, including illness prevention, health care promotion, health policy, the
business of health care, and improving the health and well-being of the general public.
Health care systems, according to Hopkins (2010), should guarantee that health messages
are properly communicated to reach people on emotional and rational levels in order to
achieve effective health communication. The use of social media in health promotion and
other health intervention activities, however, is essential since it enhances the potential for
73
quick access to public health care providers. Furthermore, social media can address a
number of aspects that ensure effective communication in health promotion (Coiera, 2006);
Asemah, 2012). Noar, (2006) points out that the mass media have long been utilised as a
strategy for promoting public health since they are routinely used to expose huge
populations to messages through the usage of television, radio, and newspapers. Educating
people about diseases and afflictions, outbreaks, prevention, control, and treatment,
according to Akarika (2019), is a key responsibility of the media. In his research, Jackob
(2010) discovered a strong link between media dependence and media trust. It is because
of the negative correlation between dependency and the use of other sources, according to
him. When it comes to their reliance on a particular medium, media audiences exhibit a
variety of behaviours. As a result, their views on and reliance on various forms of media
are quite diverse. “Trust” and “trustee” are the two sides that are always involved in media
trust, say Tsfati & Cohen (2013), referenced in Egielewa (2020), because trust always
involves two parties.
Empirical Review
Wogu (2018) conducted a study on the impact of mass media awareness campaign on the
spread of Lassa fever in rural communities of Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Three hundred and
four people were chosen at random from six rural areas to participate in the survey. The
results showed that the media campaign has a huge audience but little or no impact.
Furthermore, the results showed that the campaign failed to raise enough knowledge about
the condition and the behaviours associated with its prevention and treatment. It was also
found that the programme had not resulted in any changes to people's health behaviours.
Wogu's study was comparable to this one in methodology and approach. The research, on
the other hand, is focused on lassa fever. As a result of this, a researcher decided to recreate
the COVID study.
Isah, Kadiri & Asemah (2021) conducted a study on perception and attitude of
Etsako west Residents towards COVID-19 media campaign. The researchers utilised the
survey research method. The objectives of the study were to examine the extent to which
Etsako West residents were exposed to COVID-19 media campaigns, to examine their
attitudes towards the media campaigns and to determine the extent to which media
campaigns shaped their perception and attitude towards COVID-19 media campaigns. The
study was anchored on health belief model. Questionnaire was used at the instrument of
data collection. The findings of the study showed that Etsako west residents were exposed
to media messages on COVID-19 through radio, television and social media. The study
further showed that respondents had positive attitude towards media campaign on COVID-
19. This led to them observing the COVID-19 preventive measures advanced in the
campaigns. The study and this current study have similarities in terms of approach, in
theoretical approach. However, this study exists on a wider scope as it covered the entire
Edo state while Isah, Kadiri & Asemah (2017) only covered Etsako West Local
Government of Edo State.
74
Using the health belief model to construct intervention and prevention programmes is a
common practise in health promotion. When Hochbaum & Rosenstockr first came up with
the idea in 1950, it was revolutionary (Okoro Nwachukwu, 2015).
In an effort to better understand and predict health behaviour, the health belief
paradigm (HBM) is a psychological model (Orji & Okolie, 2021). People's health
behaviours can be predicted by how they perceive themselves to be vulnerable, according
to this idea. It explains why people don't participate in public health programmes and
campaigns even when they are free. People's decisions to avoid, screen for, and control
sickness are influenced by six primary constructs identified by researchers in their study.
The six constructs are perceived vulnerability, perceived severity, perceived advantage,
perceived hurdles, prompt to action, and self-efficiency. It was established in the early
1950s by social scientists at the US Public Health Service in an effort to explain why people
fail to adopt disease prevention techniques or early detection screening tools. HBM was
later used to track how patients responded to symptoms and whether or not they followed
through with treatment. If a person believes they are at risk for an illness or disease, the
HBM predicts they will be more likely to follow a recommended health behaviour or
activity if they believe it is beneficial.
Human Behaviour Model (HBM) is based on psychological and behavioural theory
which states that the two components of health-related behaviour are the desire to avoid
sickness and the belief that a certain health action would prevent or cure illness. In the end,
a person's course of action is frequently determined by their judgments of the advantages
and disadvantages of engaging in healthy behaviours. The HBM consists of six distinct
parts. In the early days of the HBM, the first four constructs were produced as the
fundamental principles. The last two were added to the HBM research as time went on.
If an individual believes that they are more susceptible to an illness or condition,
they are referred to as having a "perceived susceptibility." Personal vulnerability to an
illness or disease might vary widely from person to person.
A person's perception of the intensity of a sickness or condition is called "perceived
severity" (or leaving the illness or disease untreated). Severity is a subjective concept, and
people tend to evaluate severity in terms of the medical and societal repercussions (e.g.,
death, incapacity) that the situation could have.
A person's impression of the effectiveness of various steps available to lessen the
threat to illness or disease (or to cure illness or disease). When a person decides on a course
of action for preventing (or curing) an illness or disease, they must take into account both
the person's perceived vulnerability and the person's perceived benefit.
Barriers perceived - This refers to how a person perceives impediments to
implementing a health recommendation. Cost/benefit analysis is based on a person's
perception of barriers or obstructions. If the actions are perceived to be expensive or
harmful (e.g. side effects), unpleasant or time-consuming or inconvenient, the person
measures the effectiveness of the acts against these concerns.
75
In light of the aforementioned, the health belief model is used in this study to
examine how Edo State people' beliefs about COVID-19 and the media's coverage of
COVID-19 influenced their attitudes. If people are properly taught, they are more likely to
have a favourable attitude toward cleanliness and preventive measures, which is why this
hypothesis is pertinent to our study. Based on media efforts, COVID-19 has been portrayed
as dangerous to human health, and the extent of that danger is thought to be substantial.
The benefits of the media campaign's recommendations outweigh the costs of taking them.
Methodology
The researcher, for the purpose of this study adopted survey research method. The survey
was adopted because it was considered the most suitable method. Asemah, Gujbawu,
Ekhareafo & Okpanachi (2017) note that a survey is a type of empirical study that collects
data through the use of a questionnaire or an interview with the goal of describing
phenomena in detail. Research in communication studies relies heavily on surveys. The
population of study of this study comprised the residents of Oredo Local Government,
Etsako West local Government and Esan Central Local Government. According to
National population Commission (2020), Oredo has a projected population of 374,515
population, Etsako West has a projected Population of 245,469, while Esan Central has a
projected population of 154,366. The projected population of the three towns under study
is 774, 350. A sample of 495 was drawn from the population using the Cochran sample
size determining formula.
The multi-stage sampling technique was adopted in selecting the sample for this
study. In the first stage, the researcher divided the state into three senatorial districts (Edo
North, Edo Central and Edo South). The researcher used the Fishbowl method to randomly
select three local governments (Etsako West, Esan Central and Oredo Local Governments)
from the selected senatorial districts. At the second stage, two towns from each of the local
governments were selected through simple random sampling technique. For Etsako West
Local Government, (Auchi and Uzairue), Esan Central (Irrua and Ewu) and Oredo (New
Benin and Orogo). At the third stage, the fishbowl method was used to select the towns
from each of the studied local government in order to avoid bias. The justification for the
selection was based on the resources and time for completion of the study. Also, at the
fourth stage, it was from the select towns (10 towns) that 10 wards/streets were selected
and 49 copies of questionnaire were distributed to them except Ekehuan road that had five
extra because it is relatively more populated than the other areas. Auchi/Uzairue (Igbei,
Iyekhei and Jattu), Irrua/Ewu (Afuda, Eguare andIduwele) and Benin Ciy/Orogo (1st
Evborhan Lane, New Oguanogbe Street, Ekehuan Road and Eweka Lane). At the final
stage, availability or convenience sampling technique was used to share questionnaire to
any adult who is 18 years and above. Thus, the 495 copies of the questionnaire were
exhausted. A questionnaire was utilised to collect data in this study. Four hundred and
ninety-five copies of questionnaire were sent out to potential respondents. The
demographic and thematic components of the survey questionnaire are both included.
76

Out of the 495 copies of questionnaire administered, 480 were returned and found useable.
Table 1: Extent of Respondents’ Exposure to COVID-19 Media Messages

Variable Frequency Percentage (%)
Very high 300 62.5%
High 80 16.7%
Undecided 10 2.1%
Not High 90 18.8%
Not Exposed 0 0%
Total 480 100%
Table one shows the extent of exposure of respondents to COVID-19 media campaigns.
The table shows that majority of the respondents (62.5%) have very high exposure to
COVID-19 media campaigns.
Table 2: Extent of Respondents’ understanding of COVID-19 Media Messages

Very high 300 62.5%
High 80 16.7%
Undecided 10 2.1%
No understanding 90 18.8%
Total 480 100%
Table two shows the extent to which respondents understood COVID-19 messages carried
in the media. Findings showed that majority of the respondents (62.5%) have very high
understanding of COVID-19 messages carried by the media.
Table 3: Channel of Exposure to COVID-19 Campaigns

Radio 120 25%
Television 50 10.4%
Newspapers 10 2.1%
Magazine 0 0%
Social Media 100 20.8%
All of the Above 200 41.7%
Total 480 100%
Table three showed the data on the channels through which Edo residents were exposed to
COVID-19 media campaign. Base on the data, it is evident that those who said the accessed
Table 4: Respondents’ Level of Satisfaction with COVID-19 Media Campaigns

Very Satisfied 250 52%
Satisfied 100 20.8%
Undecided 80 16.7%
77
Less satisfied 30 6.3%

Not satisfied 20 4.2%
Total 480 100 %
The table above showed the level of satisfaction of respondents with media campaign on
COVID-19. The data showed that the respondents were very satisfied with the way media
carried out campaigns on COVID-19 pandemic. This is because 52% of the respondents
were very satisfied with media campaign on COVID-19.
Table 5: Respondents’ Change of Attitude after Exposure to COVID-19 Media

Campaigns
Strongly agree 250 52%
Agree 100 20.8%
Undecided 80 16.7%
Disagree 30 6.3%
Strongly disagree 20 4.2%
Total 480 100%
Table five shows respondents’ response on whether their attitude changed after exposure
to COVID-19 media campaign. Data showed that respondents’ attitude changed after
exposure to COVID-19 media campaign. This is because 52% of the respondents said their
attitude changed after their exposure to COVID-19 media campaigns.
Table 6: Respondents’ View on whether they followed the COVID-19 safety

Recommendation After exposure To COVID-19 Media Messages
Agree 100 20.8%
Undecided 80 16.7%
Disagree 30 6.3%
Total 480 100%
Table six shows the views of respondents on whether they followed COVID-19 safety
recommendations after being exposed to COVID-19 media campaigns. The data showed
that the respondents began to observe COVID-19 prevention recommendations after being
exposed to media campaigns on COVID-19.
Table 7: Respondents’ View on whether they Used Disinfectants at home and offices
after exposure To COVID-19 Media Messages
Agree 100 20.8%
78
Undecided 80 16.7%
Disagree 30 6.3%
Strongly Disagree 20 4.2%
Total 480 100%
Table seven showed respondents’ view on whether exposure to COVID-19 media
messages influenced their used of disinfectants in their offices and their homes. The data
showed that the respondents started to use disinfectant in their homes and offices after
exposure to COVID-19 media campaign. This is not unconnected with the position of 52%
of the respondents who said they strongly agree that they started using disinfectants in their
offices and homes after exposure to COVID-19 media messages.
The findings showed that Edo residents have very high exposure to media messages on
COVID-19 pandemic. This is based on the fact that majority of the respondents answered
to that effect (62.5%). This suggests that Edo residents paid key attention to media during
the outbreak of the pandemic. This finding is in line with the findings of Erubami,
Bebenimibo & Ugwuote (2021) and Otinau & Asemah that people are highly exposed to
COVID-19 related content on social media. This is also in line with the study of Isah,
Kadiri & Asemah (2021) which found that media audience rush and pay attention to media
messages when it is an outbreak of disease. The mass media in this regard are source of
health information that the people besiege for possible medical solution when there is an
outbreak of a virus or disease.
What the above implies is that during outbreak of diseases, audience members rely
largely on the media to get information on the cases, prevention and control of the disease.
This is to enable them observe the precautions measures required to contain the spread of
such diseases. Findings from the questionnaire administered showed that respondents
accessed COVID-19 media campaigns via conventional and social media. This confirms
that during the outbreak of the pandemic, people were busy with all media platforms with
a view to getting day-to-day updates on the disease. This confirms the findings of the study
of Sambhaw (2020); Nelson, Ekhorugue & Asemah (2021) which showed that during the
outbreak of COVID-19, the people relied on a variety of media, including conventional
and social media, to get information on COVID-19 pandemic. This is also in line with the
findings of Rine, Margaret, Saleh & Ejenbi (2020) which showed that social media and the
traditional media constitute the majority of the media through which people accessed
COVID-19-related messages during the outbreak of the pandemic. Isah, Kadiri & Asemah
(2021) looked at the perception and attitude of Etsako West residents towards COVID–19
media campaigns. Their findings showed that the channels through which the people were
exposed to COVID–19 campaign were television, radio, newspaper and social media. This
means that the issue of COVID 19 dominated the media.
The findings of this study showed that audience members have positive perception
about COVID-19 media campaign. This is not unconnected with the fact that majority of
the respondents believe that media messages were educative and well understood. In table
79
4, respondents were seen to be very satisfied with media campaigns. This finding is in line
with the findings of the study of Ogbodo, Nwakpu & Ikwo (2020) and the study of David
& Asemah (2021) which showed that because of adequate coverage given to issues of
COVID-19 in the media, the people were able to develop positive attitude towards the
disease. This is also in line with the findings of Ogbodo Nwakpu & Ikwo (2020) which
showed that after several exposure to media messages on COVID-19, Nigerians were able
to develop a positive attitude towards COVID-19 media message, hence they started
observing preventive measures which eventually brought about the flattening of the
COVID-19 curve.
Furthermore, the findings showed that audience members started using disinfectant,
wearing face masks and maintaining social distance after exposure to COVID-19. These
are evident in tables 6 and 7. What this suggests is that audience members’ positive attitude
towards COVID-19 media campaigns reflected the influence the message had on them.
This is not unconnected with the fact that if the audience had not have positive attitude
towards the media messages, such messages would not have had a positive influence on
them that will translate to them observing COVID-19 prevention measures; such as
wearing of face masks, use of alcohol based hand sanitizers and maintaining social
distance.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of this study, it is concluded that Edo residents were highly exposed
to media campaigns on COVID-19. Edo residents were exposed to media campaigns via
conventional media and social media. It can further be said that the audience had a positive
attitude and perception towards media messages. The media campaign had positive
influence on Edo residents. Consequently, Edo residents observed COVID-19 prevention
measures such as keeping social distance, frequent washing of hands, using of alcohol
based hand sanitizers and wearing of nose masks. Based on the conclusion, the following
1. The media should continue their constant reportage of deadly ailment such as
COVID-19.
2. Multimedia approach is recommended for campaign against the spread of diseases,
since it is established by this study that audience member got information about
COVID-19 through conventional and social media.
3. Media messages should be intensified to get people to develop positive attitude
towards outbreak of diseases.
4. Media messages and campaigns should be tinted towards educating people on the
need to continue to observe the COVID-19 prevention measure. This on the
strength of the report of emergence of different variants of the virus.
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82
CHAPTER SEVEN
INFLUENCE OF CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENT OF SPORTS
BETTING ON YOUTH IN BENIN
Osamagbe Lesley Egharevba; Christian Nelson Davies &Tsegyu Santas, PhD
Introduction
Advertising is an essential part of business life. It is an important tool and a paid form of
marketing communication used by businesses to inform, create awareness, persuade
prospective customers and remind existing ones about a product or service. Asemah &
Edegoh (2014) note that “advertising serves to persuade and inform consumers in order to
influence them and their purchasing power.” Also, Rush (2019) asserts that “advertising
influences nearly 90 percent of consumer decisions to purchase goods and services.” There
are a variety of different ways the advertisement message can be communicated such as
Television ads, radio publicity, print promotion, online advertising, billboard marketing,
in-store advertising, word of mouth (WOM) advertising, and endorsements. Asemah
(2011) observes that the use of testimonials is one of the techniques used by advertisers to
persuade their target audience. Thus, celebrity endorsements are characterised as an
effective way of transferring meaning to brands. The potential positive impact on product
sales cannot be understated. According to Olenski (2016), just one endorsement can spell
an increase in sales by 4%, almost immediately. That's why businesses, even small
businesses, hire celebrities to promote their brand. A celebrity endorser is “any individual
who enjoys public recognition and who uses this recognition on behalf of a consumer good
by appearing with it in an advertisement” (McCracken, 1989, p. 310). It is a common
practice that companies use celebrity endorsements to increase the exposure of products to
consumers.
The ability of celebrity endorsements to affect consumer behavior has been
suggested in both the academic literature and the popular/trade press. For example, Ahmed,
Seedani, Ahuja & Paryani (2015) who investigated consumer buying behaviour, found that
there was a significant impact of celebrity endorsements on the buying behaviour of
customers. Physical attractiveness, credibility and congruence of the celebrity with
reference to the product in the endorsed advertisement had an impact on customers’
perceptions about the endorsement product. In addition, Bukszpan (2015) suggests that
celebrity product endorsements can become a natural fit in that we have a hard time
envisioning the product without the celebrity next to it. Think of Michael Jordan and Nike
or Brooke Shields and Calvin Klein. Likewise, several years ago, celebrity endorsement
advertising was recognised as a universal, important feature of marketing (McCracken,
1989). Today, there are many successful examples that indicate that celebrity endorsement
continues to be one of the most influential advertisements (Hung, 2014; Wei & Lu, 2013,
Wang, Cheng & Chu, 2013).
Advertising is a form of communication for marketing and used to encourage,
persuade or manipulate an audience (Asemah, 2022). It is paid, nonpersonal
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communication that is designed to communicate in a creative manner, through the use of

mass or information-directed media (Asemah, Akase & Nkwam-Uwaoma, 2018; Asemah,
Kente & Nkwam-Uwaoma, 2021a; Asemah, Kente & Nkwam-Uwaoma, 2021b).
Advertising is a key component of product and service marketing globally, including sports
betting industry which is characterised by intense competition, limited price elasticity and
little product differentiation (Nettleton, 2013, as cited in Hing, 2014). Annually, a huge
amount of money is spent on sports bet advertisements across the world. According to a
report by Regulus Partners, a respected gambling industry specialist based in the UK, as
cited in Miller (2018), money spent by gambling companies on marketing was estimated
to be £1.5 billion, an upshot by 56% from 2014 to 2017; with TV gambling advertising
taking up £234 million, 15% of total marketing expenditure, therefore, shining a light into
the huge amount of money spent promoting gambling in the media.
Currently, sports betting is the most patronised form of gambling globally; one for
which participation rate has increased during the last decade, particularly among youth
(Derevensky, Sklar, Gupta & Messerlian, 2010; Hing, 2014). Their increasing participation
in gambling is raising concerns among scholars across the world (Deloitte, 2012; Hing,
2014; Sambo, 2018) who shared the view that media advertisements of gambling are
disseminating messages of normalisation and prematurely exposing vulnerable people to
engage in them, especially children, adolescents, young men and problem gamblers which
in turn lead to serious problems to the individuals, their families and communities. The
presence of sports bet advertisements on TV and their appeal, particularly to young people
to take to gambling has been documented by scholars (Deans, Thomas, Derevensky &
Daube, 2017; Deloitte, 2012; Derevensky et al 2010; Hing, 2014; Sambo, 2018). These
scholars have also raised concerns about the trend which they said is normalising gambling
and prematurely exposing vulnerable people, particularly those with gambling problems.
This is even more disturbing in Nigeria where roughly 60 million young people between
the ages of 18 and 40 were reported to be actively involved in gambling (NOIPolls, 2019).
These concerns, therefore, warranted the need to investigate celebrity endorsement of
sports betting and its influence on betting participation among youths in Benin City with
the view to ascertain the state of things in this part of the country.

Advertisement is the action that persuades individuals of any target market to buy products.
Thus, advertising is persuasive communication, targeted at selling goods and services with
the main aim of informing, influencing, as well as taking a line of action by purchasing the
advertised goods and services. There are different techniques that can be used to persuade
customers or the targeted market to purchase products or services being advertised. One of
such technique is the use of celebrities. Different organisations adopt this method because
it is believed that celebrities can influence the choice of others in using their products,
hence advertisers often associate celebrities with the product they advertise. However,
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there are questions as to the effectiveness of this advertising technique. Bhargava (2012) is
of the view that celebrity endorsement does not necessarily give one organisation an edge
over another. This thus raises a lot of doubt about whether the strategy is as effective as
claimed. This study, was, therefore, motivated by the need to investigate the relationship
between celebrity endorsement and youth’s patronage of sports betting in Benin City.

The study seeks to:
1. Determine whether the use of celebrities in advertising persuades the youth in Benin
to patronise sports betting.
2. Find out the relationship between celebrities on advertising and the patronage
decision of Benin youth on sports betting.
3. Find out the factors that can enhance the effectiveness of celebrity-endorsed
advertisements.
Conceptual Review of Celebrity

Celebrities have risen to become a powerful force in the 21st century and hold an important
role in contemporary culture (Koerning & Boyd 2009; Lord & Putrevu, 2009). Asemah
(2011, p. 37) states that “organisations use various techniques for carrying out advertising
campaigns, with a view to persuading consumers to buying goods and services; and one of
such techniques is the use of celebrities.” According to Young & Pinksy (2006, p. 464),
‘‘celebrities are individuals who have achieved a significant level of fame that makes them
well-known in society.” A celebrity is a person whose name can attract public attention,
ignite public interest and create individual values from the public (Kotler, Keller & Jha,
2007). However, perhaps the most impressive and widely referenced definition is Daniel
Boorstin’s (1982, p. 49) in which he defined celebrity as “a person who is known for his
well-knowness.”
Celebrity Endorsements
Celebrity endorsement is a form of advertising campaign or marketing strategy that uses a
celebrity's fame or social status to promote a product, brand or service or to raise awareness
about an issue. Early definition of celebrity endorsement was mentioned by Freiden (1984).
According to him, celebrity endorsement means celebrity in direct connection to an
advertised product. According to McCracken (1989, p. 310); “an individual who enjoys
public recognition and who uses this recognition on behalf of a customer good by appearing
with it in an advertisement is a celebrity endorse.” According to Kotler et al (2007),
celebrity endorsement is one of the various communication channels that are used by
celebrities as a means of expressing their words to promote the brand on basis of their fame
and personalities. In Nigeria, several of television commercials and billboards feature
famous persons in the advertisements. Thus, celebrity endorsement has become a prevalent
form of advertising in Nigeria and elsewhere. Today, the use of celebrity advertising for
companies has become a trend and perceived winning formula for corporate image building
85
and product marketing. Celebrities are people who enjoy special recognition by large
number of certain group of people. They have some characteristic attribute like
attractiveness, extra-ordinary life-style or special skills that are commonly observed. Thus,
it can be said that within a society, celebrities generally differ from the common people
and enjoy a high degree of public awareness. According to Uduji (2012), celebrity
advertising is the use of a public figure likeness for the purpose of selling a product. In
Friedman & Friedman (1979), a celebrity endorser is an individual who is known by the
public for his or her achievements in areas other than that of the product class endorsed.
Compare to other endorser types, famous people always attract a greater degree of
attention, recall and loyalty. Using celebrities can increase consumers’ awareness of
adverts, capture their attention and make advertisements more memorable.
In this age of intense competition where capturing a position in the consumers’
mind-space is extremely tough, celebrity endorsement goes an edge to the companies for
holding the viewer’s attention, it can catalyse brand acceptance and provide the enormous
momentum that brands require, by endorsing the intense value to the brand. The sports
betting endorsers come from sports related activities such as football, field and track
events; they include Kanu Nwankwo for Sportybet, Victor Ikpeba for Bet9ja, J. J. Okocha
for BetKing. Again, celebrities act as spokes people in advertising to promote products and
services which is referred to as celebrity endorsement (Kambitesis et al 2002).
Review of Empirical Studies

Other studies have been conducted on the impact of celebrity endorsement on consumer
buying behaviour of certain product or service. Adam & Hussain (2017) in their research
titled “impact of celebrity endorsement on consumers buying behaviour,” adopted survey
design and focused on examining the purchase intention of consumers in the field of
cosmetics. Findings showed that the element of credibility (which is composed of expertise
and trustworthiness) of the celebrity positively affected consumers’ intention to purchase
cosmetics. Celebrities also transferred meanings to the product that positively influenced
consumers’ intention to buy cosmetics. Ejiga, Omirigwe & Nelson (2021) in their work
titled “sports bet advertisements on television and its influence on betting participation
among youths in Makurdi metropolis, Benue State, Nigeria” adopted the survey research
method and examined how TV advertisement influenced betting participation among
youth. Findings revealed that unemployment was the major factor that informed youth
participation in sports betting followed by peer group pressure. Another finding showed
that sports bet advertisements on TV, to a reasonable extent, influenced young people to
stake a bet.
While the first research focused on celebrity endorsement, it did not look at sports
betting. Also, the second research focused on sports betting among the youth of Makurdi,
it did not focus on celebrity endorsements. However, this present study focuses on celebrity
endorsement of sports betting and its influence on Benin youth.
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Source Credibility Theory
Accuracy, believability and factualness are the three commonly identified items oriented
toward the content of information (Olumuji Asemah & Edegoh, 2013). Source credibility
theory, as noted by Asemah (2011); Asemah, Nwammuo & Nkwam-Uwaoma (2017) was
postulated by Hovland, C., Janis, I & Kelley, H. in 1951. Source credibility is the
believability of a communicator, as perceived by the recipient of the message. The theory
was formulated by Carl Hovland and Walter Weiss in 1951. The theory is used to imply a
communicator’s positive characteristics to affect the receiver’s acceptance of a message
(Asemah, 2011; Asemah & Ogwo, 2013). The theory argues that the expertise,
trustworthiness and attractiveness of an endorser are dependent for the effectiveness of the
message. In other words, people are more likely to be persuaded when the source presents
itself as credible. The perceived credibility of the source determines how the audience will
react to the message. The view of the audience of a medium and how they receive the
message of that medium to a large extent, is dependent on how they see the source. A
credible source can have influence on consumer’s opinions, beliefs and attitude. Hunter
(2010) states that source credibility argues to improve consumer confidence, improve
consumers’ reaction towards the brand and alter negative predisposition. Anaeto, Onabajo
& Osifeso (2008) also note that when you select a credible source to speak for your idea or
product, there is likely to be more response from your audience. The theory is based on the
assumption that a high credibility source will produce more usage of a medium. The core
of credibility is trustfulness. It builds on audience’s trust and identification of a source.
Asemah (2011) avers that source credibility is the believability of a communicator, as
perceived by the recipient of the message.
According to this theory, two factors underscore the concept of source credibility;
these are: trustworthiness and expertise. Trustworthiness according to Hovland & Weiss
(1951), cited in Asemah (2011) is the degree of confidence in the communicator’s intent
to communicate the assertion he considers most valid while expertise is defined as the
extent to which a communicator is perceived to be a source of valid assertion. Audience
members will not believe a source or an individual that is not credible (Asemah, 2011).
Advertising messages are generally aimed at persuading the consumers to accept products
and services that are advertised. Celebrities are used to advertise products and services so
that consumers will emulate them and patronise the goods and services that they are
associated with. Thus, it is important for advertisers to use credible celebrities, otherwise,
their messages will have a negative impact on the consumers. This is because source
credibility is one of the key factors that determine the image of a brand.
Methodology
The researchers adopted survey research design using questionnaire as instrument of data
collection. Asemah, Gujbawu, Ekhareafo & Okpanachi (2012) note that survey research
method is perhaps the most popular technique of data collection among communication
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researchers. This is because the method provided the researchers the opportunity of
sampling adequately, the constituents of the study population. The study population
comprised youth in Benin City. The total population of youth in Benin City is 2, 028, 806.
This figure was retrieved from Edo State Statistical Yearbook. The sample size for the
study was 200. This was arrived at, using Taro Yamane sample size determination formula.
The sampling technique is the multi-stage sampling. This is a type of sampling that requires
the researcher to choose his/her samples in stages until he gets the required sample. In the
first stage, the researcher used the random sampling to select the Edo South senatorial
district which includes seven local governments namely; Oredo, Ovia South West, Egor,
Ovia North East, Orhionmwon, Ikpoba Okha and Uhunmwode local government areas. In
the second state, the researcher purposively chose 4 local governments namely; Egor, Ovia
North East, Oredo and Ikpoba-Okha. Thirdly, the researcher stratified the respondents into
two parts (male and female) in each of the four (4) Local Government Areas. The simple
random sampling was then used to select the two hundred (200) respondents.
Table 1: Responses showing the extent to which the use of Celebrities in Advertising
persuades the Youth to patronise Sports Betting
Very high 82 41%
High 78 39%
Can’t tell 9 4.5%
Low 14 7%
Very low 17 8.5%
Total 200 100%
The implication of the data in the table is that the use of celebrities in advertising greatly
persuades the youth to patronise sports betting.
Table 2: Responses showing the relationship between the Celebrities on Advertising

and the Patronage Decision of Consumers on Sports Betting
Celebrity advertising is more effective
in influencing me to engage in sports 177 88.5%
betting
Non-celebrity advertising is more effective
in influencing me to engage in sports 23 11.5%
betting
Total 200 100%
The implication of the data in the table above is that celebrity endorsement is more effective
in influencing the youth to patronise sports betting than non-celebrity advertising.
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Table 3: Responses showing the Factors that can enhance the Effectiveness of
Celebrity-Endorsed Advertisements
ITEM SA A U D SD
Popularity 101 (50.5%) 63 (31.5%) 9 (4.5%) 16 (8%) 11 (5.5%)
Credibility 73 (36.5%) 69 (34.5%) 16 (8%) 28 (14%) 14 (7%)
Knowledge and skills 50 (25%) 52 (26%) 11 (5.5%) 39(19.5%) 48 (24%)
Loyalty of the celebrity 89 (44.5%) 55 (27.5%) 13 (6.5) 22 (11%) 21 (10.5%)
The implication of data in the table above is that popularity, credibility, knowledge and
skills as well as the loyalty of the celebrity are some of the factors that can enhance the
effectiveness of celebrity-endorsed advertisements.
Findings from the study showed that celebrity endorsement plays a very significant role in
persuading Benin youth to patronise sports betting. This is evident in the majority of the
respondents who agreed that the use of celebrities is more effective and thus, enables an
organisation to win more customers. When betting organisations use celebrities in
advertising their services, the audience assumes that since such celebrities would make use
of such a service, then it will not be out of place if they too use the service too. Thus, the
use of celebrity creates the desire in the audience to patronise the service which is
advertised.
Findings further revealed that people are more likely to patronise products that are
associated with celebrities than those that are not associated with celebrities since majority
of the respondents are of the view that celebrity advertising is more effective in influencing
them to engage in sports betting. This is in line with our literature review where it was
discovered that stars who are known to shape destinies, cast an enormous influence on
product patronage, as one approving nod from a famous face can translate into millions in
brand sales. The use of celebrity endorsement for companies has become a trend and a
perceived winning formula of corporate image building and product marketing. The reason
behind the popularity of testimonial advertising, as noted by Bhawna & Hari (2010) is the
advertisers’ belief that brand images built through celebrities achieve a higher degree of
attention and recall for consumers, which will eventually lead to higher sales. This shows
that celebrity advertising is very important in the promotion of the patronage of goods and
services. The inherent upside of attaching a celebrity to a brand is that the brand literally
has a face, name and personality that immediately projects an image of a living, breathing
and credible person, as opposed to a faceless corporate entity. From the findings of the
study, it was also discovered that some of the factors that can enhance the effectiveness of
celebrity-endorsed advertisements include popularity, credibility, knowledge and skills as
well as the loyalty of the celebrity among others.
89

The study set out to critically examine celebrity endorsement and its influence on Benin
youth’s patronage of sports betting. Celebrity endorsement has a crucial role to play in the
advertising process as it stimulates the patronage of goods and services. Organisations need
to use celebrities regularly to advertise their goods and services so as to win more
customers. Based on the findings, therefore, the researchers conclude that celebrity
endorsement has a very crucial role to play in the advertising process. Thus, the following
1. Advertisers should use celebrities in advertising, because high attractiveness can
help the customers to remember the brand during shopping and using celebrities
can get more attention than advertisements that do not.
2. There is the need for advertisers to know about their target audience before
embarking on advertising campaign. This is done through constant research. The
organisation needs to do this, so as to understand current ideas regarding the
product or services and the organisation itself.
3. Advertising of products and services should be done constantly. The more a
company advertises its product, the more consumers get to know about such
products.
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CHAPTER EIGHT
INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL MEDIA ADVERTISING OF FAST
MOVING CONSUMER GOODS (FMCG) ON THE PURCHASING
DECISION OF EDO STATE RESIDENTS
Blessing Osariemen Osagie; Victoria Ugbedeojo Ikani; Faith Ozikor Amah, PhD
Introduction
Products that are offered rapidly and at prices that are considered to be relatively
inexpensive are referred to as Fast-Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) or Consumer
Packaged Goods (CPG). Non-durable commodities such as soft drinks, toiletries and food
items are some examples of non-durable goods. Even though the profit margin that can be
gained from Fast-Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) items is low, especially for retailers
as opposed to manufacturers or suppliers, these products are often sold in very high
volumes. Products in the FMCG industry are involved in every facet of human existence.
These items are used often by all segments of society and a substantial amount of the money
that those segments of the population earn goes toward purchasing these things.
In addition to this, the industry is a significant contribution to the economy of
Nigeria and is considered an essential sector. Over the course of the previous years, this
industry has shown an incredible growth rate, and in fact, it has recorded growth even
during times of economic contraction (Banerji & Bandhu, 2005). The FMCG industry has
a bright future ahead of it as a result of its innate potential as well as, positive shifts in the
surrounding environment, especially when advertised on the social media.
All advertisers, especially FMCG companies, are forced to rely on advertising in
the mainstream media to interact with their respective target audiences in today's cutthroat
and uncertain business climate (Awan, Ismail, Majeed & Ghazal, 2016). According to
Awan, Ismail, Majeed & Ghazal (2016), the manner in which they communicate as well as
the content that is presented in the advertisement are not powerful enough or relevant
enough to grab the attention of the customers. If the information is either insufficient or
irrelevant, there is little likelihood that the advertisement will have any impact on the
purchasing decisions that customers make. Therefore, advertising has to be consistent
enough so that it will be approved by consumers when assessed against information that
has been processed and stored for a lengthy period of time in the past.
As a result of rising levels of competitive pressure and the increased difficulty of
acquiring new clients and keeping existing ones, the market has become more
unpredictable. Therefore, marketers are making the establishment and maintenance of
brand loyalty the central focus of their brand building operations that include the use of
broadcast media (Halford, Gillespie, Brown, Pontin & Dovey, 2014). The capacity of
marketers to measure, comprehend and capitalise on brand loyalty is essential to the
management of consumer brand loyalty. This ability should be informed by conceptual and
empirical research pertinent to the knowledge of how and why brand loyalty exists and is
created for FMCG using the broadcast media.
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Advertisements have diverse effects on consumers’ behaviour in various ways and

the type of media used in the advertisement affects the way consumers react and perceive
the advertised products and services (Asemah, Edegoh & Ogwo, 2013; Asemah, Edegoh
& Ogwo, 2012, Kumar & Madh, 2016). However, the degree of effect of social media on
purchase of Fast Moving Consumer Goods has not been extensively studied. This has led
to poor performance for some of the advertisers, especially when they exclude using the
social media to influence people's choices of FMCG (Kumar & Madh, 2016).
Despite the fact that a number of research such as Halford, Gillespie, Brown, Pontin
& Dovey (2014) have been conducted on the mass media and its capacity to affect people’s
choices of Fast-Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG), empirical studies on the effect of social
media on Edo State residents purchase decisions of FMCG are still in short supply. The
researchers, therefore, seek to examine the influence of social media advertising on sales
of Fast Moving Consumer Goods in Edo State.
Research Objectives
1. Find out the social media platforms through which Edo State residents are often
exposed to social media advertisements of FMCG.
2. Find out the degree to which of Edo State residents are exposed to social media
advertisements of FMCG.
3. X-ray the effect of social media advertisements of FMCG on Edo State residents’
purchase decisions of FMCG.
Conceptual Review of Fast Moving Consumer Goods

Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) are typically non-durable products that are
consumed over a short period of time after which they would need to be replaced.
According to Brassington & Pettitt (2000), these types of products are usually frequently
purchased and are low priced; thus, requiring mass distribution and marketing
communication focusing on their functional and psychological benefits. Typical fast
moving consumer goods would include, for example, food, beverages, stationery, batteries,
camera film, vitamin supplements, headache tablets, shaving blades, toiletries and alcohol.
It is imperative that these types of products are extensively distributed such that they are
always available to the consumer as and when required. Since consumers allocate a
minimum amount of time to the decision-making process when contemplating the purchase
of convenience products, they are not afraid to switch brands if their preferred brands are
not available. To counter the brand-switching of consumers, it is important to devise
consumer promotions that are innovative and effectively involve the end-user so that brand
insistence is encouraged. Additionally, the packaging of fast moving consumer goods
should capture the attention of the consumer and convey the correct image of the product
and the brand (Kotler 2008).
Dewhirst & Davis (2005) define Fast-Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) or
Consumer Packaged Goods are goods that are sold quickly and at prices that are seen as
93
being reasonably affordable (CPG). Kotwal, Gupta & Devi (2008) define Fast Moving
Consumer Goods as inexpensive products that require little shopping efforts. These are
non-durable products which are sold in packaged forms. These products are purchased by
the end-consumer in small quantities and frequently.
Conceptualisation of Advertising
According to Wijaya (2012), a modern definition of advertising is that it is a paid form of
persuasive communication that uses mass and interactive media to reach broad audiences
in order to connect an identified sponsor with buyers (a target audience) and provide
information about product (goods, service, and ideas). This definition has five basic factors:
is usually paid by the advertiser, the sponsor is identified, generally reaches a broad
audience of potential consumers, seeks to inform and also persuade or influence
consumers, and the message is conveyed through many different kinds of mass media and
also now interactive types of media.
Advertising is the use of paid-for space in a publication, for instance, or time on
television, radio or cinema, usually as a means of persuading people to take a particular
course of action, or to reach a point of view. It may also be taken to include posters and
other outdoor advertising (Wiljaya, 2012). One definition of advertising is that it is any
conveyance of information about products, services, or ideas done in an impersonal way
through any of the many media. The essence of advertising is often one of persuasion, and
it is funded by sponsors who may be easily identified. To put it another way, advertising is
any information that is disseminated in any manner, in any form or by any means,
addressed to an unknown number of people, and intended to attract attention to the subject
of advertising, the establishment or maintenance of interest in it, and its promotion on the
market. According to Moriarity, Mitchel & Well (2009, p. 55), cited in Francis (2014),
advertising is "a paid form of persuasive communication that uses mass and interactive
media to reach broad (mass) audiences in order to connect an identified sponsor with
buyers (target audience) and provide information about products (goods, services and
ideas.” Arens, Weigold & Arens (2008) further defined advertising as an organised and
constructed non-personal delivery of information about items (goods), services, and ideas
by an identifiable sponsor(s) via the mass media.
Understanding Social Media

Social media refer to computer-mediated interactive tools that enable individuals to
exchange information and ideas as well as vocations, interests and other forms of
expression via virtual communities and networks (Asemah, Nwaoboli & Beli, 2022;
Asemah, Nwaoboli & Nwoko, 2022; Asemah, Nwaoboli & Belli, 2022). According to
Fotis, Buhalis & Rossides (2011), social media is about enabling people to express and
share their ideas, thoughts and viewpoints with others via various mediums. Also important
is enabling individuals to communicate with one another, as they have done for thousands
of years, without being judged. Essentially, social media has done three things: (a) removed
the spatial and time constraints that were associated with traditional modes of
communication; (b) provided online tools that enabled one-to-many sharing of multimedia
content; and (c) used simple interfaces that allowed even non-specialists to share and
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connect with one another. As Constantinides & Fountain (2008) point out, the terms "social
media" and "Web 2.0" are interchangeable and the words may be used interchangeably.
The social media term was used by Xiang & Gretzel (2010) to refer to internet-based
applications that feature consumer-generated content, which includes consumer-generated
media impressions that are kept or shared online so that other impressionable consumers
may easily access them.
Kaplan & Haenlein (2010, p. 61) defined social media as “internet-based
applications that allow the creation and exchange of content which is user generated.”
Social media was first discovered in 1979, when Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis of Duke
University created Usenet, a worldwide discussion system that allowed internet users to
post public remarks. People use social media to build online communities where they may
exchange information, ideas and personal messages, among other things (Nwaoboli &
Asemah, 2021; Arijeniwa, Nwaoboli, Ajimokunola & Uwuoruya, 2021). People use social
media to create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages and so
on (Nwaoboli, Ezeji & Osife-Kurex, 2022; Nwaoboli & Asemah, 2021).
Factors that influence Consumer Behaviour of purchase of FMCG Advertised on

Social Media
Some of the factors that influence consumers’ behaviour of purchase of FMCG advertised
on social media include:
Internal influences: They are the personal thoughts and feelings, including perception,
self-concepts, lifestyle, motivation, emotion, attitudes, and intentions. You could call these
‘‘the psychological influences.’’ These influences describe the ways consumers interact
with the world around them, recognise their feelings, gather and analyse information,
formulate thoughts and opinions, and take action. You can use consumer internal influences
to better understand the why and how of specific behaviours. The following sections help
you gain a better understanding of each of these influences (Laura, 2010).
Motivation and Emotion: Motivation is the driving force within individuals that impels
them to action. This driving force is produced by a state of tension, which exists as the result
of an unfulfilled need. Individuals strive both consciously and subconsciously to reduce this
tension through behaviour that they anticipate will fulfill their needs and thus relieve them
of the stress they feel (Schiffman & Kanuk, 2004).
Perception: It is representative of how a consumer processes and interprets information.

Perception can be described as the way consumers see the world around them and includes
products and services (Tamboli, 2008). Perceptions are unique and determine purchasing
behaviour in every consumer differently.
Attitude: It is that lasting general evaluation of something. It represents how consumers

feel about products, services and companies. Attitudes can tell you a lot about your
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consumers and how well you are accepted in the marketplace. Just remember that consumers
easily screen information that conflicts with their own attitudes (Laura, 2010). Attitudes
exert an influence on behaviour aiming to satisfy motivation. Consumers attitude always
have some kind of concept, consumers have attitudes towards various physical and social
objects including products, brands, models, stores and people (Tamboli, 2008).
Self-concept and Lifestyle

Self-concepts explain why consumers wear certain fashions, purchase particular products,
and drive specific cars. They determine a consumer’s behaviour, because they represent
how a consumer sees herself and how she thinks other people see her. When you understand
the roles of self-concepts, you can use them to better target your marketing message and
advertising to reach potential customers (Laura, 2010). Lifestyle is reflected by the outward
appearance of both internal and external influences of consumers. When you look at all the
factors to gain a greater grasp of the lifestyles of your consumers, you can target promotional
plans to those consumers. You also can identify market opportunities (Laura, 2010).
External influences
Consumers are faced with many external influences, including an individual’s culture,
subculture, household structure and groups that he associates with. Marketers and business
owners call these ‘‘external influences’’ because the source of the influence comes from
outside the person rather than from inside (which would be internal, or psychological,
influences). You also could refer to them as sociocultural influences, because they evolve
from the formal and informal relationships the individual has with other people (Laura,
2010).
Culture and Subculture

Culture is a pattern of values, beliefs, attitudes, opinions and learned behaviour that are held
in common and transmitted by the members of any given society. They in turn shape the
individuals attitude toward products and buying decisions. Culture also meets many of the
emotional needs of individuals, so they strive to protect the beliefs and values of their
cultures. This protection is reflected in their behaviour as consumers (Kotler & Keller,
2012). Subculture represents a group of individuals within a culture that have unifying
characteristics. A subculture is often representative of a particular nationality, religion,
racial group or geographic group. You can use these unifying characteristics to market
directly to a subculture. You can target consumers more directly with your marketing and
create messages that are more appealing and enticing when you understand the subcultures
of consumers.
Empirical Review
Rambabu & Linganna (2017) examined the factors affecting the consumer buying
behaviour towards selected personal care products and how these factors play an important
role in buying decision. The factors included were related to the personal care brands and
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rural consumers. Survey research design was employed while questionnaire was used as
the instrument of data collection. The findings showed that consumers perceived that
television commercials and followed by quality and brand loyalty are significant factors
which more influences on the consumer buying behaviour even though they are middle
income groups and lower income groups. Further, they consider reach the branded products
to the final consumers use the print media and incentive schemes and recommended that
the marketers must constantly monitor the final consumers and to use the electronic media.
As a result, it was recommended that FMCG companies should always utilise television in
their advertisements due to their audio-visual advantages which influences consumers.
Ravi & Rachna (2017) carried out a study on consumer-oriented sales promotion in
FMCG sector. The researchers analysed consumer preferences with respect to sales
promotion in FMCG sector. The findings showed that quality and prices are the most
influencing factors in the purchase decision. Saranya (2016) conducted research to
determine the preference of women consumers with FMCG products with special reference
to pollachi taluk. The study sought to find out what determined women’s preference for
FMCG. The theoretical framework was the uses and gratifications theory. The findings
showed that quality is the main motivating factor for the consumer to buy the product of
FMCG. Mahaboob (2016) carried out a study on consumer behaviour towards FMCG
goods. The findings showed that creating awareness regarding products is essential to grab
the market in the competitive world and it was recommended that to effectively get good
consumer behaviour towards a product, high awareness of the product must be created by
the advertisers using the right media of advertising.
The studies related to the current one in terms of research design and instrument.
However, they majorly differed in terms of scope and theoretical framework as they
majorly did not study social media as well as its influence on Edo residents’ choice of
FMCG. The current study this complements the research gaps in the aforementioned
studies.
Source Credibility Theory
The source credibility theory was adopted to give this study a perspective. This theory was
propounded by Hovland, Janis and Kelley in 1953. It states that people are more likely to
be persuaded by a communication message when the source of the information is credible.
In order words, source credibility theory is the believability of the communicator by the
recipient of the message. The theory is an approach that allows individuals to look at issues
presented from their own perspective. In this way, the source credibility theory deals with
communication as value-laden and takes into consideration the differences in opinions
exhibited by individuals. According to Gilbert, Fiske & Lindzey (1998), cited in Asemah,
Nwanmmuo & Nkwam-Uwaoma (2017), different elements may comprise a
communicator’s credibility. However, two elements commonly identified are perceived
expertise and trustworthiness of the source.
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In advertising, trustworthiness is likely to be particularly important as a source

variable since it is always almost an attempt to get the receiver to do something that is of
benefit to the source. This makes the objective of advertising questionable because
consumers tend to be skeptical of the source of advertising message. On the other hand,
Asemah, Illah & Edegoh (2013) note that what distinguishes advertising from other forms
of communication is the particular importance of perceived trustworthiness and consumer
skepticism in the formation or change of attitude or behaviour. In this regard, sources that
are perceived to be trustworthy are able to generate a more positive attitude towards the
product, brand and advertisement than source that is perceived to be less trustworthy.
Therefore, a source that is identified as expert and trustworthy will result in more attitude
change following the advocated message than a low credibility source.
The source credibility theory provides insight to this study in that social media are
the sources from which advertising messages about FMCG emanate. Through information
provided, consumers become aware of the brand and act in accordance to the information
received. If consumers are convinced by claims in the advertisements and try the advertised
product, it eventually leads to trust of the advertiser (source) from which the message
emanates. On the other hand, when such messages are contrary to its claims in the
advertisement, it may lead to mistrust of source. Therefore, consumers may be influenced
by messages on social media if they trust the brand and the media platform.
Methodology
Survey served as the research design for this study while questionnaire was the research
instrument. The population of this study was Oredo, Igueben and Akoko-Edo Local
Government areas which respectively have a population of 374,515, 297,441 and 262,110
according to City Population (2021). In sum, the population of this study is 934, 066 (nine
hundred and thirty four thousand and sixty six). A sample size of 384 respondents was
taken for the study from the populations of the study. The sample for the study was gotten,
using Krejcie & Morgan’s (1970) sample size calculation formula.
The multi-stage sampling technique was adopted in this study. In the first stage,
the researcher purposively selected the three senatorial zones in Edo State which are Edo
South Senatorial Zone, Edo Central Senatorial Zone and Edo North Senatorial Zone. The
researchers chose the senatorial districts to be able to massively represent a generic view
of Edo State residents’ on the subject of discourse. In the second stage, the researcher
used the ballot system to randomly select one local government from each of the three
senatorial zones. The researchers wrote all the local government areas in each senatorial
zone then threw them into separate boxes for each of the senatorial zones. Thereafter the
researcher randomly picked one of the papers and the name of the local government in
the picked paper was chosen. Thus, from Edo South Senatorial Zone, Oredo Local
Government Area was chosen, from Edo Central Senatorial Zone, Igueben Local
Government Area was selected and from Edo North Senatorial Zone, Akoko-Edo Local
Government Area was selected.
In the third stage, the researcher selected densely populated areas wards from the
local government areas selected above. From the twelve wards in Oredo LGA, the
researcher selected Ogbe, from the 14 wards in Igueben Local Government Area, Afuda
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was selected and from the ten wards in Akoko-Edo Local Government Area, Ewan was
selected. Furthermore, in the fourth stage, using the available sampling technique, the
researcher randomly distributed copies of questionnaire to residents of the select wards.
However, sequel to the distribution of 384 copies of questionnaire, 377 copies was
retrieved while seven copies were lost.
Table 1: Social Media Channels through which Benin City Residents are exposed to
FMCG Advertisements
Variable Frequency Percentage
Facebook 103 27.3%
Twitter 75 19.9%
Instagram 94 24.9%
Whatsapp 0 0%
Youtube 64 16.9%
Tik-Tok 41 10.9%
Snapchat 0 0%
Others 0 0%
Total 377 100%
Table 1 shows that the various social media platforms through which Edo residents are
exposed to FMCG advertisements are Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Youtube and Tik-
Tok. However, the three dominants social media platforms were Facebook, Instagram and
Twitter.
Table 2: Frequency of Exposure of Edo State Residents to FMCG Advertisements on

Social Media
Daily 160 42.4%
Twice a week 44 11.7%
Three times a week 75 19.9%
Weekends 75 19.9%
Weekly 23 6.1%
Total 377 100
Table 2 shows that the frequency of exposure of Edo residents to FMCG advertisements
on social media is very high. As seen on the table, 160(42.4%) of the respondents are
exposed to FMCG advertisements on social media on a daily basis.
Table 3: Response on whether the Use of Social Media motivates Edo Residents to
patronise advertised FMCG
Strongly agree 245 64.9%
Agree 78 20.7%
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Neutral 0 0%
Disagree 28 7.4%
Total 377 100
Table 3 shows that the use of social media motivates Edo residents to patronise advertised
FMCG.
Table 4: Degree to which use of Social Media influence Edo Residents Patronage of
Advertised FMCG
Very high 119 31.6%
High 198 32.5%
Can’t tell 5 1.3%
Low 35 9.3%
Very low 20 5.3%
Total 377 100
Table 4 shows that the degree to which use of social media influence Edo residents’
patronage of advertised FMCG is high. This implies that use of social media
advertisements truly influence Edo residents’ patronage of advertised FMCG such.
The findings showed that the various social media platforms through which Edo residents
are exposed to FMCG advertisements are Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Youtube and Tik-
Tok. In addition, the findings showed that the use of social media advertisements make
Edo residents patronise advertised products even though 7.4% and 6.9% of the respondents
respectively disagreed and strongly disagreed.
This result also supports Yen-Nee’s (2010) assertion that states that consumers are
sensitive to social media advertisements and are influenced by them. In the same line, the
result supports Adede’s (2016) claim that social media have a beneficial impact on
advertisers as they promote their advertisements, especially on social media and Schuebel’s
(2016) notion that the use of social media in advertisements drive people to desire to be
successful and to buy the things advertised.
Findings from the study also showed that that Edo residents perceive the use of
social media in advertisement to be effective and that majority of the residents buy FMCG
because of the use of social media for the advertisement. Saranya (2016) and Mahaboob’s
(2016) study agreed with the findings when they showed that creating awareness regarding
products is essential to grab the market in the competitive world. This also agrees with the
source credibility theory used in this study which shows that people’s gratification with the
source of a message greatly determines their patronage of the advertised products on such
medium.
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Conclusion
The researchers conclude that Edo residents were highly exposed to FMCG advertisements
on social media. The researchers also conclude that there exists a significant relationship
between high patronage of FMCG and social media advertisement. Thus, the following
1. As such, social media users should ensure that they confirm the quality of products
advertised on social media before buying them in order to avoid buying substandard
products.
2. Advertisers should always carry out quality and effective social media
advertisements because it is a powerful tool that influences buying decision when
done well.
3. Advertising agencies and advertisers should always complement advertisements of
FMCG in the traditional media with the social media. This is because using just one
media of advertisement may not be as effective as when different media are used.
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CHAPTER NINE
INFLUENCE OF CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENT ON THE
PATRONAGE OF MUNCH IT CAMPAIGN BY UNIVERSITY OF
BENIN UNDERGRADUATES
Linda Dooshima Kuku; Faith Ozikor Amah, PhD & Josiah S. Kente, PhD
Introduction
Advertising has become an integral part of any organisation or company that wants to
succeed in the market place. With a lot of competitors in the market place, it is almost
impossible for advertisers to excel without advertising. The aim of any
organisation/company is to manufacture product or render services that will meet the needs
of its consumers and also make profit (Asemah & Edegoh, 2012; Asemah, Edegoh &
Ogwo, 2013). One major way to alert the public about goods and services rendered is
through the use of advertisement. This is very true because the media has the ability to
bring about behavioural change (Asemah & Nwaoboli, 2022; Asemah, Nwaoboli & Beli,
2022; Asemah, Nwaoboli & Nwoko, 2022; Nwaoboli, 2023).
According to Asemah (2022), advertising is any paid form of non-personal
presentation and promotion of ideas or product by an identified sponsor. Advertising is tool
that business owners use to promote their products to both new and existing customers.
This promotional presentation of activities is done in order to create a particular perception
about products and services to the audience. Manufacturers have come to realise the
importance of brand influencers and celebrity endorsement in product promotion, sales and
patronage. This has given credence to the use of both means to campaign for product sales
and patronage.
One of the factors that determine patronage is consumer’s behaviour and these
behaviours vary from one individual to another. Advertisers have employed the use of
different kinds of celebrities to play key roles in the promotion of product and services
because celebrity endorsement is one factor that affect consumers’ choice. Sushil & Ashish
(2013) define consumer behaviour as the study of individuals, groups or organisation and
the processes involve in selecting, using and disposing of products, services, experience or
ideas to satisfy need and impact that these processes have on the society.
Celebrities on the other hand are individuals that have influence on their audience
or followers and these set of individuals always have a lot of followers (Nwaoboli, 2022).
Advertisers and producers are constantly looking for ways to promote their product and
services to as many people as possible to increase patronage and sales, that is where these
celebrities fit in. Some of these celebrities in Nigeria include. David Adeleke aka Davido,
Ayodeji Ibrahim Balogon aka Wizkid, Sidney Onarido Esiri (Dr. Sid), Micheal Collins
Ajereh (Don Jazzy), Bright Okpocha (Basketmouth), AituJE Aina, Vivian Ebele Irube
(Waje), Osita Iheme (pawpaw), John Ikechukwu Okpa (Mr. Ibu). These celebrities have
endorsed products of different kinds. In this study, the researchers place emphasis on a
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particular celebrity named Davido and how the MUNCH IT Snack he endorsed affect the
patronage of the students of University of Benin.

The essence of advertisement is to make known a particular brand and to influence
consumer’s choice of purchase over other brands in the marketplace (Asemah, 2011;
Asemah, Edegoh & Ojih, 2013). This is because consumers need to be constantly reminded
about the product that is available in the market even if those products are highly produced
and circulated in stores and market places.
Celebrities are engaged in the advertisement, campaign and promotion of products
and services because ordinarily, people tend to forget about products and find it difficult
making choices in the market; that is why marketers and advertisers have deviced other
means which such product and services can be effectively patronised by the public by way
of using influential people that appeal to them (the public). The empirical studies of
Odionye, Yareh, Ibekwe & Salami (2022); Gauns, Pillai, Kamat, Chen & Chang (2017)
and Omoregbe & Osifo (2019) examined the impacts of celebrities on consumer buying
behaviour, but none of them to the best of my knowledge studied MUNCH IT campaign
on undergraduate of University of Benin. It is on this premise that this research sought to
investigate the influence of celebrity endorsement on the patronage of MUNCH IT
campaign on University of Benin undergraduates.
Research Objectives
The objectives of the research were to:
1. Ascertain extent of UNIBEN undergraduates’ exposure to MUNCH IT
advertisement campaigns.
2. Determine the relationship between celebrity endorsement and buying commitment
of MUNCH IT by undergraduate of University of Benin.
3. Find out components that intensify the success of celebrity endorsement campaigns
on student’s patronage.
Conceptual Review of Celebrity

Celebrities are people that are regarded as being popular and influential in the society with
a lot of followers (Nwaoboli, 2022). Nadube & Gowon (2020) define celebrities as
credible and well-known personalities in the public that can attract or influence a crowd of
people. Advertisers see this set of people as an avenue to promote the goods and services
of their companies/organisations because of the influential nature of these celebrities.
Celebrities are viewed by audience as being important, unique and very prestigious and
this perception about them have made people with similar image identify with such
celebrities (Mwendwa & Helen, 2014).
Advertiser are very careful when it comes to getting celebrities to endorse their
products because the type of celebrity used for endorsement matters a lot to the consumers,
advertisers have to select a celebrities who confirm or reflect whatever impact the
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advertisement is gearing towards (Asemah, 2011; Asemah & Edegoh, 2014). Celebrities
are key people that can be used to advertise product in promoting goods and services of
companies in other to make profit.
Celebrity Endorsement
Endorsement is the act of using set of influential individuals known as celebrities by
advertisers to help market products or services to people that brings more purchase/sales
to the company. The use of a famous face to help influence the patronage or manner in
which individuals views a particular product is what is referred to as endorsement
(Asemah, 2020). Endorsement entails a famous person which in this context is a celebrity’s
use of spoken words or a written statement advocating or encouraging consumers of such
product to patronise the brand by showing that the celebrity like it and uses it. One of the
most strategic means of advertising is the use of celebrity endorsers, because these
celebrities have a way of making consumers who are always in love with them buy those
product which are advertised by them (Nwaoboli, 2022). These celebrity endorsement
strategies are commonly used by most business organisation to create awareness, recover
and gain positive feedback about their products and services (Khan & Lodhi, 2016).
Celebrity endorsement is a form of using well-known people to advertise products
and services to persuade people to action. Celebrity endorsement is also known as brand
endorsement and it is the use of popular celebrities as brand ambassadors to publicise goods
and services using their social status (Udo, Nwulu & Stella, 2015). A crucial idea, celebrity
endorsement has become a popular marketing tactic to connect and transmit (directly and
indirectly) the traits that the celebrity that the consumer admires and aspires to, such as
physique, health or life style to the brand (Leslie, 2011). Celebrities are known to
frequently reinforce their preferred image or self-identity; as such people are frequently
fascinated by them, become obsessed with them and occasionally feel like they know them.
One of the reasons celebrities are regarded as better means of advertisement is that
they have unique and appealing features like credibility and attractiveness. This implies
that once the statement is coming from the mouth of a celebrity or once a celebrity says a
thing, it is seen as true and that is for the mere fact that they are public figures; so, they
have some level of believability that persuades consumers purchasing such a product. For
instance, MUNCH IT is a product brand that is advertised by Davido and because he has a
lot of loyal fans, his fans might want to try the product out if they do not know what the
product is and for those who do, will prefer it to patronising another brand because they
believe that if Davido is endorsing it, it is good.
Consumer Buying Behaviour and Sales Performance

Consumer behaviour is the attitude consumers have towards purchasing a product. It is
more like a decision making in the choice of product purchase and factors that lead to those
decisions. Asemah (2020) views consumer behaviour as the decision that consumers make
on what to buy, what they want, need or even how to act in regards a product or service of
a company. This deals with the of individual, organisation or groups and the process they
105
use to select, secure, use, dispose products, services, experiences or ideas to satisfy needs
and the impact that these processes have on the consumers and society (Chand, 2020).
Celebrity endorsers have become more acceptable and highly used because of their
influence and effects on consumers and choice behaviour of a product to this opinion.
Aldajani & Danja (2019) assert that celebrity give more credibility to a product when they
endorse a product by implying that such a product brand can be reliable and trusted. It is
the behaviour of the consumer that reflects on the sales performance of a product or an
organisation. Sales performance is the result of the activities carried out through the process
of advertising the product using a celebrity endorser (Nwaoboli, 2023). This performance
tells if the advertisement affects consumer behaviour or not. Sales performance is the
measurement of sales activities against the goal outlined in the sales plan. Therefore, sale
performance can be said to be the result of behaviour which is evaluated in terms of its
contribution to the company’s objectives and is determined by the factors the sales person
can control (Nadube & Gown 2021).

Andreas, Jasper & Mario (2015) carried out a study on celebrity endorsement’s impact on
brand images and sales. The researchers used the quantitative means of data collection to
identify the different factors that could increase a brand’s image and sales. The result
showed that likability and having a congruent image between the brand and the celebrity.
Stating the above indicators, the brand (Volvo) have managed to significantly both increase
the brand image and sales, indicating the impact the market strategy might generate.
Odionye, Yareh, Ibekwe & Salami (2022) conducted a study on influence of
celebrity endorsement of consumers buying decision of a brand using globacom
telecommunication Nigeria limited as its case study. The study was carried out to find out
the perception of the use of celebrity endorsement and determine the influence of celebrity
endorsement on the buying behaviour and also to know if endorsement of celebrity reflects
the quality of globacom telecommunication. The mixed method and in-depth interview was
used as the research methods. Findings showed that celebrities have significant influence
on buying decisions of subscribers. Gauns, Pillai, Kamat, Chen & Chang (2017) conducted
a research on the impact of celebrity on consumer buying behaviour in the state of Goa.
Findings showed that a significant relationship existed between the
celebrities/supporters/neutral/oppose and gender/age/occupation/ and income level except
in education and location. The findings also revealed that consumers consider celebrity
endorsement more attractive and influential than non-celebrity endorsement.
Omoregbe & Osifo (2019) conducted a similar study on the impact of celebrity
endorsement on consumers purchasing behaviour of four brands of telecommunication
network operators in Nigeria. Their findings revealed that the purchase decisions of
consumers are related to the endorsement of celebrities and these endorsement attributes
have a positive and significant link with buying behaviour of consumers.
From the above literature reviewed, it could be said that much research works have
been carried out to show the level of impact celebrity endorsement has on buying decisions
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of consumers on non-edible products, as such, a valid conclusion cannot be drawn on how

celebrity endorsement affects buying decision of consumable products; hence, this study
seeks to investigate the influence of celebrity endorsement on MUNCH IT.
Source Credibility
The source credibility theory was propounded by Carl Hovland & Walter Weiss in
(1953).This theory explains how communication persuasiveness is affected by the
perceived credibility of the source of communication (Asemah, Nwammuo & Nkwan-
Uwaoma, 2017, p. 139). This theory explains how a particular source (media or individual
gives credence to products or services of an organisation to persuade people to taking an
action. According to Asemah et al (2017), the theory states two factors that underscore the
concept of source credibility which is trustworthiness and expertise. Goldsmith, Lafferty
& Newell (2000) say that the theory states that for a message to be effective, it has to be
perceived by the receiver with some level of trustworthiness and expertise; in essence, the
source of the message (celebrity) has to be an expert in his field and the receiver of such
messages must have a level of trust on the source.
Source credibility can be categorised into three models; namely; the factor model
which determines the extent to which the source judges the individual credible, the
functional model which views the degree of satisfaction by which a receiver’s needs are
met by the source and the constructivist model which analyses the information /message
received from the source (Anaeto & Anaeto, 2010). The matchup between the source
(celebrity) and consumer behaviour is necessary in order to influence consumer patronage.
This theory fits into this research work because it helps the manufactures of MUNCH IT
to understand the relationship between the celebrity endorsed (Davido) for the campaign
of MUNCH IT and how it affects the patronage by university of Benin students.
Methodology
The researchers adopted the survey research method, using the questionnaire as instrument
of data collection. The population of this study consist of all undergraduate students of
University of Benin. The estimated population of University of Benin is documented to be
38,309 for 2020/2021 academic year (central unit processing unit University of Benin).
Using the Krejcie and Morgan sample determination which states that once a population
is 30,000 the sample size for that population will be 379 (Asemah, Gujbawu, Ekhareafo &
Okpanachi 2022). As such, 379 was the sample size. The researchers used the simple
random sampling technique to arrive at the selection of respondent from the various
departments. This entailed randomly selecting respondents from different departments
based on their availability.

Out of the 379 copies of questionnaire that were administered, 360 which was 95% of the
sample were successfully filled and returned, while the remaining 5% were invalid
because some respondent filled two options. The decision was made by the 95% that were
properly filled and returned.
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Table 1: Level of Exposure to Celebrity Advertisement of MUNCH IT

Very high 136 37.8
High 111 30.8
Can’t tell 35 9.7
Low 60 16.7
Very low 18 5
Total 360 100
Table 1 shows that level of exposure to celebrity advertisement of MUNCH IT by UNIBEN
undergraduates is very high.
Table 2: Channels of Exposure to the Advertisement

Television 54 15
Radio 80 22.2
Newspapers 41 11.4
Magazines 19 5.3
Social media 127 35.3
Indigenous media 39 10.8
Total 360 100
Table 2 shows that social media is the major channel of exposure of UNIBEN
undergraduates to MUNCH IT advertisements.
Table 3: Response showing the Relationship between Celebrity-Endorsement and

buying Commitment of MUNCH IT
Celebrity endorsement is more effective in influencing Me 211 59%
to buy MUNCH IT
The regular and consistent presence Of a celebrity enhances 76 21
the purchase of MUNCH IT
I patronise MUNCH IT because DAVIDO endorsed it 58 16%
Non celebrity campaign is more effective in influencing my 15 4%
purchase of MUNCH IT
Total 360 100%
The data in the above table 3 show that over 70% of the undergraduate students of
university of Benin believe that celebrity-endorsers influence their buying decision and the
regular and consistent presence of a celebrity also helps.
Table 4: Responses showing the Component that intensify the success of Celebrity
Endorsement Campaigns on Student’s patronage
Items SA A U D SD
Attractiveness 36 (10%) 54(15%) 21(6%) 148(41%) 101(28%)
Popularity 152 (42%) 112(31%) 63(18%) 22(6%) 11(3%)
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Trustworthiness 108 (30%) 115(32%) 92(26%) 30 (8%) 15(4%)

Credibility 89 (25%) 97(27%) 46(13%) 78 (22%) 50 (14%)
Expertise 119 (33%) 99 (28%) 42 (12%) 47(13%) 53(15%)
The data represented in table 4 show that one of the major factors that makes students
patronise a product (MUNCH IT) is popularity. This means that if the celebrity is not
popular, its campaign is likely not to call the attention of the students.
The findings showed that the population of students who are exposed to celebrity
advertisements of MUNCH IT snack is high; implying that the endorsement of celebrities
on products has a positive influence on the students of the University of Benin. It further
goes to say that the endorsement of Davido is a good idea and it attracted more students to
MUNCH IT. This finding conforms to the findings of Aldajani & Daajani (2019) which
states that the perception of a consumer about a company or a products is dependent on the
attractiveness of the celebrity. This is in agreement with the source credibility theory used
in this study which states that consumers of a product are affected (persuaded) by the
perceived credibility (trustworthiness and expertise) of the source of the communication
(Asemah et al 2017).
Findings regarding this research from table 4 showed a huge relationship between
the celebrity and the buying commitment of the undergraduates of University of Benin.
Over 70% of students responded positively to celebrity having an influence on them. This
implies that the presence of that celebrity aided that knowledge about the product and
because of him a lot of them purchased the product (MUNCH IT. From findings, majority
of the respondents believe that celebrity advertising is more effective in persuading
students to purchase MUNCH IT and this implies that products that are associated with
celebrity are more patronised than products that are not endorsed by celebrities. This is
constant with our literature reviews from Gauns, Pillia, Kamat, Chen & Cheng (2019) who
also believe that celebrity endorsement of their brands increase customer attention and
recall, which in turn increases sells. This demonstrates how crucial celebrity endorsement
is in promoting goods and services. The benefits of associating celebrity with a brand are
that it instantly conveys the perception of a real authentic person, rather than a faceless
corporation, since the brand has a name, a face and a personality. The findings also showed
that some elements that can increase the efficacy of advertising featuring famous people
are their popularity, attractiveness, expertise, trustworthiness and credibility.

The researchers examined the influence of celebrity endorsement on the patronage
MUNCH IT campaign on the undergraduates of University of Benin. It is concluded that
celebrities are used for building images and products of a company by endorsing those
celebrities. For an endorsement to be effective, the endorsed (celebrity) have to be loved
by the targeted audience. The most important component that makes students want to
patronise products advertised by celebrities is popularity; so, manufactures should always
use celebrities that are popular and are relevant in their fields for campaign.
109
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CHAPTER TEN
ATTITUDE OF ASABA WOMEN TOWARDS MEDIA MESSAGES
ON GENDER VIOLENCE
Lucky Ejobotodo Oyibo; Victoria Ugbedeojo Ikani &
Adenike Omotayo Okeya-Olayinka, PhD
Introduction
Globally, the issue of violence against women (VAW) is becoming more and more of a
public health concern. It seriously influences women’s physical, emotional, sexual and
reproductive health and violates their rights (World Health Organisation, WHO, 2021).
Women who experience violence are more likely to have babies with low birth weight,
STIs, depressed mood, alcohol dependence, injuries and homicide (Alenkhe & Akhibe,
2020). The stigma, negative societal prejudices and low socioeconomic standing, further
obstruct their ability to obtain high-quality healthcare and non-health assistance. A total of
35% of women will probably experience sexual or physical assault from an acquainted or
non-acquainted relationship over their existence (WHO, 2021). From 28% in 2008 to 31%
in 2018, the prevalence of physical abuse by an intimate partner since the age of 15 has
consistently grown (Chukwu, Scent & Emeka, 2014).
Women’s attitude about VAW is particularly important as it helps content creators
to ascertain how to address VAW issues on the social media. Under-reporting of VAW by
the mass media and its prevalence are influenced by a lack of awareness, poor position of
women in society, and detrimental traditional behaviours (Asemah & Edegoh, 2013;
Nwaoboli, Chukwu, Arijeniwa, & Asemah, 2021), but this is not the case for the social
media that would post VAW incidents almost exactly the way it occurs.
While many women get exposed to VAW, they also want to see societal views
about VAW. One of the ways through which the women can perceive the world opinion
about the VAW is through the media. The social media platforms, especially the electronic
media tend to spread information faster than physical face-to-face observations. Where the
information regarding VAW on the social media are selective, it can have effect on the
women attitude towards the media (Nwaoboli et al 2021). This study looked at women’s
attitudes toward violence against women in Asaba, Delta State.

With the increasing rate of VAW, the women look out for means through which the world
would come to their aid and address the situation. VAW has existed in relation to intimate
partner molestations, quarrel and fighting. Media platforms such as newspaper and
television appear to have failed in addressing the menace of VAW as they tend to have
created the wrong frames in the minds of the general society. This has made the women to
look up to the electronic social media in the form of Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram and
Twitter for appropriate framing. The attitude of the women towards these social media has
not be well investigated in the light of the Nigerian environment. Thus, the researchers
investigated the attitude of women in Asaba towards social media on issues on VAW.
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1. Assess social media report about gender violence against women.
2. Find out the attitude of women towards the social media on gender violence against
women.
Hypothesis
Ho1: Women have a poor attitude towards the social media reportage on gender
violence in Asaba, Delta State.
Conceptualisation of Social Media

Social media is coined from the words: ‘social’ and ‘media.’ ‘Social’ implies the
relationship existing among individuals within a specified community, while ‘media’ is the
channel through which the relationship is maintained (Nwaoboli, Chukwu, Arijeniwa &
Asemah, 2021). Social media thus refers to an environment where people may interact and
share content using the internet in conjunction with handheld devices or computers
(Asemah, Okpanachi & Edegoh, 2013). Due to the ways in which data is found, shared and
absorbed, social media are considered different from previous media. Social media
has affordability and availability. Twitter, Instagram, WhatsApp and Facebook pages are
just a few examples of platforms that people are able to access, communicate and connect
with one another by signing in using a mobile or desktop computer, hence, social media is
frequently employed in general interactions (Asemah, 2011; Asemah & Edegoh, 2013).
Social media platform is the structure of relationship existing among a group of
actors in a social media system. The inter-net enables the social media platform to work
effectively (Asemah & Edegoh, 2013). The term "internet" is used to describe computer-
based infrastructure which connects individuals and knowledge via computer systems,
thereby enabling inter-individual interaction as well as accessibility to data. The media
exert information dominance over society by selecting the kind of information that should
get to the public and how the public would perceive various discourses, irrespective of
the fact that the internet constitute a critical instrument for the dissemination of facts
(Asemah, Edegoh & Ogwo, 2013). The essence of social media platform is to initiate
relationship, especially with strangers and to build social relationship.
Violence against Women

Violence can occur between people, in the household and in wider social settings. This
becomes simple to resort to violence in order to settle disputes that cannot be settled via
negotiation or compassion (Ogwo, Asemah, & Ottah, 2015). "Any act of gender-based
violence that results in or is likely to result in physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering
to women, including threats of such acts, threat of force or arbitrary restriction of liberty,
regardless of whether happening in public or in private life," is how the United Nations
characterises violence against women (Okedo-Alex, Akamike, Uneke & Abateneh, 2021).
Both directly and indirectly, violence against women has terrible repercussions for the
other local, vulnerable players, such as children (WHO, 2021). Abused children are more
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likely to grow up to be perpetrators of (gender-based violence) as well as victims of it. This

also applies to those who see intimate partner violence between parents, guardians, and
other neighborhood adult role models are likely to perpetuate it when they get older
(Dauda, 2015). Beyond the negative consequences on wellness, the existence of VAW
makes it difficult to achieve sustainability and worsens inequality (Okedo-Alex et al 2021).
They are susceptible to emotional trauma, poor self, health problems and sometimes even
mortality. In order to learn more about and mitigate abuse and/or vulnerability to intimate
relationship violence, there has recently been an increase in research on violence. Early life
is a crucial time for socialising and can lead to the acceptance of prejudices that are
predisposed to VAW as well as support of gender-inequitable practices (Duru, Aguocha,
Iwu, & Oluoha, 2018). The majority of Africa, including Nigeria, is a patriarchy where
women have little freedom and resources available (Woldemicael, 2010). Additionally,
notwithstanding being abusers, casualties, and recovery, females have been proven to be
exposed to violence (Ali, Karmaliani & Mcfarlane, 2017). According to the 2018 Nigerian
National Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS), 9% of women in the reproductive age
group who are Nigerian have suffered sexual assault and 13% of them have experienced
physical abuse. Compared to the NDHS data from 2013 and 2008, marital violence was
more common in 2018.
This study is anchored on Yale’s attitude change theory. Yale’s attitude change theory
explains the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in
response to persuasive messages. This approach to persuasive communication was first
studied by Carl Hovland and his colleagues at Yale University in the 1940s and 1950s and
thus, was later on known as the Yale attitude change approach (Anonymous, 2016;
Asemah, 2012a; Asemah & Ezeji, 2020 as cited in Asemah, Nwammuo & Nkwam-
Uwaoma, 2022).
The theory states that there are several factors that will affect how likely a change
of attitude through persuasion can be; after all, behavioural change cannot occur without
attitude change also having taken place. The three most prominent factors are: the source,
the message and the audience. The Hovland-Yale model says the content of the message is
an important factor. So, an argument is more effective if you show both sides of the
argument, but then show why your opinion is correct (Cook, 2012, cited in Asemah et al
2022). The foregoing implies that the source or the person who is presenting a message can
influence its persuasiveness.
The theory also includes a six step process to changing people’s attitude concerning
an issue; the steps are: presentation, attention, comprehension, yielding, retention and
behaviour. Thus, campaign messages must follow the above steps because they can have
effect on the attitude of the audience.
Methodology
The study was carried out in Ogbogologo market along Nnebisi road, Asaba. The
justification for selecting women at Ogbogologo market was that the market had a large
population of women. Women who had no intimate relationship were exempted from the
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study. The total number of women that had traded in the market for a period of six months
was 31,600 (Ogbogologo Market Union, 2021). Taro Yamane sample size formula (1973)
was used to calculate the sample size and it gave 395; hence, 395 women were selected for
the study. In selecting the women, only married women who were exposed to the use of
smart phones such as android to read online messages were selected. The researcher moved
from one shop to the other in identifying such women until 395 women were randomly
selected for the study. Furthermore, the women were made to undergo a sensitisation on
violence and this inspired their responses to the study. Questionnaire was the main research
instrument. The researchers used purposive and simple random sampling technique in this
study. Purposive sampling technique was used to focus on only women in the market
because the study was directed. This is because Asemah, Gujbawu, Ekhareafo &
Okpanachi (2012) note that purposive sampling technique is used when a researcher knows
exactly where to get relevant data concerning his or her study. Simple random sampling
technique was then used to select the 395 respondents.
Table 1: Description of Social Media Message on Gender Violence

Items SA A U D SD
The social media report less news on - 23 86 79 121
parental violence 7.4% 27.8% 25.6% 39.2%
The social media hardly report less cases 18 31 45 119 96
of forced penetration anytime it occurs 5.8% 10.0% 14.6% 38.5% 31.1%
It is hard to find a video of husband and 17 51 32 124 85
wife fighting on social media 5.5% 16.5% 10.4% 40.1% 27.5%
Generally, the social media platforms pay 30 31 41 135 72
less attention to gender violence 9.7% 10.0% 13.3% 43.7% 23.3%
From table 1, it can be deduced that the social media reported more news on parental
violence. They reported more cases on penetration. Videos of couple who fight were a
common place in the social media, and the media paid more attention to gender violence.
This suggests that the social media was an important tool for sharing information on gender
violence.
Table 2: Description of Women Attitude towards the Social Media on Gender

Violence
Items SA A U D SD
I dislike putting news about violence on social 24 24 53 119 89
media 7.8% 7.8% 17.2% 38.5% 28.8%
Social media news on violence against women are 10 69 36 131 63
always incorrect 3.2% 22.3% 11.7% 42.4% 20.4%
I prefer the television and radio media than the 12 50 56 91 100
social media in spreading news on violence 3.9% 16.2% 18.1% 29.4% 32.4%
I hardly accept news posted on the social media on 8 32 54 171 44
women violence as true 2.6% 10.4% 17.5% 55.3% 14.2%
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In table 2, it can be deduced that women like putting news about violence on social media.
They did not consider the news on violence on the social media platforms as incorrect. In
other words, they looked forward to seeing news on violence in the social media. They had
less preference for the television and radio media and had more preference for the social
media. They also accepted news posted on the social media as true.
Hypotheses Testing
In order to test the stated hypothesis, the Pearson Chi-square was used. The criterion of
accepting or rejecting a null hypothesis states that where the calculated χ2 is higher than
the tabulated χ2, the null hypothesis should be rejected, while on the contrary, it should be
accepted. The degree of freedom (df) was given while the level of significance was at 5
percent. The hypothesis was stated in the null form as follows:
Ho1: Women have a poor attitude towards the social media reportage on gender
violence in Asaba, Delta State.
Table 3: Chi-Square Tests

Value Df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
a
Pearson Chi-Square 685.349 255 .000
Likelihood Ratio 313.621 255 .007
Linear-by-Linear Association 55.255 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 309
a. 282 cells (97.9%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .00.
As shown in the Chi-square (χ2) test of Table 4, the calculated χ2 value was 685.349 and
the critical value (that is the tabulated χ2 with a degree of freedom (df) of 255 at level of
significance of 0.05 is 287.882. Consequently, the calculated χ2 was found to be higher
than the tabulated χ2. The criterion of accepting or rejecting a null hypothesis states that
where the calculated χ2 is higher than the tabulated χ2, the null hypothesis should be
rejected, while on the contrary, it should be accepted. On the basis of the above stated
criterion, the null hypothesis which stated that “Women have a poor attitude towards the
social media reportage on gender violence in Asaba, Delta State was rejected.
The findings showed that the social media reported issues on parental violence, forced
penetration, intimate violence and it general paid more attention to gender violence. The
way the social media operates is different from how the conventional mass media like
television, radio, newspaper and magazines operate. Information from these media are
usually edited to suit the editorial, but this is not the case with the social media. Horalambos
& Holborn (2008) are of the view that the media are not considered as a succession of
distinct communication cycles, but rather as a significant component of civilisation. They
discussed in great detail how awareness occurs in situations, how people from various
backgrounds react towards what they observe and eventually, how various individuals are
116
affected or not affected by everything that is presented. Social media would post events
just exactly the way they are from the scene. In short, the recordings and videos are not
done by journalist. The findings showed that such media have reported various cases of
violence against women in the society, implying that the gender-base violence requires
adequate attention by the authorities concerned. Ogwo et al (2015) point out that violence
on the media affect the way people generally perceive it.
The findings further showed that the women like putting news about violence on
social media. They believe that social media news on violence against women are always
correct. They have more preference for the use of social media in spreading news on
violence to the use of television and radio. It further indicated that the women do not have
a poor attitude towards the social media reportage on gender violence. Oluwagbemi (2021)
contends that social media can be used to address issues on gender violence.

Social media play an important role in influencing people’s behaviour. Whenever VAW is
perpetuated, what happens in modern day is that people would bring out their phones and
begin to record the event. The findings show that the attitude of women towards the
campaign is poor. Thus, the researchers recommend public-social media integration which
involves using the social media to spread message as correctly as possible. It is not enough
to spread pictures and videos, the message contents that follow should be used to address
what the issues are in the videos or pictures shared.
References
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violence against women and girls (VAWG): Baseline findings from an RCT of
1752 youth in Pakistan. Glob Health Action, 10(1).
doi:10.1080/16549716.2017.1342454.
Alenkhe, O. A. & Akhibe, C. M. (2020). Domestic violence: Victimisation against who in
Benin City, Nigeria? International Journal of Management, Social Sciences, Peace
and Conflict Studies (IJMSSPCS), 3, 109 – 120.
Arowolo, S. O. (2017). Understanding framing theory. Mass Communication Theory, 3(6),
4-21.
Asemah, E.S. (2011). Principles and practice of mass communication (2nd ed.). Jos:
MATKOL Press.
Asemah, E. S. (2011). Selected mass media themes, Jos: University Press.
Asemah, E.S. (2011). Mass media in the contemporary Society. Jos: University Press.
Asemah, E. S. & Edegoh, L.O.N. (2014). Viewers’ perception of ritualism in Nigerian
home videos. Anambra State University Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, 3 (1),
18-30.
Asemah, E. S. & Edegoh, L. O. N. (2013). Social media and insecurity in Nigeria: A critical
appraisal. In D, Wilson (Ed).Communication and Social Media in Nigeria: Social
Engagements, Political Developments and Public Discourse. No Place of
Publication: ACCE.
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Asemah, E. S. & Edegoh, L. O. N. (2013). Influence of new media sexual contents on the
sexual behaviour of Kogi State University students. Journal of Research and
Contemporary Issues, 7 (1& 2), 127-140.
Asemah, E.S., Gujbawu, M., Ehareafo, D.O. & Okpanachi, R. A. (2012). Research
methods and procedures in mass communication. Jos: University Press.
Asemah, E. S., Okpanachi, R. A. & Edegoh, L. O. (2013). Influence of social media on the
academic performance of the undergraduate students of Kogi State University,
Anyigba, Nigeria. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences, 3(12), 90-95.
Asemah, E. S., Edegoh, L. O. & Ogwo, C. (2013). Employing the mass media for the
promotion of human rights in Nigeria. African Research Review, 7(1), 47-60.
Asemah, E. S. & Edegoh, L. O. (2013). Behind advertising: The language of
persuasion. International journal of Asian social science, 3(4), 951-959.
Chukwu, C. C., Scent, G. A. & Emeka, J. O. (2014). Violence against women in Igboland,
south-east, Nigeria: A critical quest for change. International Journal of Sociology
and Anthropology, 6(2), 49-58.
Duru, C. B., Aguocha, C. M., Iwu, A. C. & Oluoha, U. R (2018). Domestic violence among
women in households in IMO state, Nigeria: Prevalence, pattern, and determinants.
Asian Journal of Social Science Studies, 3(1), 15-31.
Haralambos, M. & Holborn, M. (2008). Sociology: Themes and perspectives. London:
Harper Collins Publisher Limited.
National Population Commission (NPC), (2019). Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey
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Commission (NPC), The DHS Program ICF.
Nwaoboli, E. P., Chukwu, N. V., Arijeniwa, A. F. & Asemah, E. S. (2021). Mass media
and coronavirus campaigns in Benin City: Examining the status conferral approach
of the Pandemic in the 21st century, 223-233.
Ogwo, C. A., Asemah, L. O. N. & Ottah, G. A. (2015). Perception of the portrayal of
violence in Nigerian home video: views from Anyigba, Kogi State. Review of
Communication and Media Studies, 1(2), 30-39.
Okedo-Alex, I. N., Akamike, I. C., Uneke, C. J. & Abateneh, D. D. (2021). Community
attitudes towards violence against women, and lived experiences of family violence
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programming. Risk management and healthcare policy, 14, 49-63.
Oluwagbemi, A. (2016). Can social media rescue gender violence? Retrieved from
https://punchng.com/can-social-media-rescue-gender-violence/.
Sheafer, T. & Weimann, G. (2005). Agenda building, agenda-setting, priming, individual
voting intentions and the aggregate results: An analysis of four Isreali Elections.
Journal of Communication, June, 347-365.
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https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets /detail/violence-against-women.
Woldemicael, G. (2010). Do women with higher autonomy seek more maternal health
care? Evidence from Eritrea and Ethiopia, Health Care for Women International,
31(7), 599-620.
118
CHAPTER ELEVEN
NEW MEDIA AND THE CHALLENGES OF PUBLISHING IN
NIGERIA
Peter O. Awofadeju, PhD; Adeline O. Nkwam-Uwaoma, PhD & Aisha Egwa
Introduction
Digital communication technologies are today part of peoples’ daily lives (Nkwam-
Uwaoma & Asemah, 2020). Digital technology has become an integral part of media
production and distribution. It has also established itself as a communication medium
rivalling print and broadcast media. As such, digital technology is the new media
technology of today and the future. Professionals in journalism, public relations,
advertising, broadcast and mass communications are being confronted with a new and still
evolving media landscape. Historically, media technologies have taken many years to go
through stages of development, introduction, adoption and wide acceptance. The current
media technology has exploded in less than a decade and is continuing through
development with no end in sight rather than growing to maturity. Theorists and
practitioners alike are not yet able to predict the direction of the technology or its effects.
It is still changing too rapidly. These effects occur both on the presentation of the media
product itself and on the production of media. Production involves a series of processes:
acquiring, processing, distributing and storing information. Digital technology is currently
used in each of these processes regardless of the media of the finished product.
Information technology has brought about changes from traditional print to
electronic format. Electronic publishing uses new technology to deliver books and other
contents to readers. Since technology allows publishers to get information to the readers
quickly and sufficiently, it is causing major changes to the publishing industry and
stakeholders in the publishing sector. The application of electronic technology to almost
every aspect of human endeavour is on the increase in the modern era of digital information
revolution (Oladejo & Adelua, 2012). For instance, the electronic publishing which is a
relatively new channel for scholarly resources has radically changed global availability of
scholarly publications. At the moment, readers are no longer confined to print publications
but can search, obtain and download scholarly papers from electronic journals, electronic
books and electronic archives. There are several trends in electronic publishing of scholarly
materials that are changing the face of information dissemination within the specialist
research and professional areas. It is highly required to bring these innovations together
and anticipate the next developmental stage of electronic publishing. A number of
electronic publishing developments have some relevance to our ability to understand the
current position of electronic publishing in Africa; hence, this paper presents an overview
of the evolution of electronic publishing, from 19th century of the scholarly journals up to
21st century.
119
An Overview of Media Trends

With the explosion of digital technology, there is a trend in media theory to examine the
interplay of traditional and new media. The integration of multiple media is a revelation
from which a new form is born (McLuhan & Zingrone, 1995). Similarly, Fidler coined the
term ‘mediamorphosis’ to explain that traditional or established forms of media change in
response to emerging new media. The changes are brought about by the interplay of
perceived needs, competitive and political pressures and social and technological
innovations. And media that do not adapt to new circumstances will die out (Fidler, 1997).
Since much of today’s mass communications is fuelled by commerce, the chance that a
medium will not evolve with new technology is almost non-existent. The mediamorphosis
we are seeing more of today is the convergence of different media industries and digital
technology to produce multimedia (Fidler, 1997). For instance, mediamorphosis describes
the incorporation of satellite and computer technology to broadcasting. As media changes,
so too the way we communicate as a society changes.
Marshall McLuhan in the 1960s explained that with electronic communication
space and time obstacles are removed and the notion of reality changes (Fidler, 1997). Time
and geographic distance become insignificant when information travels at nearly the speed
of light. Compounding this are the limitless channels of distribution which lack any
centralised control. These technological changes initiate new culture. McLuhan described
this as the ‘global village’ in which electronic communication would break down the
barriers and obstacles encountered in traditional media, such as print, by allowing people
to see, experience and understand more (Fidler, 1997). In the present time, mass
communications is focusing on more interest-based communities than generalised publics.
The way in which new digital media technology impacts culture is directly related to how
it functions.
In a similar strain to mediamorphosis, Bolter & Grusin (1999) used the term
‘remediation’ to discuss how new media improve upon or remedy prior technologies
(Bolter & Grusin, 1999). In other words, existing media technologies are mixed and
repurposed into new forms; media converge. Within remediation, two basic concepts
explain the effects. As is seen today, technology is used to efface the agents that produced
the media; for example, digital graphics combine photographs, line art and text more
seamlessly than other techniques, thereby drawing attention to the content rather than the
idiosyncrasies (or flaws) of the production methods (Bolter & Grusin, 1999, p. 27-28). This
‘transparent immediacy’ is a style of visual representation whose goal is to make the viewer
forget the presence of the medium (Bolter & Grusin, 1999, p. 22). However, with new
media technology, the flow of communication is changing from a linear to a three
dimensional form of information under the philosophy of hyperlinking. The roots of this
philosophy lie in hypertext, which is a method of organising and presenting information on
a computer in an order at least partially determined by electronic links the user chooses to
follow (Bolter & Grusin, 1999, p. 272). This is the foundation of Web navigation. These
two concepts explain the dual push to make differences between media production
functions more transparent, and at the same time to showcase media presentation. Whether
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it is called mediamorphosis or remediation, mass communications is changing due to

digital technology and interactivity. Digital technology provides immediate exchange
between the processes. Between satellites and computer networks, information is
communicated across time, geographic and cultural barriers. The flow of information has
changed from one way to multi-directional. Interactivity allows feedback to enter the
system at every stage in the communication process, from acquiring and processing, to
storing and distributing. The network and hypertext are replacing dependence on
hierarchical communication structures (Purves, 1998, p. 154). Thus, "as our ways of storing
manipulating and retrieving information change, so too do our perceptions of the world’’
(Purves, 1998, p. 214). With new media technology, we are moving from an anonymous
public to communities (Purves, 1998, p. 160, 162) and we are back to McLuhan’s concept
of a global village.
Similar to McLuhan’s thoughts, remediation explains that we define ourselves
through our media (Bolter & Grusin, 1999, p. 231). In photography and television, we
understand the content from the point of view of the camera. Digital visual media changes
this by placing "point of view under the user’s control’’ (Bolter & Grusin, 1999, p. 243).
The user does not control the content per se. But, the user now has control on how and
what content is viewed through more choices from content providers and options provided
for client. This operational freedom is significant to our culture because it corresponds, "to
various attitudes about the role and value of the individual (Bolter & Grusin, 1999, p. 244).
While media do not determine cultural or individual identity, the technology influences
how we see ourselves and the world we live in.
History of Electronic Publishing

The publishing revolution started five hundred years ago by Johannes Gutenberg with the
printing press. The printing had gone into the next century, the World Wide Web (WWW)
and Internet are without doubt introducing a new era in which the same kind of impact, if
not greater, would be seen in the way we store, promote and distribute (or transmit)
information. With the increasing popularity of the internet, many developments have
sprung up that enhance publishing (Ling et al 1996). This trend needs to be traced for
keeping abreast of development in publishing. Evolution of electronic publishing can be
traced back to 1970s when computers were first used to assist printing of abstracting and
indexing services. It has since evolved along the technological growth for over four
decades. The databases emerged online first in the late 1960s and Dialog became the first
commercial online service in 1972 (Lancaster, 1995). By 1975, there were 300 publicly
available online databases. Creation and remote accessibility of online bibliographic
databases are considered as very important landmark in electronic publishing.
Sophisticated online databases were built during the 1970s and the 1980s using high
technology. The distribution of database management system link different remote systems
using data files generated in the process of electronic photo typesetting of printed
abstracting and indexing services and other primary journals (Arora, 2001).
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With the recent advent of digital information systems and the internet, the scope of
publishing has expanded from traditional to electronic publishing. From 1970s, there was
an interest in the use of electronic publishing not only because the traditional role of the
scholarly publication. This role of reporting results quickly and as a formal record of peer
reviewed scholarly achievement was under stress in the print world because the two
functions could be achieved better in the electronic environment (Oppenheim, 2008). The
first electronic publication came in the 1980s in the form of plain text e-mails. They were
sent to the subscriber via a mailing list (Chitra, 2010). The period between 1985 and 1995
referred to as a period of digital revolution, involved a marked shift from analogue to digital
treatment of information. The electronic distribution path was neglected as soon as new
tools became available in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Later CD-ROMs appeared to be
more effective medium for electronic publishing. This kind of publication was relatively
successful for a number of years and, for particular publications (encyclopaedias,
dictionaries, atlases, handbooks), are still in use (Pettenati, 2001). Web distribution started
in 1995–96 and recorded immediate success. It was possible to use the rich format PDF
(Portable Data Format), to embed links in the text and to start to use multimedia tools.
Now, electronic publications are already prepared for downloading into Personal Digital
Assistants (PDAs); it is a sort of e-book device already present in our pockets for other
uses.
Electronic Publishing: Products and Services

Electronic publication can be described as a document distributed primarily through
electronic media in different forms. Electronic publishing is transforming itself in a wide
range of products and services, although most of them try to be like the traditional
publishing, while others are revolutionary in their approach and design.
Electronic Books
Borchers (1999) defines an eBook as a portable hardware and software system that can
display large quantity of readable textual information to the user and let the user navigate
through this information. An eBook is digital reading material that a user can view on a
desktop or notebook personal computer, or on a dedicated, portable device with a large
storage capacity (1,500 to 50,000 pages) and the ability to download new titles via a
network connection required hard ware. The reader hardware is expensive, e-titles cost
about the same as their print counterparts, ink and paper are still easier to read and handle.
Chong & Ling (2009) investigate the students‟ preference for the e-book designs.
Researchers compiled three e-books non-fiction in portable document format for
evaluation. It was indicated in the result that ease of use of e-book is highly associated with
ease of navigation. Publishing a book electronically is to achieve greatly decreased
publication costs, quick and dissemination of information (Cunningham & Rosebush,
1996). CD-ROM is appropriate medium for publishing books because it can be operated
offline without Internet and it relieves end users of the fear of high connecting time charges,
the readability of the text and preservation of the quality of the images (Koganuramath et
al 2000).
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Electronic Periodicals
Electronic journal (or e-journal) is defined as any journal, magazine, e-zine, webzine,
newsletter or type of electronic serial publication which is available over the Internet and
can be accessed using different technologies (Arora, 2001). Electronic periodicals are
accessible to all users regardless of geographic location. Anyone in the world with services
and the proper computer software and browser services can access online journals. This
accessibility leads to a more diverse audience throughout the world as well as a readership
that may include not only academics, but students and lay people (Saxena, 2009).
Electronic Databases
With the influx of computers and communication technologies, the strength of information
system in the development of modern database has taken a new dimension. The stocks of
the library database consisting of books, periodicals, reports and theses can be converted
to electronic form that allows access for public use through digital networks. A variety of
electronic database publishers today account for publishing information both bibliographic
and full text on CD-ROMs as well as making them available for On-line retrieval. The
prominent On-line publishers include DIALOG and EBSCO host (Chama & Saxena,
2008).
Electronic Publishing on CD-ROM

CD-ROM has provided new dimension for information storage and retrieval. Publishing
information mainly abstracting sources are quite common in CD-ROM. Although, much
of the work on e-journals has concentrated on distribution via the internet, there has been
some work on CD-ROM as well. There are many non-network electronic publications such
as encyclopaedias on CD and DVD as well as technical and reference publications relied
on by mobile users without reliable and high speed access to a network (Kumar, 2012).
Some of the advantages of CD-ROM are;
 More material can be included, both in terms of quantity (650+megabytes) and type
(multimedia resources).
 Full text searching is relatively easy to include.
Print-on-Demand (POD)
Print-on-demand is a new method for printing books (and other content) which allows
books to be printed one at a time, or on demand. It is a mix of electronic and print publishing
(print on demand combines the internet with more traditional publishing methods). The
book is held by the publisher in electronic form and is printed out in the hard copy form
only on order. This method helps free publishers from the process of doing a traditional
print run of several thousand books at a time. Print on demand thereby “eliminates the need
for editions to be printed beforehand, greatly reducing up front publishing costs” (Segur-
Cabanac, 2005). POD is highly in demand nowadays because it is a good intermediary step
between the regular method of printing paper books and electronic books.
123
Digital Content
Digital content generally refers to the electronic delivery of fiction that is shorter than
book-length, nonfiction and other written works of shorter length. Publishers of digital
content deliver shorter sized works to the consumer via download to handheld and other
wireless devices. Technology used for delivering digital content includes portable
document file (PDF), hypertext markup language (XML), WAP (Wireless Application
Protocol) and other technologies. The security of the data being delivered is the major
concern of publishers, who want to ensure they can deliver digital content without the risk
of someone copying the work and selling or giving away the works (Saxena, 2009).
Electronic Ink
Electronic Ink is a developing technology that has a huge impact on the media and
publishing industries. Electronic Ink could be used to create a newspaper or book that
updates itself. It is a high-contrast reflective display ideal for e-book applications. In
addition, this content could be programmed to change at any time. For example, you could
have a billboard that rotates different advertisements, or you could receive a coupon in the
mail that is frequently updated with the latest offer. For media companies, the possibilities
are almost endless. Someday, electronic newspaper will simply update itself every day. E-
Ink Corporation, a new company with major investors and Xerox are two companies
currently developing this technology (Saxena, 2009).
Email Publishing
Email publishing is designed specifically for delivering regular content-based email
messages. Email publishing, or newsletter publishing is a popular choice among readers
who enjoy the ease of receiving news items, articles and short newsletters in their email
box. The ease of delivery and production of email newsletters have led to the development
of a massive number of available email newsletters, mailing lists and discussion lists on a
large variety of topics (Saxena, 2008).
Web Publishing
Web publishing is not a novel practice any longer, but it continues to change and develop
with the introduction of new programming languages. Hypertext Mark-up Language
(HTML) is still the most widely used web programming language, but Extensible Mark-
up Language (XML) is also making headway. XML is valuable because it allows
publishers to create content and data that is portable to other devices. Nearly every
company in the world has some types of website and most media companies provide a
large amount of web based content (Saxena, 2009).
Features of Electronic Publishing

The electronic publishing has several features, which makes it to be unique as outlined
below:
 EP contents spread to researchers within the little time.
124
 Ease of making correction if need arises, an electronic text can be updated or

corrected with the same immediacy.
 Allows anyone with access to a networked computer to publish on the internet.
 Provides high global visibility for the works.
 Overcome geographical barriers associated with print media
 Distribution times between production, publication and its delivery have been
drastically reduced.
Benefits of Electronic Publishing (EP)

Latamore (2011) carried out a study on advantages of electronic publishing over paper
printing. He observed that one of the largest drains on corporate funds and productivity
still be the endless reliance on paper documents. Thirty years after the PC revolution put
computing power in the hands of virtually every employee, almost all documents are
created electronically. Yet paper documents are everywhere in offices today and executive
are even known to print their e-mail. In the current information technology era, researchers
have greater expectations that EP will solve the problems like high cost and restrictive
policies associated with traditional publishing (Ng, 2009). These have resulted in limited
access to information, research output, innovation and exchange of ideas. However, the
vital role of EP cannot be over emphasised considering the outweigh advantages it has over
print, as stated below:
 One of the most obvious advantages of e-books over traditional publishing is
significantly lower production costs.
 Rapid publication since electronic speed the process of peer review, manuscripts can
be immediately received attention with acceptance letter sent to author.
 Faster publishing time for accepted manuscripts. Rather than waiting up to two years
for a manuscript to see print.
 Large citations can be searched and retrieved simultaneously and instantly.
 Innovative use of multimedia: to present research findings and other forms using
sound, movies and simulation.
 Hypertext and hypermedia links: linking to other electronic information is possible
at faster speed.
 EP facilitates open access (OA) principles (visibility and accessibility).
Challenges of Electronic Publishing

Despite the tremendous benefits accrued from electronic publishing, yet it has
shortcomings as mentioned below:
 Quality of content: Another difficulty that needs to be overcome about content
security. Publishers, looking at the Internet piracy problems, tampering with
uploaded information.
 Different formats: There are many formats of electronic publications; this has
constituted problems to users despite its advantages though it is unlikely that one
digital file format will triumph over all the others.
125
 Increased opportunity for scientific misconduct: allows series of research

misconducts like submission of same research results to more than one journal
(Jennings & El-adaway, 2012).
 Copyright infringement; copyright is an issue that stakeholders bothered to tackle,
especially in an online environment. Using authors work without appreciation or
permission is very common in electronic publications, due to free access. Therefore,
it is highly essential to discuss the concept of copyright for adequate awareness and
benefits to the stakeholders.
Suggested Solutions to the Challenges of Electronic Publishing in Africa

The followings are the suggested ways of solving the challenges electronic publishing in
Africa:
 There is a need for development in the publishing infrastructures in Africa; therefore,
Government should rise up to its responsibility of providing such infrastructures so
as to make publishing easy and cheap to carry out in Africa.
 Government should ensure that steady and uninterrupted power supply is provided,
so as turn around the perennial setback of technological development in Africa.
 Unhindered access to the use of ICT such as telephone and internet should be made
available to Africans at very cheap cost.
 In addition to making computer and it peripherals inclusive of internet cheap for
Africans to use, information technology/computer education should be entrenched in
the curriculum at elementary and secondary education level.

New media technology is affecting virtually all areas of human activities; this also affects
digital publishing as it is technologically driven nowadays. In contrast to many years back
when it took printing press to make mass production of publications, technology has made
it easy to publish books on the internet in the form of e-books which people can download
and read at the comfort of their homes; it is even easy to send all forms of electronics
publications across over the internet by email. New media is also important to distance
learning as both the facilitators and students need ICT facility for effective functionality of
the programme. The following recommendations are hereby given:
 Government should rise up to its responsibility of providing infrastructures that
would make digital publishing easy and cheap to carry out in Africa.
 Unhindered access to the use of ICT such as computer and its peripherals, Telephone
and internet should be made available to Africans at very cheap cost.
References
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Borchers, A. T. (1999).Evaluation of literacy and functional skills radio programme.
Accra: Non-Formal Education Division (NFED).
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Chitra, A. K. (2010). The management of distance higher institutions in Africa: The case
study of the African Virtual University, Kenyatta University. In J. Shabani&P.
Okebukola (Eds). Guide to the Development of Materials for Distance Education.
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Chong, P. & Ling, S. W. (2009). Towards learner centred distance education in the
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Boydell (Eds.). Applying Self-Development in Organisations. London: Prentice-
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Pine Forge Press.
Jennings, M. M. & El-adaway, I. H. (2012). The making of British managers, CBI/BIM,
London.
Koganuramath, M. M., Janpe, S. & Angadi, M. (2000). The foundations of distance
education. London: Croom Helm.
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127
CHAPTER TWELVE
VILLAGE SQUARE AS AN INDIGENOUS COMMUNICATION
CHANNEL FOR CURBING THE RESTIVENESS OF YOUTH IN
THE NIGER DELTA
Eloho Patience Oziwele
Introduction
The Niger Delta, an oil-rich region in Nigeria, has been plagued with the virus of youth
restiveness as far back as 1957-1958 during the London and Lagos Constitutional
conferences when the agitations for state creation, fairness and equity in the sharing of the
national cake came to limelight. The agitations have grown to become an anthem at the
national and regional levels after the Ogoni Bill of Rights was presented to the Federal
Government of Nigeria in 1990 (Stanfast & Carter, 2020).
Youth restiveness has been a device used by youth to agitate for what they want
from the government and relevant authorities like oil companies (Agbaji, Akhabue,
Duruaku, Egor, Ogban & Pepple, 2018). Over the years, these agitations have given birth
to youth groups that have been used to carry out protests, negotiations with the Federal
Government, Multi-national oil companies and stakeholders within and outside the region.
According to Stanfast & Carter (2020), there are many of such youth groups in the region,
notably among them is the Niger Delta Volunteer Force (NDVF), Movement for the
Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) and Niger Delta Avengers (NDA).
Contextually, youth restiveness has to do with the efforts made by youth in the
Niger Delta to get what they want from constituted authorities. These efforts come in
diverse ways and have both positive and negative impact on the environment, economy,
education, social and political development of the region. While violent protests,
negotiations, hostage taking, kidnapping, pipeline vandalism, oil theft, among others have
negative impacts, agitations for employment, scholarships for indigenous students
especially those from oil producing communities, provision of basic amenities like roads,
hospitals, schools, modern market structures, political appointments, security have positive
impact. Some of these activities have attracted government’s attention and responses such
as provision of amenities, political appointments of select youth, election of youth as
Councillors in their various Local Government Councils, empowerment programmes,
scholarships, among others. However, most of the aforementioned restive activities with
negative impact are still being carried out by the youth; thus indicating that all is not well
and the region is not there yet. It has become needful for government, development agents
and community leaders to look inward to find a lasting solution or ways to drastically
reduce some of these negative activities that have eaten deep into the growth and
development of the region.
Scholars have observed and identified common causes of youth restiveness in the
Niger Delta. Agbaji et al (2018) mentioned unemployment, poverty, exclusion of youth
from mainstream political participation, bad governance, inequitable distribution of goods
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and services coupled with poor attitudinal disposition/wrong mindsets of the youth that
government has the responsibility to provide everything. Anasi (2010) identifies
inadequate communication and information flow as one of the major causes of youth
restiveness in Nigeria. She believes that communication help people express themselves,
clarify problems and yield to proffered solutions.
Youth Restiveness in the Niger Delta

Youth have been described as the future and hope of any nation, most especially when they
are well trained and gainfully employed. Olajide, Olaore & Fapojuwo (2017) describe the
Nigerian youth as innovative, energetic and important entities that could become great tools
for improving their communities. Similarly, Ndu (2000); Yusuf (2001) and Chukuezi
(2009), as cited by Igbo & Ikpa (2013, p.131) describe youth as “neither adolescents nor
children, but those with excessive energy that needs to be exerted, which if not guarded, is
channelled into negative tendencies.” The youth have so much energy that all nations can
tap into to carry out meaningful roles and achieve any desired or set goals. Akpokighe &
Ejovi (2020) identify the following as some roles youth play: maintenance of law and order,
partaking in community politics, developing projects, local sports and cultural festivals,
among others. It is, therefore, imperative that this energy be harnessed for development
and growth in all sectors. One of such ways is for nations to ensure that they get these
youths properly informed and trained in other to achieve set goals at any point in time. Igbo
& Ikpa (2013) believe that when this energy is positively channelled or guarded, youth can
become highly productive and they are likely to contribute to the overall development of
the society. Youth in Nigeria have rendered valuable contributions to liberation and
national development. When the youth are conscious of development, they become a voice
and force to the voiceless and weak rural communities.
In Delta State, some of the youth have been involved in activities that are
encouraging. They have been engaged in academic activities, politics followed with
political appointments and other social activities. Sadly too, they have been involved in
kidnapping, robberies, murder, arson, pipeline vandalism, cultism and community crisis.
Several attempts have been made by government, traditional rulers, the police, school
authorities, the church, parents and community development unions to control these youth
activities. The State Job Creation Bureau reported that over 5,000 youth have benefitted
from the programmes since inception (Erosoyen, 2020). Other efforts include opening of
more educational institutions and increasing political appointments for youths, among
others. These efforts by the State Government are commendable. However, it is rather
unfortunate that most youths in the Niger Delta have continued to convert their energy to
doing or carrying out activities that encourage underdevelopment, promote insecurity and
loss of lives.
Stanfast & Carter (2020) see youth restiveness as a sign of their displeasure to the
hardship, injustice and underdevelopment meted in the area. Akpoighe & Ejovi (2020)
mentioned that youth restiveness is caused by unemployment, inadequate social amenities
and infrastructural facilities. Similarly, Inyang (2018) observes that poverty, injustice in
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the region, neglect by government, massive and indiscriminate exploitation,

unemployment, lack of basic human needs account for youth restiveness in the region.
Youth see their restive activities as the weapons through which they can bargain with
relevant authority.
Indigenous Communication Channels in Perspective

Indigenous communication systems are organised processes of production and exchange
of information managed by rural communities (Asemah, Kente & Nkwam-Uwaoma,
2021). Communities with well established, reliable, accessible and functional channels
through which information flows are bound to achieve much in every facet. Such
communities are better organised in terms of what comes in as information that can
enhance development and what goes out as agitation or demand for a better society. Such
information do not exist in isolation, they pass through recognised persons and credible
channels to their targets. Famulusi & Owoeye (2014) note that information in itself is not
mobile, but it needs a vehicle of dissemination from one man to another and from one
distance to another. The vehicles that move information from one place to the other are
referred to as channels. The various channels of communication are traditional (village
square, town crier, market place, palace, church, among others) and mass media (radio,
television, magazine, newspaper, books, social media, among others).
The indigenous communication channels such as village square, market place,
palace, town crier, town hall and church, among others have been greatly used by
communities, government, youth associations and development agents to disseminate
needed information to its targets. Ibagere (2020) observes that every society has its
communication system through which it fosters the organisation of the community. The
communication system in Africa has effectively served Africans in the area of politics,
development, youth restiveness, social integration or domestic stability, among others.
Information through these channels have not only helped to keep the youth abreast with
latest happenings within and around their local communities but also in decision making,
behavioural/attitudinal change and the driving force for participatory development.
The village square is one of the indigenous communication channels recognised,
respected and still used in Africa to disseminate information in rural communities.
According to Oluebube & Luke (2019), it is through the village square meetings that people
are allowed to make contributions on issues such as community development, road building
and maintenance, recruitment of young able-bodied men for war, selection of palace guards
and other sundry issues. It also applies that through it, information that can dissuade youth
from activities that are non-beneficial could be disseminated.
Communication, according to Coleman (2014) is the life wire of every society and
he strongly believes that is one of the reasons, despite the global village theory of Marshall
McLuhan, the indigenous communication channels have remained relevant till date.
Corroborating this, Ignatius, Jonah & Ojo (2014) note that no form of mass medium has
ever displaced the one prior to it. They made mention of the newspaper not displaced by
magazines, television not displaced by radio and of recent the social media have not been
130
able to displace radio. Accordingly, they stressed that none of these have been able to
displace the traditional oramedia or channels; rather they have all led to media
convergence.
Similarly, Oluebube & Luke (2019) observe that the indigenous communication
channels are still relevant despite the loud noise about the modern mass media because
they (mass media) have not conveniently met the communication needs of rural Africa. As
long as this gap continues, the indigenous communication channels will always be used.
This implies that no matter the growth in modern and social media, the indigenous
communication channels like the village square are still relevant. On their part, Ukonu
&Wogu (2008) affirmed that no matter the spread and use of the modern mass media of
radio, television, newspaper, magazines and social media, the indigenous communication
channels will remain relevant because the modern mass media have not been able to answer
all of Africa’s communication questions. They reasoned that without the indigenous
channels (such as the village square), African societies would lose much of their tenacity
and vibrancy which is linked to its rich cultural heritage. Scholars like Usude & Isika
(2016) note that the indigenous communication media support existing structures such as
kingship system, families, age grades, village assembly, among others. The reason for the
support lies in the fact that these structures reflect the values, norms, beliefs, world view
and general culture of the people.
Coleman (2014) adds that the rural people see mass media as glamorous,
impersonal and unbelievable when compared with the indigenous communication channels
they are familiar with. Their perception of the modern mass media has further endeared the
indigenous communication channels to the rural people. Hence, Bello (2013) warns that
any communication strategy which ignores indigenous communication channels cannot
successfully win and retain people’s attention for long. In other words, no matter how
effective the modern mass media may appear to be, the indigenous communication
channels are still relevant and influential on those who use them.
In rural communities, the information needs of the people are satisfied through the
indigenous communication channels. Osho (2011) as cited by Odigbo, Ogbu & Okonkwo
(2016) observe that African traditional channels (oramedia) are particularly more effective
channels of communication amongst the African populace because of their uniqueness in
the modern age which includes the widespread of usage amongst the people, its better
appeal, deep effect and easy assimilation by the people. More still, the indigenous channels
are more culture-centred and more long-lasting. They are less expensive channels and they
use indigenous technology in disseminating information to the people; hence, their
communality nature. Thus, the people believe in messages from them more than those from
the conventional channels.
Talking about the credibility of the indigenous channels, Ayo (2007) as cited by
Ushe (2009) notes that the messages from indigenous channels are seen to be credible
because of the strong belief on the sources that are highly respected by the individuals in
the community. The scholar also noted that the affinity between participants in the
communication process is one of the things that make people to rely on information from
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the traditional channels. The mass media are individualistic while the indigenous
communication channels are communal in nature. Besides being credible, Akpoveta (2006)
as cited by Oziwele (2008) observes that the indigenous channels are highly patent in
persuasion of rural folks towards the adoption of new ideas. This persuasion stems from
the fact that the indigenous channels rely on indigenous technology and employ values and
symbols that the people identify with (Ogwezzy, 2008).
In the same vein, Agbanu & Nwabueze (2007) asserted that the indigenous
communication channels have the potentials of creating willingness to act or respond to
messages in the minds of people. Ibagere (2020) observes that in the rural areas,
information disseminated are easily verified thereby making it difficult for false
information to thrive. He further states that whatever information is perceived to be false
is immediately suppressed while that which is true is promoted or edified. This is one of
the reasons why information disseminated through indigenous communication channels
like the village square are easily accepted and acted on. The indigenous communication
channels, according to Oziwele (2008), are still relevant even in the face of modernity or
super imposing mass media. This is because the mass media have not been able to provide
strong feedback such as we have in the indigenous communication channels like the village
square. Ukonu & Wogu (2008) also argue that the dependence on the indigenous
communication channels for information have enabled social stability and cohesion. While
the modern mass media have not been able to mobilise the people at the grassroots for
community and national development, the indigenous communication channels have done
that effectively.
Youth Restiveness and Village Square in Focus

In time past, under trees located at the centre of the community served as village square.
Ukonu & Wogu (2008) describe the village square as a place for meetings and centre of
festive activities. Oso (2000) as cited by Bello (2013) adds that the village square was a
forum where government officials meet the rural people in their villages and they give them
the privilege to ask questions, pass comments and make suggestions on how to resolve
lingering issues or support governments’ efforts. The major reasons for the choice of the
village square by government officials are because of the large populace in the rural
communities who still use it as a communication channel and its easy accessibility.
However, modernisation and urbanisation have made most rural communities in
the Niger Delta region to cut down trees that served as village square. Notwithstanding,
most rural communities now use little hut-like buildings usually square or rectangular in
shape located at the centre of the quarters as village square. The village square is used as
bus stop for people travelling to neighbouring villages, relaxation spot for those coming
home from their farms in the evening, night market for quarters where they are located,
among others. Activities of this nature have further strengthened the village square as not
just a venue for meetings but a communication channel as well because people interact as
they transit and transact through it. This establishes the fact that though the trees are not
there, the village square still exists among the people in rural communities.
132
Furthermore, formal meetings at the village square are usually summoned by the
government officials or community leaders with the intent of communicating with the
people on how to resolve lingering issues or support governments’ efforts. Such issues,
among others could be on demands by the community or youth’s agitations, criminal
activities such as pipeline vandalism, kidnapping, stealing going on in the community,
among others. The formal meetings are summoned with the help of the town crier who
goes round the community with the gong to inform and remind all about the scheduled
meeting. Thus, one can say that with the town crier, the village square as a communication
channel does not work in isolation. According to Oluebube & Luke (2019), it is through
the town crier that villagers, in most cases are summoned to the village square meetings.
One of the peculiarities of the village square that has made it attractive for formal meetings
is that information is disseminated, received, decisions are taken and there could be
immediate feedback. On the other hand, Ukonu & Wogu (2008) believe that people will
always respond to messages that are packaged in modes they know than the ones that come
through unfamiliar modes. The village square is a known communication channel in rural
communities, therefore, youth can easily respond to messages disseminated in any form.
This implies that the response of youth to messages packaged through the village square
could go a long way in affecting their participation in restive activities since they have been
assessed to be reliable and credible.
Furthermore, the UNDP Oslo Government Centre Media (2017) mentioned that
free flowing information enables dialogue and encourages people to express their views.
In other words, a community that allows free flow of information through the available and
accessible channels of communication such as the village square could curb youth activities
that are not favourable to the community. This is because, as mentioned earlier by Oso
(2000) as cited by Bello (2013), the village square is a forum where government officials
meet the rural people in their villages and they are given the privilege to ask questions, pass
comments and make suggestions. It, therefore, creates opportunities for free flow of
information in the community. This free flow of information in turn affects youths’ attitude
towards others and also promotes positive mindsets.
Nora (2010) reasons that the lack of information can make people desperate,
restless and easy to manipulate while well informed decisions strengthen society and
fosters growth on every side. Communication channels are the bridge between the
government, community and the youths. The more the youths are exposed to relevant
information from government or vice versa, the better things become. Reaching out to the
youth with relevant information have the potency of building in them a sense of belonging
that could effectively help resolve issues. The use of traditional communication channels
like village square that encourages participatory development should be greatly encouraged
among the youths.
This paper, therefore, posits that the village square as a communication channel
could be one of the vehicles through which government and community leaders
disseminate information that are strong enough to curb youth’s restiveness. The channel
creates the avenue for youth to engage in interpersonal communication with community
133
leaders, change agents and government. Oziwele (2011) notes that interpersonal
communication using the available channels is effective when it comes to attitude
formation. Thus, the village square not only promotes effective communication, but it helps
in attitude formation.
One of the resultant effects or outcome of poor information flow is that youth could
be easily manipulated and desperate at the same time. This implies that when youth are
well-informed, their actions and reactions are bound to be influenced and in turn, they
could make decisions that are for the good of the community. In order for these youth to
become instruments of strength, growth and development, government, community and
youth leaders must make deliberate efforts to provide information that is strong enough to
influence a positive mindset in the youth towards self-development in particular and
community in general. They should be made to understand that they can be heard, seen,
read, become agents of development and can live without crime, among others. They
should be allowed to make informed decisions, carry out activities that promote peace and
security.

The paper focused on the Village Square as an indigenous communication channel through
which youth restiveness in the Niger Delta region can be curbed. Lack of information can
make youth to be restless and desperate and it is based on this premise that it is concluded
that the village square as an indigenous communication channel can be effectively used to
disseminate information strong enough to develop a positive mindset in the Niger Delta
youth. Thus, it recommended that those who seek to curb youth restiveness could use the
village square to reach out to the youth since it is assessed to provide credible information
and effective spread.
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CHAPTER THIRTEEN
USE OF DIGITAL MEDIA FOR EVANGELISATION BY
CATHOLIC ARCHDIOCESE OF BENIN CITY DURING THE 2020
COVID-19 LOCKDOWN
Jude Orah & Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD
Introduction
The internet, social media, mobile apps and other digital communication technologies have
become part of people’s daily lives (Nkwam-Uwaoma & Asemah, 2020). From the stone
age to present day, technology has been part of human experiential existence and the world
we live has been described differently according to times and happenings in every age;
from being a stone age to computer age and now, gradually moving to a “digital continent”
(Gazda & Kulla, 2013). The pandemic; that is COVID-19 which led to several lockdowns
around the world seems to make the realisation of digital continent quickly possible. A lot
of human activity took place digitally within the period, from government to commerce
and even religious worship. Humans having invented technology cannot do without it.
Technology has been described as “the body of practical knowledge and equipment used
in enhancing the effectiveness of human labour, and also altering the environment for
human use” (Asemah, Kente & Nkwam-Uwaoma, 2021, p. 38). Asemah (2011) posits that
“technology is a mix of process and product in which scientific knowledge is applied to
solve human problems.” In essence, technology in whatever guise is meant to meet human
needs, especially in solving problems. Technology gave rise to digital media.
Like technology itself, the advent of digital media affects every facet of human
activity, both material and spiritual. As Jumbo, Anyanwu & Etumnu (2020) put it, “digital
media have penetrated all the nooks and crannies of the society and human endeavours.”
Digital media has contributed to communication and has put information at an easy reach
(Jonah, 2020). Digital media include social media amongst others (Jonah 2020). Social
media, as a digital platform, is used more by youth because of its interactive nature.
Asemah, Nwaoboli & Nwoko (2022) describe social media as “online media that expedite
conversation as opposed to traditional media (newspaper, magazine, television and radio)
which deliver content, but do not allow readers/viewers/listeners to participate in the
creation or development of the content.”
Digital media was useful in promoting awareness of the coronavirus pandemic by
government and organisations. Religious bodies key into digital media to reach out to their
members. This was true also about the Catholic Church in the area of evangelisation. The
task of evangelisation is taken seriously by all Christians. The apostles, who first received
the mandate of evangelisation from Christ Jesus (Mt 28:18-20 RSVC) made use of the
technology of their day which allowed them travelled through land and seas. Today the
scenario is different because of new inventions and innovations, especially the computer,
digital phones and internet technologies.
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There are limited studies on how digital media was used for evangelisation during
the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown in Nigeria, especially in relation to the Catholic
Church. Adichie (2021) conducted research on the impact of COVID-19 on the Roman
Catholic Church in South Eastern Nigeria with focus on the changes made for the faithful
to benefit from preaching of the Gospel and Holy Eucharist celebration. Wobodo (2020)
on his part carried out a study to determine the extent Nigerian churches effectively used
ICTs and the challenges faced as the pandemic ranges. Afolaranmi (2020) in his study
focused on the channels through which pastors ministered to their members during the
lockdown. Tama & Jacob (2020) in their study highlighted the negative and positive
impacts of COVID-19 pandemic on the church and how the church can develop ways for
economic sustainability. A critical look at these previous studies shows that none treated
the use of digital media for evangelisation by churches in Nigeria during the COVID-19
lockdown and how effective it was. Hence, this study was motivated by the need to
determine the extent to which the Catholic Archdiocese of Benin City used digital media
for evangelisation during the COVID-19 lockdown in 2020 and its effectiveness.
Research Questions
This study was guided by the following questions:
1. To what extent did the Catholic Archdiocese of Benin City used digital media for
evangelisation during the 2020 COVID-19 lockdown?
2. Which digital media was mostly used for evangelisation by the Catholic
Archdiocese of Benin City during the 2020 COVID-19 lockdown?
3. What is the level of effectiveness of the digital media used for evangelisation by the
Catholic Archdiocese of Benin City during the 2020 COVID-19 lockdown?
4. What were the challenges of using digital media for evangelisation during the 2020
COVID-19 lockdown?
Literature Review
Catholic Archdiocese of Benin City (CABC) covers an area of 10,856,700 Sq. Km with
membership strength of 145,400 Catholic faithful out of a total population of 1,915,973 of
the Archdiocese (Archdiocesan Catholic Secretariat, 2021). CABC is divided into three
deaneries: Abudu Deanery, Benin City Deanery and Iguobazuwa Deanery. Each of this
deanery has a Dean that overseas it and report to the Archbishop of the Archdiocese. The
history of CABC dates back to 1486 when some Portuguese Catholic Missionary Priests
visited the ancient Kingdom of Benin under Oba Esigie who also received baptism from
the priests (Archdiocesan Catholic Secretariat, 2021). The missionaries led by John
Affonso d’Aveiro, an explorer and an emissary to the King of Portugal, built some
particular churches (CCC, 832) in Ogbelaka, Idunmwerie, Idumwu-Ebo, Akpakpava and
Holy Cross Road. The Church edifice built at Akpakpava Road is the only one still standing
today. But it has been converted to a Benin traditional church known as ‘Holy Aruosa
Cathedral’ and used for Bini traditional form of worship synchronised with Catholicism.
137
Besides the Portuguese missionaries, other missionaries (the Capuchins) also came
later to Benin Kingdom to evangelise. However, missionaries known as Society of African
Missions (SMA), unlike others before them, succeeded in establishing the Catholic Church
firmly in Benin City. The SMA’s missionary efforts gave birth to the Vicariate of Asaba-
Benin which grew to become the Metropolitan Seat of the Catholic Archdiocese of Benin
City amongst other successes. Statistically, as at the time of this study, CABC can boast of
84 Parishes, 2 Quasi Parishes/Mass Centres and 172 Outstations under the care of 160
priests (diocesan, fidei donum and religious) and an Archbishop (Archdiocesan Catholic
Secretariat, 2021). It is important to state too that CABC as a Metropolitan See oversees
the following dioceses: Auchi Diocese, Bomadi Vicariate, Isele-Uku Diocese, Uromi
Diocese and Warri Diocese. Each of these dioceses has a bishop with priests and lay faithful
under him.
The history of digital media can be traced to the inventions of computers and
internet (Demuyakor, 2020; Okunna & Omenugha 2012). However, the aim here is to
understand what digital media means, rather than its history. Digital media is a component
of the mass media. ‘The mass media is taken to encompass radio, newspapers and
television, but also include the internet, music, books, films visual arts and theatre
(Emelobe, 2016, 528-547). According to Demuyakor (2020), digital media is “the use of
computers and mobile devices which are aided by internet to create and disseminate content
as well as other physical embodiment such as flash memory sticks, hard drive among
others.” For Das (2020), “Digital media refers to the media that are encoded in machine-
readable formats.” Digital media can be created, viewed, communicated, modified and
preserved on digital electronics devices such as software, digital images, videos, web
pages, websites, social media, digital data, digital audio and E-books (Das, 2020).
Sometimes, digital media is used interchangeably with ‘new media’ (Asemah & Edegoh,
2012; Demuyakor 2020) or ‘multimedia’ (Omenugha, 2018). Digital media, however,
specifically refers to electronic media that use digital codes rather than analogue signals
(Omenugha, 2018). Through digital media messages meant for a large audience can be
delivered in a variety of channels.
Digital media is incomplete without information and communication technology
(ICT). ICT is an umbrella term that includes any communication device or application,
encompassing radio, television, cellular phones, computer and network, hardware and
software, satellite systems and so on, as well as the various services and applications
associated with them such as video conferencing and distance learning (Ossai-Ugbah,
2011). ICT is an extensional term for information technology (IT) that stresses the role of
unified communications (Murray, 2011). ICT is often spoken of in a particular context,
such as ICT in education or library.
A pandemic could be a serious infectious disease that spreads rapidly between
people and occurs at the same time not only in one country but around the world (Hawker,
2005). Madhave, Oppenheim & Gallivan (2015) defines pandemic as a “large scale
outbreaks of infectious disease that can greatly increase morbidity and mortality over a
wide geographic area and cause significant economic, social and political disruption.”
138
Drawing from the above definitions, it is quite clear that a pandemic is a widespread disease
that is infectious and affects a vast area of the world and numerous populations leading to
deaths. This is why the WHO in 2020 declared COVID-19 declared a pandemic due to its
spread and worldwide mortality effects COVID-19 pandemic is caused by a coronavirus
named SARS-CoV-2 (WHO, 2020). coronaviruses (CoVs) are a large family of viruses,
several of which cause respiratory diseases in humans, from the common cold to rarer and
serious diseases such as the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and the Middle
East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), both of which have high mortality rates and were
detected for the first time in 2003 and 2012, respectively (WHO, 2020). For Nwaoboli,
Chukwu, Arijeniwa & Asemah (2021), “coronavirus disease is an infectious disease caused
by a newly discovered corona virus” named “SARS-CoV-2” and the disease has been
named “coronavirus disease 2019” or COVID-19 (Ozili 2020). COVID-19 was first
reported and traced to Wuhan City, China, in December 2019 (WHO, 2020). According to
WHO (2020), “Environmental samples taken from this market in December 2019 tested
positive for SARS-CoV-2, further suggesting that the market in Wuhan City was the source
of this outbreak or played a role in the initial amplification of the outbreak.”
COVID-19 is a contagious respiratory illness that can be contracted through the
eyes, nose, mouth and droplets from cough and sneezes through close contact with infected
persons and surfaces. Cough, fever and shortness of breath are the known symptoms of the
virus. The virus could also lead to severe respiratory problems or death (Sauer 2020).
According to WHO (2020), “all available evidence suggests that SARS-CoV-2 has a
natural animal origin and is not a manipulated or constructed virus. SARS-CoV-2 virus
most probably has its ecological reservoir in bats.” From the foregoing, it would be factual
to say that COVID-19 originated from animal hosts of the virus, SARS-CoV-2. But this
animal host has not been successfully identified. Hence, WHO warns: “Until the source of
this virus is identified and controlled, there is a risk of reintroduction of the virus into the
human population and the risk of new outbreaks like the ones we are currently
experiencing,” that is, COVID-19 pandemic.
The world today is moving very fast towards digitalisation. The Church cannot be
left behind in such movement. From inception the Church has always encouraged the use
of technology and made use of it herself. Digital technologies cannot be different since it
aids the priest to “introduce people to the life of the church and help our contemporaries to
discover the face of Christ” (Pope Benedict XVI 2010). Hence, Tan (2009) calls on the
Christian faithful to engage today’s technology for evangelisation, especially with the new
generation. It is, in fact, on record that it was by means of digital media that the Pope
(Francis) gave his Easter blessings and message to the whole world in 2020 due to COVID-
19 pandemic (Bullivant, 2020). Digital media and internet technologies enabled the Pope
reach out to millions of Christian faithful, evangelising, teaching and sharing the gospel of
hope and faith that Christ’s resurrection guarantees. This is why the Christian faithful
should not be afraid to take advantage of new technologies as they develop.
Evangelisation is derived from the word Evangelion (Greek) which means
goodness and taken from the verb Evangelisomai (Greek) which itself means ‘preach the
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good news.’ Sowale (2001) defines evangelisation as proclaiming the good news of the
love of God as discovered in his Son Jesus Christ, in the power of the Holy Spirit. It is
sharing the Lord Jesus Christ with the world. In simple term, evangelisation is telling
people about the love of God and the death and resurrection of Christ Jesus for the purpose
of conversion and salvation. It is the work and heritage of all members of Christ body, the
Church. Evangelisation by means of digital media is achieved through the use of the
Internet, social media or networks, blogs and other electronic technologies. Digital media
have the potential to reach a large number of people where there has been a barrier, which
media has assisted the Church in reaching out to those places where physical presence may
not be possible. Digital media possesses potentials which if harnessed will help in the
effective dissemination of the Gospel. Evangelisation is important to the Church’s growth
as well as helping the faithful not to grow lukewarm in their faith. Evangelisation is a key
factor in Christianity for growth and expansion.
Indeed, Christ Jesus desires that the Gospel be preached to all the nations.
Technology has helped in no small measures in making this possible. CABC as a particular
Church has tapped into this gifts of technology and digital media to reach out to the faithful
across the Archdiocese. For instance, CABC has established the Archdiocesan Social
Communications, the Veritas Newspapers, a printing press known as Floreat Systems. It
also established St Augustine Computer Training School in NIFOR. CABC also has a
functional website (wwww.archdioceseofbenin.com) (Archdiocesan Catholic Secretariat,
2021, 12; 32-35). CABC, in the course of the COVID-19 lockdown, opened two social
media pages: Facebook (Catholic Archdiocese of Benin City, Communications) and
YouTube (Catholic Archdiocese of Benin City Communication) for evangelisation. All
these simply show the interests of CABC not only in technology but to use it as a means
of evangelisation to all the people in Benin Metropolis. Hence, when COVID-19 broke out
in Nigeria around February 2020 and following the Federal Government restrictions on
gatherings and movements, CABC did not hesitate to use digital media technology enabled
by the internet to reach out to the faithful within the Archdiocese via Facebook and
YouTube. This brought faith and hope to the faithful and many other Christians and
religious adherents who followed the Archbishop of Benin City as he ministers the word
of God and celebrate the Eucharist at Holy Mass via digital platforms. Also, some priests
in the Archdiocese, especially those that were into prayer ministry like the Catholic
Intercessory Prayer Session (CIPS) or who conducted weekly prayer sessions in their
individual parishes, took to digital media for ministration and evangelisation; others simply
sent meditation/reflection each day to their parishioners and others via WhatsApp and
Messenger. The challenges posed by COVID-19 pandemic on evangelisation were easily
mitigated using digital media such that it has become part of the ways CABC reach out to
the Christian faithful and other people in Benin metropolis. The lay faithful are more than
encouraged to preach the Gospel using digital media too.
Adichie (2021) examined the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on the Roman
Catholic Church in South-eastern Nigeria. The findings showed that religious life, liturgy,
faith and Church economy were greatly affected by the pandemic. Dyikuk (2019) examined
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the role of Priests in Nigerian new evangelisation to ascertain how the priests have taken
advantage of digital media for evangelisation. The findings showed that “lack of being
media savvy, fear and playing the ostrich, lack of collaboration as well as lack of a unified
National Communication Pastoral Plan are factors militating against the effective use of
the media for evangelisation in Nigeria by priests. Nwaoboli, Chukwu, Arijeniwa &
Asemah (2021) conducted a study on mass media and coronavirus campaigns in Benin
City. The findings of the study showed that COVID-19 was conferred a high status in Benin
City through recurrent reportage, but despite this, some residents still doubted that the virus
exist. The researchers concluded that the mass media conferred a status on the virus thus
drawing the public attention on the need to take precautionary measures such as social
distancing, self-isolation, use of hand sanitizer and face masks, regular washing of hands
and even spiritual interventions such as prayer.
Social Presence Theory
Social presence theory (SPT) was developed in 1976 by John Short, Ederyn Williams &
Bruce Christie (Asemah et al 2016). It states that a medium’s social effect is principally
caused by the degree of social presence which it affords to its users (Asemah, 2014). Social
presence theory “measures communication media based on the degree of awareness of the
other person in a communication interaction” (Asemah et al 2016). Thus, social presence
is “the degree of awareness of another person in an interaction and the consequent
appreciation of an interpersonal relationship” (Asemah et al 2016). Asemah (2014) says
this means a communicator’s sense of awareness of the presence of an interactive partner.
It means that we acknowledge the presence of the other person in communication. We
come to know and think about other persons, their characteristics, qualities and inner states
(Asemah, 2014). This is corroborated by Barrow (2010), cited in Asemah (2014) when he
affirms that the higher the social presence level, the better the understanding of both
speaker and message. Social presence brings about feeling, perception and reaction of
being connected to another intellectual entity on computer mediated communication
(Asemah et al 2016). Hence, it has also been defined as a measure of the feeling of
community that a learner experiences in an online environment (Tu & McIssac, 2002, cited
in Asemah, 2014). The theory classifies different communication media along a one-
dimensional continuum of social presence, where the degree of social presence is equated
to the degree of awareness of the other person in a communication interaction (Sallnas,
Rassmus-Grohn & Sjostrom, 2000 cited in Asemah 2014). According to social presence
theory, communication is effective if the communication medium has the appropriate
social presence required for the level of interpersonal involvement required for a task
(Asemah et al 2016). SPT is the ground work for many theories on new media effects.
This theory is applicable to this study as it shows the degree of awareness of CABC
digital social presence among the Catholic faithful in the Archdiocese. The relationship
between this study and SPT is the creation of awareness and interactivity with others.
Going digital to celebrate the Holy Mass was very new to the faithful of CABC. However,
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having to go to Facebook or YouTube was new, but the faithful have begun to look forward
to the presence of CABC on digital media. In other words, there is a social presence being
created by CABC among her members and the general public.
Methodology
The researchers used survey research design. Survey research design as noted by Asemah,
Gujbawu, Ekhareafo & Okpanachi (2012), survey research design is used when dealing
with a very large population. The population of the study is 8,714 drawn from 4 parishes
in Benin Deanery of CABC. Using the Cochran’s formula, the sample size for this study
was 328. Respondents were randomly selected to fill the questionnaire on face-to-face
basis. While the interview guide which was framed into 6 questions was used to elicit
responses from the parish priests of the select parishes to form data for the research. Simple
frequency table was used for data analysis, with tables and simple percentages. The formula
for simple percentage calculation is given below:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑥 100 = %
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
Table 1: Digital Media Respondents are exposed to and use frequently

Twitter 45 14.7%
Facebook 73 23.8%
WhatsApp 58 18.9%
TikTok 40 13%
YouTube 48 15.6%
Instagram 43 14%
Total 307 100%
The data showed that Facebook, WhatsApp and YouTube are the digital media the
respondents are commonly exposed to. This is based on the fact that most of the
respondents answered in that direction.
Table 2: The Extent to which the Catholic Archdiocese of Benin City used Digital
Media during the 2020 COVID-19 Lock-down
Very high 69 22%
High 84 27%
Cannot tell 49 16%
Low 54 18%
Very low 51 17%
Total 307 100%
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In table 2, respondents were asked about the extent to which the CABC used digital media
during the 2020 COVID-19 lock-down. Majority of the respondents (49%) rated the use of
digital media by CABC to be high.
Table 3: Digital media mostly used for evangelisation by the Catholic Archdiocese of
Benin City during the 2020 COVID-19 Lockdown
Variables Frequency Percentage (%)
Twitter 49 16%
Facebook 94 30.6%
WhatsApp 82 26.7%
TikTok 0 0%
YouTube 82 26.7%
Instagram 0 0%
Telegram 0 0%
Snapchat 0 0%
Pinterest 0 0%
Webchat 0 0%
Total 307 100%
The above table seeks to know the digital media mostly used for evangelisation by CABC
during the 2020 COVID-19 lockdown. The table shows that CABC mostly used Facebook
(30.6%), WhatsApp (26.7%) and YouTube (26.7%).
Table 4: The Level of Effectiveness of the Digital Media as used for evangelisation by
the Catholic Archdiocese of Benin City during the 2020 COVID-19 Lockdown
Highly effective 74 24.1%
Moderately effective 103 33.6%
Cannot tell 46 15%
Less effective 51 16.6%
Not effective 33 10.7%
Total 307 100%
Table 5 seeks to know the level of effectiveness of the digital media as used for
evangelisation by CABC during the 2020 COVID-19 lockdown. The table shows that the
use of digital media for evangelisation in the Archdiocese was effective.
Table 5: Challenges that affected the access to evangelisation Message from the
Catholic Archdiocese of Benin City during the 2020 COVID-19 Lockdown
Lack of data to access the messages every time 62 20.2%
Poor power supply to power my digital devices 85 27.7%
Lack of sophisticated digital devices 11 3.6%
Inability to often confirm authentic sources 41 13.4%
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Distractions 33 10.7%
Ad Pop-up 17 5.5%
None of the above 58 18.9%
Total 307 100%
Table 5 looks at the challenges that affected the access to evangelisation message from
CABC during the 2020 COVID-19 lockdown. The challenges basically faced by
respondents were poor power supply to power their devices (27.7%) and lack of data
(subscription) to access evangelisation message, which accounted for 20.2%.
Table 6: The Extent to which the Challenges affected access to evangelisation

Messages by the Catholic Archdiocese of Benin City during the 2020 COVID-19
Lockdown
Very high 76 24.8%
High 84 27.4%
Cannot tell 49 16%
Low 57 18.7%
Very low 41 13.4%
Total 307 100%
In table 6, we are concerned with the extent to which the challenges affected respondents’
access to evangelisation messages by CABC during the 2020 COVID-19 lockdown. The
above table shows that the challenges faced by respondents were high (52.2%).
The findings showed that members of CABC were exposed to digital media to a high extent
(59.6%). The educational level of the population for this study accounts for why there is a
high percentage of respondents who not just have access to digital media but are greatly
expose to it and are able to use the various media correctly. The findings further showed
that the respondents were exposed to one or more digital media. The digital media they are
exposed to are Twitter, Facebook, WhatsApp, TikTok, YouTube and Instagram.
This is in line with Tan (2009) who calls on the Christian faithful to engage today’s
technology for evangelisation, especially with the new generation. Bullivant (2020) notes
that it was by means of digital media that the Pope (Francis) gave his Easter blessings and
message to the whole world in 2020 due to COVID-19 pandemic.
The respondents rated the use of digital media by CABC to be high. This implies
that CABC used digital media to a high extent. In terms of usage, the respondents were
more tilted to Facebook compared to WhatsApp and YouTube. This is why many of the
respondents who agreed that CABC used digital media for evangelisation during the 2020
COVID-19 lockdown submitted that Facebook was mostly used for the live streaming of
evangelisation message as against other digital media.
More so, the findings showed that the level of the effectiveness of the digital media
high. It was further observed that the respondents faced some challenges which include
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lack of data to access the messages every time, poor power supply to power their digital
devices, inability to often confirm authentic sources and distractions and these challenges
that affected the use of digital media for evangelisation by CABC during the 2020 COVID-
19 lockdown. Dyikuk (2019) also notes that “lack of being media savvy, fear and playing
the ostrich, lack of collaboration as well as lack of a unified National Communication
Pastoral Plan are factors militating against the effective use of the media for evangelisation
in Nigeria by priests.
Conclusion
CABC turned to the use of digital media for evangelisation for the first time during the
COVID-19 pandemic lockdown in Nigeria. Facebook and YouTube were the digital media
mostly used and live-streaming of the Holy Mass and other prayer sessions were carried
out through the communication department of the Archdiocese. However, not every person
had access to digital media either because they could not afford the devices or lack the
knowledge and technical-know-how to operate them. Thus, the following
1. CABC should continue to invest more in digital media and other technology for
continuous evangelisation of the people in Benin metropolis.
2. Due to lack of technical-know-how of some of the faithful, the clergy should be
trained on how to use digital tools to enhance pastoral ministry as well as train some
lay faithful to assist the priests in the use of digital media and other technology for
evangelisation.
3. Priests should embrace the use of digital media and technology for their pastoral
ministry. This will compliment traditional ways of pastoral ministry as well as radio
and television broadcast and print.
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CHAPTER FOURTEEN
PERCEPTION OF SOCIAL MEDIA TRIAL OF CHIDINMA
OJUKWU’S ALLEGED MURDER CASE AMONG SELECT EDO
RESIDENTS
Emeke Precious Nwaoboli & Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD
Introduction
Social media, particularly Facebook, has become an indisputable component of every
social condition due to its ever-increasing reach and effect in today's culture. Even in the
absence of a media trial, social media improves policymakers, managers and citizens’
access to information, as well as the speed with which new information is collected,
evaluated and communicated, allowing it to play a greater role in crime prevention
(Nwaoboli, Ezeji & Osife-Kurex, 2022; Asemah, Nwaoboli & Beli, 2022). A crime may
be exacerbated or aided by the media. Despite this, the media’s role in every crime,
including social media users’ dialectics and trials, cannot be neglected.
Due to the widespread use of social media by individuals of all ages and areas in
Nigeria and throughout the world, sites like Facebook have become a source of crime
reporting and investigative journalism (Iyomih, 2019). Over time, the form and delivery of
crime stories and investigative journalism has evolved from a traditional approach to a
unique type of operation aided by social media. Even the way the media works and how
they write has changed dramatically in the age of social media. Using social networking
sites like Facebook, crime reporting and investigative journalism, which is an important
aspect of journalism, has recently been simplified.
The increased usage of the internet and mobile phones in Nigeria has hastened the
adoption of social media as the contemporary village square, where people congregate to
barter products and services and share interests and information (Nicole, 2007; Asemah &
Edegoh, 2012). People now have a voice and a platform to express their issues and share
their thoughts on practically anything via social media. Having trustworthy and up-to-date
information is one of the most essential elements of finding answers to media trials of
crimes and giving this information is the greatest method for social media to assist crime
victims and stakeholders.
Despite these facts, the majority of Nigerian social media users do not appear to
adhere to the guidelines of crime reporting and some even misrepresent crime. Until the
media reports on the occurrence or criticises the culprit, legal institutions are unable to
properly promote awareness about what constitutes a crime and the appropriate sentence.
While some studies, such as Anyanwu (2011), Asemah (2014) and Arijeniwa,
Nwaoboli, Ajimokunola & Uwuoruya (2022) have concluded that social media may help
to promote peace and control crime, crime management and resolution professionals
believe the media can also help to start or escalate crime. Additionally, while social media
is viewed as an institution that might help in the peaceful settlement of crimes, researches
such as Asemah & Nwaoboli (2022) has shown that, whether intentionally or
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unintentionally, social media users tend to contribute to the escalation of crimes rather
than always promote peace. When social media users promote coverage, insufficient
reporting, no reporting and biased analysis and interpretation of crimes, they motivate
and intensify criminality. While several studies have been done on the media’s role in
crime management, such as Iyomih (2019) and Nwabueze & Ebeze (2013), few have
been done on the perception of social media trial of crimes, notably Chidinma Ojukwu's
alleged murder crime. This, study, therefore, covers the research gap by examining the
awareness and perception of social media trial of Chidinma Ojukwu's alleged murder case
among Edo State residents.

This study sought to:
1. Find out the extent of awareness of Chidinma Ojukwu’s alleged murder case among
Edo States residents.
2. Ascertain the degree of Edo State residents’ exposure to social media trials of
Chidinma Ojukwu’s alleged murder case.
3. Find out Edo States residents’ perception of the social media trial of Chidinma
Ojukwu’s alleged murder case.
An Overview of Social Media

Social media are internet-based programmes that make it easier to create and share user-
generated content (Kaplan & Haenlein, 20106; Asemah, Nwaoboli & Nwoko, 2022). It
was first used in 1979, when Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis of Duke University created
Usenet, a worldwide discussion platform that allowed internet users to make open
comments, according to Kaplan & Haelein (2010). The first time social media was openly
recognised was on Usenet. Using social media platforms, people create online communities
where they may share knowledge, concepts, private messages and other kinds of material.
Social media, which is another term for electronic communication, allows people to create
online communities where they may share information, ideas, personal messages, and a
number of other things (such as websites).
According to Asemah, Illah & Edegoh (2013), social media is the incorporation of
digital media into a structured computerised environment that enables people to interact
with the data for the right objectives. This includes electronic texts, images, moving
pictures, and sound. Digital media includes things like music, moving visuals and
electronic texts. The internet, telecommunications and interactive digital television are a
few examples of the digital environment. Nwaoboli (2022) observed that there are several
types of social media some of which are Facebook, Twitter, linkedin, TikTok, Youtube,
Instagram, Zoom and many more.
Media Trial: A Conceptual Review

The term "media trial" refers to pre-trial and trial coverage of a case that is likely to bias a
fair trial, which is a constitutional right of every accused person as well as a breach of the
natural justice system. The right to a fair trial is guaranteed by the Sixth Amendment of the
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United States Constitution (Asemah, Nwaoboli & Beli, 2022). When compared with other
industries throughout the globe, the social media industry has some of the fewest legislative
limitations. The media has re-emerged as a public court (Asemah & Ekerikevwe, 2013)
and can interfere with the processes of the judicial system. It completely disregards the
essential difference that exists between a person who has been accused and a person who
has been convicted, placing at risk the cherished principles of presumption of innocence
until proved guilty and guilt beyond a reasonable doubt.
A media trial takes place when the media conducts its own investigation and
cultivates public opinion against the accused even before the case is brought before the
court for consideration. As a result of this, the general public and even the judges
themselves are biased, and the accused, who ought to be considered innocent, is declared
guilty; nevertheless, none of his rights or freedoms are violated as a result of this. When
undue interference with the "administration of justice" occurs as a result of excessive media
coverage of a suspect or accused prior to a trial, either because it makes it more difficult to
have a fair trial or because it portrays him as a person who committed the crime, legal
action can be taken against the media for contempt of court (Asemah & Edegoh, 2013).
However, regulating the conduct of journalists is not enough to prevent the
infringement of civil rights. A "trial" is a judicial proceeding that is carried out by the courts
and is referred to by its generic name. According to Asemah, Nwaoboli & Beli (2022), the
trial being covered by the media is an unnecessary obstruction to the fair administration of
justice. It is necessary, before delving into the debate of whether or not media trials are
appropriate, to first explain what is meant by the term "media trial."
The word "trial" refers to the process that takes place during a legal proceeding.
Every judicial system must guarantee its citizens the right to a trial that is conducted in an
impartial manner. People in Nigeria have an unquenchable need for information on high-
profile and dramatic occurrences in the country and the world. People start accumulating
information in order to construct a case in their heads, while the media, in the shape of
newspapers, news websites, and news channels, satisfies the public's thirst for interesting
cases by providing its own interpretations of the facts. This kind of reporting is known as
investigative journalism and it is acceptable in Nigeria.
The power of influencing and converting the mass in constructing an impression
against a guilty or innocent mind may be understood via the process of trial by media, often
known as a media trial. The issue of whether or not the media should be allowed to cover
a trial goes beyond a simple legal one. In addition, this is a political matter. On the one
hand, it wreaks havoc on the functioning of the judicial system (Asemah, Nwaoboli & Beli,
2022). On the other side, it distracts the broader public, often known as the "public in the
republic," from more important issues like economic calamities and unemployment. These
"distraction ministries" are always present under authoritarian administrations, and the
media outlets that they use are how the public learns about their existence.
An Overview of Perception
Perception is the process of being aware of or comprehending sensory information. The
Latin word perceptio, which means receiving, gathering, activity of taking possession and
apprehension with the mind or senses, is where the word "perception" comes from (Rao &
Narayan, 2015). This Latin term served as the basis for the English word "perception.”
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Quick & Nelson (2017) define it as the act of processing information about another person
or circumstance. This definition has made it very clear that the opinions we make about
other people or things rely on the amount of information that is available to us and how
effectively we are able to understand the information that we have. To put it another way,
even if you and a group of other people are given the same set of information about a
specific event, person or group of people, you may still reach different conclusions because
of individual differences in how you all interpret the data.
Consequently, perception is the process through which we construct judgments
about the characteristics and personalities of other individuals. According to Rao &
Narayan (2018), the elements of perception are as follows:
a. Our attention, feelings, and the way we act are influenced by our environment
b. Perception helps you to gather data from your surroundings, process the data, and
make sense out of it.
c. In perception, it is sometimes difficult to separate the information from the action.
d. It is basically a process of gaining mental understanding.
e. Perception guides the perceiver in harnessing, processing and using the information
that the act of seeing anything may be broken down into three stages: selection,
organisation and interpretation.
An Overview of Chidinma Ojukwu and Ataga Usifoh alleged Murder Case

Michael Usifo Ataga, is the former Chief Executive Officer of Super TV. He was killed
inside an Airbnb rental hotel in Lagos's Lekki neighborhood on June 15, 2021. He was 50
years old at the time of his death. Conversely, Chidinma Adaora Ojukwu, a 21-year-old
University of Lagos 300-level Mass Communication student, is suspected of being behind
the murder. Miss Ojukwu was trailed down to her father’s house, detained and paraded by
the police following the alleged incident. In an early confession, she confessed to the crime,
saying that she regretted killing Ataga and that she feared for her life. She also claimed she
strangled the late billionaire first before stabbing him to death in self-defence. According
to her, the late Super TV CEO raped her and continued to pursue her, which enraged her.
Chidinma told investigators at the State Criminal Investigation and Intelligence
Department’s (SCIID) Homicide Section in Yaba, Lagos, that she was able to overcome
the deceased because he was weak after taking three Rohypnol wraps while she just took
one wrap.
Chidinma said that a suspected drug addict and online fraudster whose name has
been withheld by the police helped her fake the deceased's paperwork after she left from
the service apartment, leaving his lifeless corpse behind. Chidinma, on the other hand,
recently denied murdering Ataga. She said they stayed in the short-let apartment and that
she went out to purchase food before returning to find the corpse in a pool of blood. Ataga's
family, on the other hand, told the Nigerian police to conduct a thorough investigation into
the event as autopsy on his body revealed details contrary to Chidinma’s claims. Ataga's
family believes the murder was committed by more than one individual. Inside the short-
let lodging unit at 19 Adewale Oshin Street in the Lekki phase 1 neighborhood, a rope
suspected of having been used to bind his hands was reportedly discovered.
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Asemah, Nwaoboli & Beli (2022) carried out a study on textual analysis of comments on
select social media sites on Chidinma Ojukwu’s alleged murder case. The social media
dialectics revealed Chidinma’s self-confessed alleged murdering of Ataga is true, but that
she allegedly carried out the crime with the assistance of some unproven parties even
though she has recently denied the murder case. Nwabueze & Ebeze (2013) investigated
the crucial function played by the media in halting the rise in crime that has caused
insecurity in Nigeria, particularly in the North, South Eastern and South Southern regions
of the nation. The discourse used a qualitative analysis to evaluate the relationship between
Nigeria's insecurity and the media, with special attention on useful practical solutions. The
researchers came to the conclusion that the media do help combat crime in Nigeria.
Nwabueze & Ebeze’s (2013) discourse adopted the qualitative approach in appraising the
correlation between the mass media and the insecurity in Nigeria with emphasis on
practical measures relevant in this direction. The study did not utilise the quantitative
research design and this study covered the limitation in research design by utilising survey
in sourcing data.
In order to determine the extent of social media use for policing and crime
prevention in Lagos, Nigeria, Sumisola & Usman (2019) looked at how social media is
used for these purposes. Cross-sectional and descriptive research methods were used. The
findings showed that respondents had a generally favourable attitude about the use of social
media for law enforcement and crime prevention (2 =13.68; p >.05). Despite the fact that
social media platforms were utilised for a variety of police tasks, 47.0% of respondents
said that acquiring intelligence was their primary usage of them.
A research by Akpoghome (2018) was conducted on criminal processes, the public
and the media in Nigeria. The findings showed that an accused person is entitled to the
presumption of innocence until the guilt of the accused person has been established beyond
a reasonable doubt. Additionally, he has the right to a trial that is fair, conducted within a
reasonable amount of time and presided over by a court that is both independent and
impartial. On the other hand, the research conducted for this paper revealed that the
Constitution protects both freedom of expression and freedom of the press. Additionally,
it was discovered that the Judicial Branch recognises the fact that a free press is very
important to the continuation of any democracy and that the press is obligated to
collaborate with the Judicial Branch to educate the public, unless there are exceptional
circumstances that prevent them from doing so.
Social Judgement Theory
The Social Judgment Theory (SJT) is a self-persuasion theory that was propounded by
Carolyn Sherif, Muzafer Sherif and Carl Hovland (Asemah, Nwanmuo & Nkwa-Uwaoma,
2017). The evaluation and interpretation of an idea in light of the prevalent emotions is one
definition of this concept. According to this theory, a person determines where a new idea
should be placed on the mental attitude scale by weighing it against his or her existing point
151
of view and comparing it to any new concepts that come into their awareness (Kitchen,
Kerr, Schultz, McColl & Pals, 2014).
The purpose of social judgement theory is to apply the ideas and findings of
psychophysical judgement to the process of social judgement. Thus, it is a theory that
focuses on the internal processes of an individual's own judgement in relation to the link
included within a sent message, with the individual's selected position serving as the
judgmental anchor in this context (McQuail, 2010). The phenomenon known as the
boomerang effect takes place when a person's attitude shifts in the opposite direction of
what the message promotes; the listener is moved away from an idea rather than being
attracted to it (Asemah, Nwanmuo & Nkwa-Uwaoma, 2017).
Asemah & Nwammuo (2017) included this theory into their study, which was titled
"implications of social judgement theory for compelling advertising campaigns." Rumble,
Lamm, Martin and Warner employed this idea in 2012 to explore mental processes in order
to get a better understanding of how water conservation messages might have an effect on
attitude. This theory is being used in this study because it demonstrates how social media
trial messages about Chidinma Ojukwu's alleged murder case may lead to different
individuals socially judging the victims of the occurrences as well as other members of
society who are in similar circumstances.
Methodology
The researchers adopted the survey research method for this study. Asemah, Gujbawu,
Ekhareafo & Okpanachi (2012) note that survey research design is used in studies with
very large population. The population of the study was Oredo, Igueben and Akoko-Edo
Local Government areas which respectively have a population of 374,515, 297,441 and
262,110 (934, 066 in total) according to City Population (2021). A sample size of 384
respondents was taken for the study from the populations of the study. The sample for the
study was gotten, using Krejcie & Morgan’s (1970) sample size calculation formula. The
multi-stage sampling technique was adopted in this study. In the first stage, the researcher
purposively selected the three senatorial zones in Edo State which are Edo South Senatorial
Zone, Edo Central Senatorial Zone and Edo North Senatorial Zone. The researcher chose
the senatorial districts to be able to massively represent a generic view of Edo State
residents’ on the subject of discourse. In the second stage, the researcher used the ballot
system to randomly select one local government from each of the three senatorial zones.
The researcher wrote all the local government areas in each senatorial zone then threw
them into separate boxes for each of the senatorial zones. Thereafter, the researcher
randomly picked one of the papers and the name of the local government in the picked
paper was chosen. Thus, from Edo South Senatorial Zone, Oredo Local Government Area
was chosen, from Edo Central Senatorial Zone, Igueben Local Government Area was
selected and from Edo North Senatorial Zone, Akoko-Edo Local Government Area was
selected. In the third stage, the researcher selected densely populated areas wards from the
local government areas selected above. From the twelve wards in Oredo LGA, the
researcher selected Ogbe, from the 14 wards in Igueben Local Government Area, Afuda
152
was selected and from the ten wards in Akoko-Edo Local Government Area, Ewan was
selected. Furthermore, in the fourth stage, using the available sampling technique, the
researcher randomly distributed copies of questionnaire to residents of the select wards.

Table 1: Extent of exposure to Social Media trial of Chidinma Ojukwu’s Alleged
Murder Case
Very high 99 26.2
High 156 41.3
Neutral 69 18.3
Low 38 10.1
Very low 16 4.2
Total 378 100
Table 1 shows that majority of the respondents are exposed to social media trial of
Chidinma Ojukwu’s alleged murder case at a significant level (n=156, 41.3%). The
implication of this is that the social media trial of Chidinma Ojukwu was to a great extent
on social media and as such residents of Edo State on social media were highly aware of
it.
Table 2: The Degree of Social Media trial of Chidinma Ojukwu’s alleged Murder
Case was very high
Variable Frequency Percentage %
Agree 196 51.9
Neutral 33 8.7
Disagree 10 2.6
Total 378 100
Data from table 2 presented above indicate that all the respondents have varying forms of
perception on the social media trial of Chidinma Ojukwu’s alleged murder case.
Specifically, item (a) signifies that majority of respondents agreed that the degree of social
media trial of the alleged murder case was high (n=196, 51.9%). The implication of this
data is that due to the high volume of trial on the case on social media platforms, the
perception of majority of social media is skewed to the dominant position of social media
influencers and opinion leaders on the case
Table 3: Respondents’ Interest in Chidinma Ojukwu’s alleged Murder Case is closely

related to the Prominence given to the Story on Social Media
Agree 176 46.6
153
Neutral 43 11.4
Disagree 29 7.7
Total 378 100
Responses of the respondents as presented in table 3 shows that majority of the respondents
(n=289, 76.5%) affirmed that their level of interest in Chidinma Ojukwu’s alleged murder
case is closely linked to the prominence given to the story on social media. The implication
of this data is that social media platforms’ continuous circulation and promotion of stories
on the alleged murder case birthed significant level of interest in the respondents.
Table 4: Social Media trial on Chidinma Ojukwu’s alleged Murder Case was based
on Moral and Ethical Expectations and not Constitutional Provisions
Agree 187 49.5
Neutral 46 12.2
Disagree 13 3.4
Total 378 100
Table 4 shows that majority of the respondents affirmed that social media trial on the
alleged murder case was based on moral and ethical expectations and not according
constitutional provisions (n=310, 82%). This implies that the people judged Chidinma
Ojukwu’s murder case based what they considered right and wrong and not based on the
constitution of Nigeria.
Table 5: Many Social Media trial on Chidinma Ojukwu’s alleged Murder Case were
based on Religious Principles and not the Law
Agree 157 41.5
Neutral 61 16.1
Disagree 51 13.5
Total 378 100
Table 5 shows that social media trial of Chidinma Ojukwu’s murder case was based on
religious principles and not the dictates of the law (n=238, 62.9%). The import of this data
is that majority of social media users that engaged in the trial of the alleged murder case
were swayed not by the circumstantial evidence and hard facts, rather by religious
expectations of committing a cardinal sin and by the virtue of the alleged murder violating
the established moral values and ethical principle that governs the conduct of members of
the society; hence, allowing their emotions and personal prejudices to determine their
positions on the murder case.
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The findings showed that that respondents had high and significant level of awareness on
the alleged murder case due to their level of accessibility to the social media and the
regularity of update on stories that centres around it. This high degree of awareness can be
linked to the increasing number of social media users in Nigeria today, especially amongst
young people who constitute the largest demography of social media users in the world,
due to the active role of social media uses in information gathering, processing and
dissemination that social media offers that speeds up information exposure and awareness
amongst users.
This is in tandem with Ritzer & Jurgenson (2010) cited in Obar & Wildman (2015)
who affirmed that with Web 2.0., internet users were turned from consumers to
"prosumers," meaning they consume and make media contents. Similarly, Dijck (2012)
adds that these new capabilities enabled an upsurge in social media applications and
dynamism; thus, allowing users to easily contact with one another and exchanging
information, photographs and messages, amongst others. This is particularly significant
given that technological determinism theory had established that people have very little
free agency and as such they will utilise whatever means of communication that society as
a whole employs; hence, no matter what media they use, people will behave and feel the
same way as long as they are utilising the same medium (Asemah, Nwanmuo & Nkwa-
Uwaoma, 2017).
The findings also showed that majority of the respondents are exposed to social
media trial of the alleged murder case and the extent of exposure to social media trial of
the case was high due to the high number of respondents who affirmed that they were aware
of the trial of the alleged murder case. This supports the assertion of Nwabueze & Ebeze
(2013) that ordinary citizens may use social media to expose criminality and raise public
awareness about terrorist attacks and the study of Banaji & Buckingham (2010) that social
media is recognised for its conversation power across the world, which is vital in increasing
public involvement on issues in the society. In the same vein, it was found that the degree
of exposure on the part of majority of the respondents is closely linked to the fact that
Facebook, Instagram and Twitter constituted the major social media platforms where the
respondents were exposed to stories that tries the alleged murder and these stories comes
mostly in comments, articles, pictures, tweets and video forms, which are the major
information dissemination tools of the social media platforms the respondents were
exposed to. This is in tandem with the thrust of the cultivation analysis theory which asserts
that people who utilise the media regularly are more likely to be affected by messages from
the media (Asemah et al 2015) and as a result, the media is seen to have a role in how
individuals perceive social reality on their own (Cooren, Kuhn, Cornelissen & Clark,
2011).
Findings in this study also indicated that the perception of Edo States residents on
social media trial of Chidinma Ojukwu’s alleged murder case was shaped by prevailing
mood and emotions on social media, personal prejudices as well as moral, ethical and
religious inclinations and not based on evidence or hard facts supporting the alleged murder
155
case. It was found that the respondents showed considerable level of interest towards
Chidinma Ojukwu’s alleged murder case as disseminated via the various social media
platforms which was predominantly due to the linked to the prominence and popularity
given to the issue. Therefore, prominence helps in shaping the perception of the
respondents on the alleged murder case.
This supports the premise of Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) that a high
degree of message elaboration, in which the person receiving the information generates a
significant amount of cognition about the arguments will influences opinion and perception
of the information (Kitchen, Kerr, Schultz, McColl & Pals, 2014). Again, this is line with
the thrust of the Social Judgment Theory which explains the judgment and perception of
an idea based on prevailing sentiments and as such a person balances each new concept
and compares it to his or her current point of view to decide where it should be put on the
mental attitude scale (Asemah, Nwanmuo & Nkwa-Uwaoma, 2017). However, the most
significant of all the perceptions of the respondents is that majority of them still believes,
to a high extent, that Chidinma Ojukwu actually murdered Usifoh Ataga due to social
media trial of the case. This shows that the perception of majority of the respondents is that
of conviction for Chidinma Ojukwu and not acquittal as they considered her a murderer for
killing Usifoh Ataga, after being tried on various social media platforms by social media
users who have no sufficient knowledge on the facts of the case to convict her but by the
dictates, extent and degree of prominence given to the alleged murder case on social media.

The researchers investigated the awareness and perception of social media trial of
Chidinma Ojukwu’s alleged murder case among select Edo State residents. The findings
showed that the social media channels through which the respondents were exposed to the
social media trial of the alleged murder case were Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, WhatsApp
and YouTube. This underscores the popularity of social media platforms over mainstream
conventional mass media as radio, television, newspaper and magazines. In addition, the
degree of exposure to the alleged murder case also influenced the perception of the
respondents to the social media trial of the case. Thus, the following recommendations are
hereby given:
1. Social media users should verify the authenticity, truthfulness and objectivity of
crime- related stories on their timeline through fact-finding alternatives before
forming opinion and/or circulating such stories to avoid being misled without
credible facts on pending court cases.
2. It is important for social media users to be continuously orientated about the reality
of the social media situation. This is to serve as a counter-measure to the distorted
presentation of issues on social media.
3. Media organisations and practitioners have a role to play in addressing the
credibility in the social media information flow, which is detrimental to public
perception of critical issues.
156
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CHAPTER FIFTEEN
FRAMING OF COVID-19 VACCINATION REPORTS ON
FACEBOOK AND YOUTUBE
Olayemi Abiodun Ajibulu & Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD
Introduction
Nigeria, popularly referred to as the giant of Africa, has an estimated population of 216
million, 953 thousand and 585 people as of August 16 2022 (Worldometer, 2022).
However, Premium Times (2022) reports that only 25% of the Nigerian population have
been fully vaccinated against COVID-19 as of August 2022, since the vaccine rollout
began in later part of 2020. WHO ( 2022) had earlier noted that countries have to vaccinate
at least 70% of their population to achieve herd immunity, and the Nigerian federal
government projected to have vaccinated about 70% of its population by the end of 2022
because of this (WorldStage, 2021; Vanguard, 2022).
Premium Times’ report on the vaccination acceptance rate in Nigeria, however,
contradicts the projected percentage the country should have recorded at this period of time
and this is attributed to the high hesitancy or refusal of Nigerians to take the vaccine
probably because of their assumed disbelief in the effectiveness of the vaccine, lack of trust
in the government to provide good vaccines, conspiracy theories about the vaccine, as well
as the fear of the vaccine side effects amongst others (Olu-Abiodun, Abiodun & Okafor,
2022). Furthermore, Ogunbosi et al (2022) note that COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy has
become a public health challenge that attracted the attention of health stakeholders. This is
because COVID-19 disease has caused the death of over three thousand people in Nigeria
and over six million people globally and the COVID-19 vaccine treatment is still being met
with high resistance, suspicion, lack of trust, hesitancy or rejection.
The old and new media have been widely known as an agent of change over the
years. In fact, the mass media is known to be an important tool that helps encourage or
discourage the public about societal issues, in order to bring about positive social change
globally (Asemah, 2015). This is why Shan & Nusrat (2020) note that the media was
significant in influencing behavioral change in people during the COVID-19 pandemic and
dominant in making the public to abide by the COVID-19 lockdown rules through their
news contents. David & Asemah (2021) also opine that the society members consider the
mass media as a major source of new ideas and information.
The media involvement in using their contents to curtail the fear people have
towards receiving the COVID-19 vaccine treatment, and to encourage them to accept the
vaccine treatment is thus cogent. This is because the mass media has the power to affect
people’s opinions and influence their thoughts on societal issues (IPL, 2022) and the
COVID-19 vaccination is an important societal issue in Nigeria as the country has found it
difficult to vaccinate majority of its residents.
IndianCC (2022) in support of this states that the old and new media do not only
present information to the public about global happenings, but as well, form public opinion
159
and consciousness on the reported issues or events in order to shape the public opinion.
Shan & Nusrat (2020) also added that the media work as outward stimuli that change its
audience’ behaviour pattern through the conditioning of the news reports they pass out to
the audience.
The high refusal of people in accepting the COVID-19 vaccine, despite the danger
posed by the virus, has made it become a major health problem in Nigeria. This problem
has also drawn the attention of the researcher into finding out if social media, which are
widely used by Nigerians, have influenced their decision to refuse the vaccine treatment.
This is because it has been affirmed that the social media function is a key source of speedy
information that enable global audience to form opinions from the information got
(Asemah., Nwoboli & Beli, 2022) and that social media breaks the barrier of distance and
time to make it possible for global users to access campaigns on any health issue (Asemah
& Nwaoboli, 2022). There have been previous studies carried out on COVID-19 related
issues; they include Anwumablem & Asemah’s (2021) study on the coverage of COVID-
19 pandemic in select Nigerian mainstream media and Ajala’s (2022) study on the framing
of COVID-19 vaccination in The Guardian. However, none of these studies was aimed at
finding out how Facebook and YouTube reports on COVID-19 vaccination were framed.
This is the gap this study fills.

The objectives of the research were to:
1. Find out the frequency of COVID-19 vaccination reports on YouTube and
Facebook.
2. Find out the most prominence level given to COVID-19 vaccination reports on
YouTube and Facebook.
3. Ascertain the most dominant Slant of COVID-19 vaccination reports on YouTube
and Facebook.
4. Determine the most dominant frames of the COVID-19 vaccination reports on
YouTube and Facebook.
Media Reportage of COVID-19 Vaccination

Asemah (2015) opines that the media has always been one of the major sources of health
information to the public during the outbreak of new diseases in the society and this is due
to the fact that the mass media is tasked with the role of providing timely information about
societal happenings to their audience. Ahmed & Bates (2013) also note that humans’
perceptions of health issues are formed by their own personal experiences or impressions,
as well as the media reportage of the health issues. This fact suggests that mass media
health report have an overpowering influence on the response of humans to health issues
and their health behaviors over time.
In addition, Asemah & Komiti (2021) note that public health related matters like
disease outbreaks, pandemics, change in health policies or breakthroughs in the health
sector are usually given prominence by the mass media in their news reports because of its
160
importance. The mass media also shape the way the public interpret these health issues
through the use of health frames that play important roles in getting their heterogeneous
audience to respond to health issues (Leask et al 2010).
Since coronavirus was first discovered at Wuhan China in the late 2019, the mass
media have been reporting issues surrounding the virus to the world audience, and when
the development of its vaccine also started, the media gave it importance in their news till
it was approved for usage. The mass media (old and new media) has since then continually
gave out information about COVID-19 and its vaccination to the public, and Penta & Baban
(2018) opine that the mass media reportage of vaccine treatments have become important
to the acceptance or rejection of diseases’ vaccines in the society. This is because
suboptimal vaccination rate and low vaccination acceptance drive have become a major
problem in countries like Nigeria today, despite the various improvements made towards
easy accessibility to the vaccines (Nwaoboli & Asemah, 2021).
Although studies have shown that People who took the vaccine reported fever,
lethargy, chills, joint discomfort, fever, headache, muscle soreness, disorientation, enlarged
lymph nodes and arm swelling as adverse effects of the COVID-19 vaccination (Ekhareafo,
2020). Several false negative effects of the vaccine treatment have been allegedly spread
on the social media daily, with little or no media message to correct the false information,
and this is bad because ordinary individuals obtain plausible ideas and images about the
benefit or danger of a health issue from the media message they receive about it
(Wonkwang & Myoungsoon, 2019).
As of October 2022, Vanguard (2022) notes that only 19% of Nigerians have been
fully vaccinated against the coronavirus disease. This number is by far too low when
compared to the percentage of vaccinated people in developed countries. For example,
SORTIRAPARIS (2020) notes that Malta, Qatar, Hong Kong, China and Taiwan have
vaccinated over 90 of their citizens, while countries like Canada, Spain, United Kingdom,
Brazil, Japan, France, and Denmark have vaccinated over 80% of their citizens. The United
States of America, Cyprus, Saudi Arabia, Sweden and some other countries have also
vaccinated about 70% of their citizen, but a lot of developing countries have not reached
this mark in their vaccination exercise due to the high hesitancy and refusal of their citizens
to accept the vaccine treatment.
Wonkwang & Myoungsoon (2019) also note that the media conveys health issues’
to the public through the use of frames that project the health issues in communicative
contexts that enable them to obtain plausible images and ideas about the importance of
the health issue and the perceived appropriateness of its benefit or danger. This depicts that
media messages on COVID-19 vaccination must have contributed to the high hesitancy or
refusal of people to take the vaccine.
COVID-19 Vaccination Hesitancy in Nigeria

Several factors have been linked to coronavirus vaccine refusal, apathy and hesitancy in
Nigeria and one of the major ones include infodemic, which might have been triggered by
doubts of people about the safety of the COVID-19 vaccine, fear of experiencing side
161
effects of the vaccine, the spread of misconceptions about vaccine safety and efficacy, as
well as lack of trust in vaccine developers, and the healthcare system.
Vaccine hesitancy is a global issue that has been recorded in countries like The US,
Canada, France, and the United Kingdom over the years (Ajala, 2022). Disease like Polio,
tetanus, measles, hepatitis, Flu’ vaccines have all been met with some sort of hesitancy or
rejection after their developments and this confirms that COVID-19 vaccine is not the first
disease vaccine to be rejected or met with hesitancy.
Nwaoboli & Asemah (2021) note that the rapid speed in vaccines’ developments
might have weakened the confidence of people in the vaccine, and stimulate vaccine
complacency. Nwaboli., Arijeniwa & Asemah (2021) also add COVID-19 vaccination
hesitancy in Africa countries is connected to the hypotheses circulating on old and new
media that Africans are immune to COVID-19 disease because to the continent's climatic
factors, and therefore do not need to get vaccinated. Historically, vaccination hesitancy or
rejection has been a notable problem in Nigeria, especially in the northern part of the
country. This is because many Nigerians have always had lack of trust in the potency of
vaccines that could protect them against diseases. For example, the 2003/2004 rejection of
polio vaccine in Northern Nigeria by some persons caused the quintupling of polio cases
in the country, as well as polio outbreaks in three continents.
Furthermore, vaccine hesitancy amongst Nigerians have been said to have thrived
because Nigeria is a multi ethnic/religion country, that host people with various religious
and cultural beliefs that guild their health behaviours. This fact explains why many have
refused the COVID-19 vaccine because their religious or cultural beliefs oppose the
acceptance of the vaccine despite its numerous advantages (Nwaboli et al 2021).
Framing as a Media Effect Theory

The framing theory elucidates how the mass media influence the perception and attitudes
of the public through its news contents (Borah, 2016). In addition, Comninos (2013) opines
that framing theory explains the manner by which the mass media portray its messages to
the public through the use of frames that influence the decisions that public make about
how to assimilate the media information.
Furthermore, Asemah., Nwammuo & Nwaoma (2017) note that framing theory
explains how media men and women depict events to the public using certain adjectives,
pictures, words, headlines, and message tones, in order to incite the audience's thoughts in
ways the media want. This is achieved by intentionally highlighting certain aspects of an
issue and obscuring other parts in order to define the issue, diagnose its causes, make moral
judgments about the issue and suggest remedies for the issues
Asemah., Nwammuo & Nwaoma (2022) also opine that the framing theory simply
show how the media make use of news frame to shape opinions and determine what
individuals of a society think to be essential and irrelevant, as well as what to see as
unimportant. Thus, if the mass media portray the COVID-19 vaccine as good and important
for every Nigerians, Nigerians would also see the vaccine as essential to their health. This
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is why media framing of issues is as important as the issue itself, because media contents
shape the opinions of those exposed to it.
Ajala (2022) supported this by noting that exposure of audience to media contents
influence changes in their perspectives of the news being discussed. Framing theory is thus
essential in this article because it attest to the fact that the mass media framing of COVID-
19 vaccine and its treatment would always influence Nigerians’ decision to accept or reject
the vaccine treatment.
Empirical Review
Ajala (2022) examined the framing of covid-19 vaccination in The Guardian newspaper,
by using the quantitative content analysis research design to analyse Guardian newspapers
reports. The research work was aimed at finding the most dominant source and frame used
in the coverage of coronavirus vaccination and he discovered that majority of the news
were sourced from the Nigerian government.
Mu’azu & Moses (2021) examined the Framing of the COVID-19 Pandemic during
the Government’s imposed lockdown by the Daily Trust and the Punch newspapers. The
study was aimed at identifying the dominant slant and frame used in the reportage of
COVID-19 lockdown. Descriptive quantitative content analysis research design was used
and the researchers found that preventive oriented frames appeared the most amongst
COVID-19 reports and that majority of media reports concerning COVID-19 were positive
and aimed at creating awareness on the dreaded virus. All these studies are related to this
research work because they all had COVID-19 in common. However, none studied
Facebook and YouTube reports COVID-19 vaccination reports.
Methodology
The researchers adopted content analysis as the research design and designed a code book
and sheet as the instruments of data collection. The study’s population include 40 Facebook
and 116 YouTube video reports that fell under the study’s periodic scope (October 1, 2021
to March 31, 2022) and this number served as the sample size because of the choice of
Censors as the sampling technique. The researchers made use of 5 generic and specific
frames each for the framing analysis. The frame categories include human interest,
economic impact, morality, attribution of responsibility, conflict, fear, safety of vaccine,
misinformation, resources or capacity frame and politicisation frames.
The human interest frame captured reports that give human face to COVID-19
vaccination issue, economic impact frame captured COVID-19 vaccination reports that
mentioned the costs/degree of expense involved in the vaccines development or
distribution, morality frame captured COVID-19 vaccination reports that made reference
to belief or culture, attribution of responsibility frame captured reports that suggested that
a phenomena was responsible COVID-19 vaccination hesitancy, conflict frame captured
reports that reflected disagreement between parties on COVID-19 vaccination.
Furthermore, fear frame captured COVID-19 vaccination reports that incited fear
in the minds of people, safety of vaccine frame captured reports that called for the
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acceptance of the coronavirus vaccine because of its safety. Misinformation frame captured
news reports used to correct conspiracy theories on COVID-19 vaccination, resources or
capacity frame captured reports that focused on the supply or provision of resources in
relations to the vaccination and politicisation frame captured video reports that politicise
COVID-19 vaccination issue.
For the slant category, favourable slant captured reports that promoted or supported
COVID-19 vaccination, unfavourable slant captured reports that went against the idea of
COVID-19 vaccination, while the neutral slant, on the other hand captured video reports
that showed no inclination as to whether it is favourable or unfavourable to COVID-19
vaccination.

Table 1: Frequency of COVID-19 Vaccination Reports on YouTube and Facebook
in their various Categories
Frequency of reports according to unit of analysis Facebook YouTube Both
News reports 6 (15%) 65(56%) 71(46%)
Opinions 14(35%) 36(31%) 50(32%)
Others 20(50%) 15(13%) 35(22%)
Total 40(100%) 116(100%) 156(100%)
The table shows that most of the COVID-19 vaccination video reports came in the form of
news reports on YouTube with over 50% of the total analysed video reports, while majority
of Facebook came in the forms of editorials, advertisement, pictorials and other forms of
video reports with 50% of the analysed video reports. This result, thus, implies that
YouTube was used more to report news on COVID-19 vaccination to the public more than
Facebook.
Table 2: Prominence given to COVID-19 Vaccination Reports on YouTube and

Facebook
Prominence according to video reports duration Facebook YouTube Both
High prominence (Above 3 minutes) 12(30%) 40(34%) 52(33%)
Medium prominence (3:01- 6 minutes) 4(10%) 38(33%) 42(27%)
Low prominence (Below 3 minutes) 24(60%) 38(33%) 62(40%)
Total 40(100%) 116(100%) 156(100%)
The table shows that there were more Facebook COVID-19 vaccination video reports with
less prominence. Video reports with high level of prominence were 30% and 34% on
Facebook and YouTube respectively, while reports with medium level of prominence were
only 10% on Facebook and 33% on YouTube. The result thus imply that people used
YouTube to give attention to COVID-19 vaccination issues as majority of the videos found
on it fell under the most prominent report category.
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Table 3: Dominant Slant of COVID-19 Vaccination Reports on YouTube and

Facebook
Slants Facebook YouTube Both
Favourable 35(87.5%) 64(55%) 99(63%)
Neutral 5(12.5%) 32(28%) 37(24%)
Unfavourable 0(0%) 20(17%) 20(13%)
Total 40(100%) 116(100%) 156(100%)
The table shows that there were more favourable COVID-19 vaccination video reports on
Facebook and You Tube, while news reports with unfavourable slants had the least number.
This implies that all the COVID-19 reports on Facebook were slanted to be favourable to
the vaccine treatment, and no report was slanted to be unfavourable to coronavirus
vaccination.
Table 4: Frames of the COVID-19 Vaccination Reports on YouTube and Facebook

Frame categories Facebook YouTube Both
Human interest 0(0%) 23(20%) 23(15%)
Economic impact 0(0%) 2(2%) 2(1%)
Morality 0(0%) 5(4%) 5(35)
Attribution of responsibility 10(25%) 2(2%) 12(8%)
Conflict 0(0%) 6(5%) 6(4%)
Fear 0(%) 6(5%) 6(4%)
Safety or efficacy of vaccine 23(57.5%) 21(18%) 44(28%)
Resource or capacity 1(2.5%) 22(19%) 23(15%)
Politicisation 2(5%) 9(8%) 11(7%)
Misinformation 4(10%) 20(17%) 24(15%)
Total 40 (100%) 116(100%) 156(100%)
The table and chart show that most reports on Facebook and YouTube came in the form of
safety and efficacy of vaccine frame and human interest frame respectively. Attribution of
responsibility and politicisation frames followed closely on Facebook while resources or
capacity and safety of vaccine frames followed on YouTube.
Generally, the researchers discovered that there exists the usage of frames and slants in all
the media messages and that a total of 116 reports were on YouTube and a total of 40 video
reports were on Facebook between the study’s periodic scope. This implies that the
frequency of COVID-19 vaccination reports on YouTube and Facebook during the study’s
periodic scope is 156.
The researchers also found that most of the COVID-19 vaccination reports on
Facebook were in the form of pictorials and advertisements and they were categorised
under the others category. For YouTube, 56% of the reports came in the form of news
reports, making it the most dominant unit of analysis. The researchers also discovered that
the percentage opinion were both average amongst the analysed news reports and the
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implication of this result is that the public truly used the social media as a tool for
disseminating information globally, just like Edegoh & Asemah (2014) and Sambav (2020)
note.
In knowing the prominence of the videos according to the length of their durations,
the researcher found that majority of the analysed COVID-19 reports on Facebook had a
low prominence, accounts for 60% of the total analysed Facebook reports. For YouTube,
COVID-19 vaccination reports with high prominence were more than those with medium
and low prominence. Medium and low prominence news were both at 33% on YouTube,
making it both average, but for Facebook, reports with high prominence were only 30%
and reports with medium prominence were just 10%. The implication of this result is that
Facebook which had less numbers of reports on COVID-19 vaccination also had the
highest number of videos with the minimum duration. YouTube on the other hand has more
videos with long durations, perhaps because of the way the social media platform was built
to permit the upload for videos of limited durations.
The findings also showed that on Facebook and YouTube, there were more
COVID-19 vaccination favourable reports and they account for 87.5% and 55% of the total
reports on platforms respectively. COVID-19 vaccination reports with neutral slant
followed suit with 12.5% and 28% on Facebook and YouTube respectively, while COVID-
19 vaccination reports with unfavourable slants were both low on the select social media
platforms. This finding confirms that the most dominantly used slants by Facebook and
YouTube in the coverage of COVID-19 vaccination is the favourable slant, and it implies
that Facebook encourages the public to take the COVID-19 vaccination, and that Facebook
reports on the vaccine treatment perhaps did not cause the high hesitancy of Nigerians in
accepting the vaccine. In addition, the result suggests that YouTube because of the presence
of some video reports that are unfavourable to the COVID-19 vaccine treatment, might
have contributed to the high timidity of Nigerians to accept the vaccine.
Futhermore, the researchers discovered that the most dominant frame of COVID-19
vaccination reports on Facebook and YouTube is the safety or efficacy of vaccine frame
and this accounts for 57.5% and 28% on Facebook and YouTube respectively. The reports
under this frame were all channeled into telling social media users that the vaccine is safe
and effective for use and that it helps stop the spread of the virus.
The implication of this result is that the analysed social media platforms majorly
framed COVID-19 vaccination reports to discourage hesitancy amongst the public.
However, this is not the case with Nigerians because as at November 2022, The Guardian
(2022) reported that only about 25% of Nigerians had been fully vaccinated. It thus shows
that somethings are still discouraging Nigerians about the vaccine treatment. This thus can
be linked to the use of frames like fear and panic which appeared in COVID-19 vaccination
reports on YouTube.

Based on the findings of the study, the researcher concludes that Facebook COVID-19
vaccination reports are likely not responsible for the high hesitancy of vaccine acceptance
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currently experienced in Nigeria, because it was all slanted to favour the reports. Thus, the
following recommendations are hereby given:
1. COVID-19 vaccination should not be communicated to incite fear in the minds of
society members about the vaccine treatment.
2. The misinformation frame should be used more to report COVID-19 vaccination
on new media in order to correct the misconceptions people have about the vaccine
treatment.
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CHAPTER SIXTEEN
PERCEPTION OF MEDIA COVERAGE ON ENVIRONMENTAL
DEGRADATION AMONG RESIDENTS OF SELECT OYO
COMMUNITIES
Victor Oladele; Daniel O. Ekhareafo, PhD & Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD
Introduction
A large number of environmental issues and problems are springing up all around the world
more frequently than ever, from strong typhoons, hurricanes and cyclones and other
extreme natural disasters as well as pollution, floods, landslides and droughts. Since the
end of the 1980s, global environmental problems have become major issues of public
concern around the world. From the pre-medieval age to more contemporary times,
mankind and environment have proven to be inseparable entities. As such, environmental
researchers, enthusiasts and scholars have over time endeavoured to pronounce the need
for humans to be generally more responsible for the care, maintenance and sustenance of
the global environment which they inhabit.
The major factors of environmental degradation are human (modern urbanisation,
industrialisation, overpopulation growth and deforestation) and natural (flood, typhoons,
droughts, rising temperatures and fires) causes. For an agrarian society like Nigeria, the
discourse of environmental degradation is weighty as it tells significantly on agricultural
productivity which most certainly affects sources of livelihood for many involved in
agriculture and also affects the citizenry generally by lowering food availability, thereby
leading to food scarcity, hunger, dependence on importation, drop in market indexes and
consequently, inflation. Agriculture places a heavy burden on the environment in the
process of providing humanity with food and fiber, while environmental elements are the
primary determinant of agricultural productivity. Given the fundamental role of agriculture
in human welfare, concern has been expressed by federal agencies and others regarding the
potential effects of environmental degradation and climate change on agricultural
productivity. Interest in this issue has motivated a substantial body of research on
environmental degradation, climate change and agriculture over the past decade (Lobell et
al, 2008), as it is evidenced that failure to sustain environment will have a strong impact
on Nigeria, particularly in the areas of agriculture; land use, energy, biodiversity, health
and water resources.
According to Maurya et al. (2020), environmental degradation is the deterioration
of the environment through depletion of resources which includes all the biotic and abiotic
element that form our surrounding that is air, water, soil, pant animals and all other living
and non-living element of the planet of earth. From the foregoing, climate and
environmental degradation are intertwined as climate is typically described by the statistics
of a set of atmospheric and surface variables, such as temperature, precipitation, wind,
humidity, cloudiness, soil moisture, sea surface temperature and so on. In addition, rain-
fed agriculture practiced and fishing activities from which 2/3 of the Nigerian population
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depend primarily on foods and livelihoods are continuously under serious threat besides
the high population pressures of 140 million people surviving on the physical environment
through various activities within an area of 923,000 square kilometers (IPCC 2007, as cited
by Apata, et al 2009).
Food crop farmers in South Western Nigeria provide the bulk of arable crops that
are consumed locally, also, major food crop supplies to other regions in the country. The
local farmers are experiencing effects of environmental degradation even though they have
not considered its deeper implications. This is evidenced in the late arrival of rain, the
drying-up of stream and small rivers that usually flows year round, the seasonal shifting of
the “mango rains” and of the fruiting period in the Southern part of Oyo State (Ogbomosho)
and the gradual disappearance of flood-recession cropping in riverine areas of Ondo state
are among the effects of climate disturbances in some communities of South-Western
Nigeria. Going on to approach this issue appropriately, one must take into account local
communities’ understanding of environmental forces and climate, since they perceive
climate as having a strong spiritual, emotional, and physical dimension. Hence, mass media
play a significant role in covering related news and information on environmental
incidences, issues and problems (Pompper & Signorielli, as cited by Boyagoda, 2017). On
this premise, the researcher is spurred to evaluate select Oyo state residents’ perception of
media attention attributed to environmental degradation in the metropolis.

As much as environmental problems affect man directly, the environment is still depleting
as each day passes. A number of studies have shown that mass media is a powerful tool
that has been and can continue to be used to effect of social change. Mass media, known
as a “means of production” which disseminate the ideas and world views are an agent of
ideological control (Marx & Engels, as cited by Boyagoda, 2017). Specifically, news
articles related to environment play an important role in forming perceptions, catalysing
environmental actions, shaping the public’s perceptions and opening up understanding of
the government's efforts to address environmental issues and resolve the relevant problems.
In September 2022, the Oyo State Government raised alarm over the spillage of a
poisonous chemical into a flowing river linking several communities (Punch, 2022).
Subsequently, newspaper pages became awash with incessant letters, reports and
lamentations by farmers in Oyo state, decrying the adverse effects of damage to the
ecosystem and environmental degradation on their farmlands. A closer look at this
conundrum will reveal that implications range from sources of livelihood being eroded to
more damning consequences like shortage of food supply and inflation, thereby leading to
economic downturn. With the advocacy powers of the media as the Fourth Estate of the
Realm, it is worth asking that amidst the buzz surrounding the 2023 Nigerian Presidential
election, pre-election campaign processes and festivities, how much attention have media
attributed to the plight of these agrarian communities? And with environmental
communication being an offshoot of risk communication, it also becomes pertinent to
interrogate how interpretative and effective the risk bearers; farmers and vitally, residents
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of agrarian societies in this case, consider media coverage on environmental degradation

and its influence on behavioural change and institutional action.

The objectives were to:
1. Ascertain the rate of media usage for news and information seeking among residents
of select Oyo communities.
2. Determine the nature of exposure of select Oyo communities’ residents to media
coverage on environmental degradation.
3. Investigate select residents’ perception of media reports on environmental
degradation.
4. Deduce the perceived influence of media coverage on behavioural change and
institutional action.
Media and the Practice of Environmental Journalism

In numerous ways, the study of environmental media has become its own subfield. The
diverse research in this area focuses on ways in which news, advertising, and commercial
programmess portray nature and environmental problems as well as the effects of different
media on public attitudes. Subjects include the agenda-setting role of news media, that is,
its ability to influence which issues audiences think about; journalist values of objectivity
and balance in reporting; and media framing or the way that the packaging of news
influences readers’ or viewers’ sense-making and evokes certain perceptions and values.
This establishes that one of the cardinal functions of mass media is to educate people, as
people also turn to media for learning and self-education (Asemah, 2011).
Environmental communication is the exchange of information about environmental
issues and concerns between individuals, organisations, and societies. It involves the use
of various forms of media, such as television, radio, print media, and social media, to
communicate about environmental issues and to promote awareness and understanding of
these issues among the general public. Environmental communication can also involve the
use of non-media channels, such as public meetings and educational programs, to engage
with people about environmental issues. Wyss, (2008) proposes that environmental
journalism can be explained as exploring risks and hazards and translating complex
scientific issues into simple language and stories using varied sources: scientists,
policymakers, NGOs, business, consumers, involved people and the general public The
goal of environmental communication is to promote sustainable development and to foster
a greater appreciation and understanding of the natural world. Flor (2004) observes that
development communication has grown hand in hand with the environmental movement.
Early on in the seventies, it acknowledged the significance of sustainability in development
undertakings. To attain sustainability, a social system’s economic and humanistic values
must converge with environmental values. Hence, this acknowledgement provided the
rationale for environmental advocacy to become a thrust and a legitimate concern of
development communication.
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Dutt et al (2013) note that people use mass media to learn about environmental
issues that are outside of their direct experience. People seek out facts and interpretation
and nuances because they possess little information about current issues and events,
especially those that are outside of a person’s daily experience and the media are the main
source(s) of information. These constraints can be so limiting that they create
inconsistencies in reporting. In 2011, Jalarajan & Sreekumar noted that the nature of
environmental news production does not permit even the issues that are covered to be done
with the same standard. Media outlets are simply unable to present every aspect of a story
and usually, the resulting frames and non-verbal cues convey further importance and
meaning to the reader. An unintended consequence of these constraints is that importance
can be placed on stories that are longer in length or, as discussed above, include a picture.
The volume of media coverage is the first indicator of the relative salience awarded to an
issue over time. In concordance with this, Asemah et al (2017) further state that they are
two factors that underscore the concept of source-credibility; these are trustworthiness and
expertise. That is, the media should endeavour to marry their ability to present issues in a
factual and trustworthy manner with impeccable expertise by objectively covering all key
aspects and even salient undertones of stories.
With the growing importance of environmental issues and the problems arising
from the environment, particularly the problems of environmental pollution (air, water, and
soil), depletion of natural resources, desertification, global warming and hazardous waste
and their health, psychological, social, and economic impact – environmental media has
emerged and its important role has become evident. Environmental media can be defined
as the type of media that supports environmental issues through its role in activating and
supporting the participation of the public in preserving the environment, protecting its
renewable and non-renewable resources from depletion and sabotage, and working to
improve and develop these resources for better protection both in the present and future.
In order to fulfil public needs, the mission of the media within society has evolved;
it has enormous potential to change trends and form the mental images that influence public
opinion toward the issues at hand. Newspapers particularly represent a suitable forum for
discussing the subject of addressing environmental issues, thanks to their ability to present
divergent views, interpret and analyse events and reveal the truth about what is raised on
environmental issues and problems, in addition to the space and margin of freedom made
available for these newspapers to discuss controversial issues (Yassin, 2014). Generally,
the media plays an effective role in raising a citizen’s environmental awareness, and
instilling the right concepts toward the environment in individuals and industrial
organisations, as well as toward the resulting damage and the problems of pollution, while
also warning that the increasing pollution may lead to health, economic and social disasters.
However, Nwabueze (2015) as cited by Oladele et al (2021) asserts that mass media
attention to the environment has been described as a relatively recent development in
Nigeria, with other issues such as business, finance, information technology (I.T) and
politics receiving more priority.
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Press Coverage of Environment and Sustainable Development Issues

In handling environment-related reports, different types of media, including visual, print
and audio, have to consider that the audience of such reports is broad in terms of age,
educational background, profession, and other individual qualities that distinguish
individuals from each other. Zeina (2011), therefore, purports that media messages should
be presented in a way that is as diverse as the audience. Matar (2020) submits that there
are two types of media coverage of environmental issues as follows:
a. News Coverage: Investigates environmental issues including: environmental
phenomena, e.g. black smoke clouds, soil contamination; environment-related
issues, e.g. afforestation, scientific research, pollutants, pollution prevention and
treatment solutions; and news, efforts and statements of public figures working in
the environment section, e.g. the minister of environment, reports about the
Chairman of the Environment Agency, scientists and environmental experts. A
piece of news can be local or international, simple or complex. Environmental news
should cover current and important information, using interesting input.
b. Analytical Coverage: Presents, explains and interprets environmental issues and

phenomena and makes an in-depth investigation of reasons and outcomes. This
should be done within a more comprehensive framework that connects the different
dimensions of a phenomenon to other phenomena. It is necessary to determine
which authorities are responsible for an issue and outline the responsibilities of each
to start the actual diagnosis and analysis and, finally, introduce a preventive
treatment. The role of environmental media is not only shedding light on an
environmental issue or phenomenon, it needs to be supported with the ability to
provide information and answers to all the questions of the public. In this way, the
media will manage to awaken public interest and involvement in environmental
issues. Inevitably, stimulating public interest proves to be an essential step towards
effecting the desired behavioural change, which is indispensable for the success of
any environment-preservation programme. Forms of analytical coverage include
press releases, articles and reports. Aiyesimoju & Awoniyi (2012) advocate that
press should give more attention to various issues on environment, as well as its
developmental programmes in its reportage and to intensify efforts on setting
environmental agenda so as to facilitate sustainable development in agriculture and
environment.
Impact of Environmental Degradation on Agriculture and Livelihood in Nigeria

Environmental degradation and poverty have become important global issues since the
1970s, when the world countries and international community became aware of the
negative consequences of over-exploitation of the human environment (Nwokoro &
Chima, 2017). While climate change and global warming are two relevant concepts in this
discourse, environmental degradation dwells more on causality and objectively takes into
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consideration, actions and inactions of man that may lead to the pollution of the
environment.
According to Bamisaiye (2019), climate change is the long-term changes in the
weather patterns in a region. This term is synonymous with global warming, which is a
persistent rise in the temperature of the earth for a decade or more. Environmental
degradation on one hand not only considers climate change and global warming, but also,
consequential indices such as land degradation, pollution, landfills, deforestation,
economic logic and even natural causes. Land degradation constitutes a global problem, as
it may occur naturally as well as from manmade activities. Also, pollution which could be
air or water pollution is very integral in the discourse of environmental degradation as it is
also a serious worldwide problem. Air pollution refers to the release of harmful
contaminants (chemicals, toxic gases, particulates and biological molecules) into the
earth’s atmosphere. Water pollution is said to occur when toxic pollutants and particulate
matter are introduced into water bodies such as lakes, rivers and seas. These contaminants
are generally introduced by human activities like improper sewage treatment and oil spills
(Rahman et al 2017; Cheng et al 2016). The discourse of environmental degradation is
vital as human health might be at the receiving end as a result of environmental
degradation. Areas exposed to toxic air pollutants can cause respiratory problems like
pneumonia and asthma. Millions of people are known to have died off due to the indirect
effects of air pollution (Adakole & Oladimeji, 2006).
On the Oyo state case, the genesis of what aptly fits the description of a monumental
environmental pollution was an accidented truck that emptied its toxic substance into a
once pristine river with tributaries serving as sources of drinking water, irrigation for farms
and fishing points in the local government. After the incident occurred on August 31, 2022,
the Oyo State Government, on September 7, issued an alert to residents of Ijaiye, Ido,
Olowo-Igbo, Iseyin and Ibarapa communities, warning them against drinking water from
their streams. The warning was signed by the Commissioner for Information and Tourism,
Wasiu Olatunbosun. Punch (2022) referenced the Osun state Commissioner for
Environment and Natural Resources, Abiodun Oni, who reported that a truck was involved
in an accident at Iroko-Oyo highway while conveying substances presumed to be soap-
making chemicals. It was revealed that the soap-making chemical, which fell off into the
drainage, ended up contaminating the streams passing through the five communities, hence
impairing the quality of the water and rendering it toxic to humans and the environment at
large. As a result, farmers and fishermen to suspend every activity within the vicinity until
all the water bodies had been tested and considered safe for consumption. Since the
spillage, farmers have counted their losses and community members have as well writhed
in the hardship this has caused.
The foregoing is a fitting example of how environmental degradation could be as a
result of man’s activities and how much it could affect agriculture and livelihood. As earlier
highlighted in this study, food crop farmers in Oyo state and other parts of South Western
Nigeria provide the bulk of arable crops that are consumed locally, also, major food crop
supplies to other regions in the country. According to IFAD (2010), agriculture provide
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livelihood for about 90% of the rural population in Nigeria. The environment provides rural
farmers with the resources for their farming activities, such as marine or sea water, soil,
forest, green vegetation and biodiversity. Rural societies are generally rich in
environmental resource depended upon for various local level income generation. Girigiri
(2000) noted that apart from farming, which informs the major source of income for
majority of rural settings, the rural population depends on other complimentary income
generation activities that rely on the environment. A typical feature of rural economy in
Nigeria include all forms of agricultural production such as farming (planting, animal
husbandry keeping, cattle rearing), hunting, fishing, herbal medicine, craft and cottage
industry. These economic activities heavily depend on the environment for supplies. This
means that those traditional methods of environmental resources conservation must both
be initiated and strengthened in addressing environmental degradation issues related to
economic activities in the rural areas.
Empirical Review
A range of studies have been undertaken to address issues surrounding risk communication,
environmental journalism and environmental degradation. Fewtrell et al (2001) in their
study on risk communication submitted that risk communication is any purposeful
exchange of information about risks between interested parties. More specifically, they
established risk communication as the act of conveying or transmitting information
between parties about a range of areas including levels of health or environmental risks,
the significance or meaning of health or environmental risks and decisions, actions or
policies aimed at managing or controlling health or environmental risks. Dietz & Stern
(2008) evaluated public participation in environmental assessment and decision making
and observed that when done well, public participation improves the quality and legitimacy
of a decision and can lead to better results in terms of environmental quality. However,
dissatisfaction with some of the adversarial forms of public participation has led
practitioners and scholars to explore alternative models of resolving environmental
conflicts. They draw inspiration from some documented successes of local communities
that have discovered ways to bring disputing parties together. For instance, groups that had
been in conflict for years over logging in Canada’s coastal Great Bear Rainforest reached
agreement over a decade ago to protect 5 million forest acres (Armstrong, 2009). At the
centre of these models of conflict resolution is the idea of “collaboration;” a mode of
communication that invites stakeholders to engage in problem-solving discussion rather
than just advocacy and debate.
It would be difficult to overstate the impact of news media on the public’s
understanding of environmental concerns. News media not only report events but also exert
influence through their agenda-setting role or their effect on the public’s perception of the
salience or importance of issues. This led Matar (2020) in his study on the nexus among
media coverage, environmental issues and sustainable development in the UAE to posit
that there is a close connection between environmental issues and the media through the
process of sustainable development as the media can spread awareness to a wide public in
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terms of their environmental rights and responsibilities. In a more modern sense,

developmental media is a chief contributor to sustainable development, as various
communication channels are keen to offer media initiatives, public dialogues, awareness
advertising, and guidelines about the environment. Extant studies however have it that
media may have to do more. Okoro & Nnaji (2012) in their study on press coverage of
pollution in the Niger Delta region found that environmental pollution in the region by the
print media received low coverage. Analysing four national dailies, results revealed that
environmental issues were largely confined to the inside pages of the newspapers. It was
concluded that environmental education will add impetus to the struggle for having a
healthy environment, as well as sustainable environment.
In a study appraising print media’s coverage on environmental issues in India,
Lucas (2013) argued that environmental issues attract widespread attention in mass media
and then decline from public view, though the issues remain largely unresolved. Findings
from the study which employed content analysis of coverage of global warming on the
front pages of select newspapers revealed that coverage of global warming influenced the
environmental concerns of a large proportion of people; although, it was also indicated that
high levels of media coverage did not last for a long time. Pinto et al (2022) investigated
environmental degradation and agriculture with an approach to studying countries’ indexed
data. Results showed that the African countries surveyed occupied the positions of the most
degraded regions of the world, since twenty of the highest indexes, seventeen are the
responsibility of African countries, all with values above 50%. According to Zhan et al
(2017), it should be noted that there is an investment gap in agriculture in many developing
countries, which contributes to this vulnerability. Agriculture in many African countries
depends on irrigation, with water supplied through open channels built over many
centuries, in which due to limited knowledge of these distribution channels, water
management practices are difficult (Kimaro et al 2019).
Nwokoro & Chima (2017) investigated the impact of environmental degradation
on agricultural production and poverty in rural Nigeria. They postulated that poverty is
both the cause and result of a depleted environment. A simple syllogism is found to exist
in the manner in which residents of rural areas due to poverty, poor access to societal
resources and other forms of inequality are compelled to over exploit immediate
environmental resources which are readily available for subsistence or mini commercial
agriculture. Yet, when these resources become depleted, the people are once again pushed
into more poverty. In other words, poor people and rural dwellers are both agents and
victims of environmental degradation. Nwokoro & Chima concluded that policy
implication on sustainable agriculture production in rural Nigeria must address three major
issues namely; reduction of poverty in the rural areas (agric loans and subsidies), the role
of government agricultural extension services in facilitating resource management in
agriculture, and participation of rural people in the management and protection of their
environment. Often, a degraded environment tends to be irreversible, thereby leading to
human death, loss of output and productivity (Aboagye et al 2020). This is at variance with
environmental sustainability that requires balance, resilience and interconnectedness to
177
enable human society meet its present needs without exceeding the capacity of its
supporting ecosystems to regenerate these services in the future (Morelli, 2011).
This study is anchored on the theory of environmentally responsible behaviour (ERB). The
environmentally responsible behaviour theory was proposed by Hines, Hungerford and
Tomera in 1986. The model argues that possessing an intention of acting is a major factor
influencing ERB. The model indicates that the following variables- intention to act, locus
of control (an internalised sense of personal control over the events in one’s own life),
attitudes, sense of personal responsibility and knowledge suggested whether a person
would adopt a behaviour or not. In Matre’s (1990) perspective, environmental education
that just educates people about the environment without asking them to make changes in
their own lives is not environmental education – it is natural science.
This model considers the major variables that play a part in the individual process
of ERB adoption, of which the internal control centre is one. It has a very considerable
impact on the intention of acting, which determines an individual’s ERB substantially. This
model also highlights the existence of a relationship between the control centre, attitudes
of individuals and their intention to act. Thus, the theory concentrates more on existing
interactions between parameters that influence a person’s behaviour than on the singular
impact of a single variable. Yaroson & Asemah (2008); Asemah, Nwammuo & Nkwam-
Uwaoma (2017) observe that theories play a vital role in research. Hence, in relativity to
this study, it is notable that no single factor is responsible for current behaviours or
sufficient to initiate behaviour or cause behavioural change in approaching environmental
degradation. For instance, people pile up waste materials in the middle of the streets in
large cities like Ibadan, Oyo state and even in other parts of the country like Port Harcourt
and Jos, despite frequent campaigns, warnings and regulations from waste management
authorities, prohibiting these acts. Hence, knowledge alone is grossly insufficient to induce
people to act responsibly towards the environment. While some individuals’ knowledge on
the environment and its regulations could prompt them to have a good attitude which could
translate to good intentions to act, other individuals may go through the internal and
external control, such as being influenced by the actions of others or holding strongly to a
belief to act rightly despite the actions of others towards the environment.
Methodology
The survey design was adopted for this study. A survey as noted by Asemah, Gujbawu,
Ekhareafo & Okpanachi (2012) is an empirical study that uses questionnaire to discover
descriptive characteristics of a phenomenon. The population for this study comprised
Iseyin, Ido, and Ibarapa local government areas in Oyo state. According to Metro Area
population (2018), Iseyin has a population of 448,070, Ido with 143,533 while Ibarapa has
a population of 322,189, amounting to a joint population of 953,792. The Taro Yamane
formula was used to determine the sample size of 384 with confidence level of 95% and a
permitted error margin of 0.5. The multistage sampling technique was used to draw the
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sample size. At the first stage, the Oyo metropolis was streamlined into clusters of six local
government areas namely Iseyin, Ido, Ijaiye, Ibarapa, Akinyele and Olowo-Igbo LGAs. At
the second stage, purposive sampling was used to select Iseyin, Ido and Ibarapa
communities from the local government areas, primarily because they were key
communities affected and due to reasons such as level of literacy and access to media,
meaning they fit the characteristics needed in the sample. At the third stage, snowball
sampling also known as chain-referral sampling was then adopted with an initial subject
being contacted to provide referrals to recruit key samples for the study such as members
of community associations, local government officials and community members. In stage
four, 128 copies of questionnaire were proportionately distributed to select participants in
each of the three communities, making up 384 questionnaire copies sent out. Data gathered
from field survey were evaluated using descriptive statistics and univariate mode of
analysis while results were presented in simple percentages, frequencies and tables.

The questionnaire which served as the instrument of data collection in this study was
administered to 80 respondents in select Oyo communities. 17 copies (4%) of the
questionnaire were lost and 367 (96%) were adequately filled and returned. Data
presentation was based on 367 questionnaire copies.
Table 1: Rate of Media usage for News and Information seeking among Select Oyo
Residents
Options Frequency %
Very high 86 24
High 165 45
Undecided 15 4
Low 67 18
Very low 34 9
Total 367 100
Table 1 above shows that 45% of the respondents largely access media for the purpose of
news and information seeking, giving a perspective on their purpose of media usage.
Table 2: Channels through which Select Residents of Oyo communities are mostly
exposed to Media coverage on Environmental degradation
Options Frequency %
Newspapers 146 40
Radio and television 80 22
Social media and online outlets 96 26
Local institutions and bodies 45 12
Total 367 100
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The representation in table 2 above connotes that 146 respondents, representing 40% are
mostly exposed to coverage on environmental degradation through newspapers, with local
institutions and bodies proving the least viable channel with 12%.
Table 3: Select Residents’ Perception on Frequency of Media Reports on

Environmental degradation
Options Frequency %
Very high 46 12
High 58 16
Undecided 36 10
Low 138 38
Very low 89 24
Total 367 100
Table 3 above shows that 38% and 24% of respondents respectively view frequency of
media reports on environmental degradation as low and very low.
Table 4: Select Residents’ Perception on Level of Quality, Balance, Dimension and

Objectivity of Media reports on Environmental degradation
Options Frequency %
Very high 63 17
High 128 35
Undecided 39 11
Low 93 25
Very low 44 12
Total 367 100
Table 4 indicates that based on the given measuring criteria, 35% of respondents perceive
media reports on environmental degradation as concrete. Contrastingly however, 25% of
respondents perceive the worthiness of media reports as low.
Table 5: Perceived Influence of In-depth Media coverage on Environmental

degradation on Behavioural change among Individuals and Concerned groups
Options Frequency %
Very high 146 40
High 80 22
Undecided 54 44
Low 96 26
Very low 45 12
Total 367 100
From the data in table 5 above, 40% of respondents consider that in-depth coverage on
environmental issues is highly capable of effecting behavioural change among individuals
and concerned groups.
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Table 6: Effectiveness of Media coverage on Environmental degradation in spurring

Government and Institutional bodies into Formation of Policies and Creation of
Intervention schemes
Options Frequency %
Very effective 32 8
Effective 56 15
Undecided 34 9
Ineffective 91 25
Very ineffective 154 42
Total 367 100
Table 6 denotes that 154 respondents (42%) perceive media coverage on environmental
degradation as very ineffective in spurring government and institutional bodies into
forming policies and creating intervention schemes.
The researchers examined the perception of media coverage on environmental degradation
among residents of select Oyo communities – Iseyin, Ido and Ibarapa. Objective 1 was
designed to gauge the rate of media usage for news and information seeking among select
residents. Out of the 367 respondents sampled, 165 respondents representing 45%
submitted that they highly used media for news and information seeking with 24%
similarly admitting to very high rate of usage. This conforms to Boyagoda’s (2017)
inference of mass media as a means of production which disseminates ideas and world
views, forming perceptions and shaping public perception.
The second objective was targeted at assessing how respondents are mostly exposed
to media coverage on environmental degradation. Data revealed that 40% of respondents
mostly get media reports from newspapers. This finding mirrors the view of Yassin (2014)
that newspapers particularly represent a suitable forum for addressing environmental
issues, thanks to their ability to present divergent views, interpret events and analyse them.
A total of 26% of the respondents admitting to accessing reports through online channels
establishes a basis of understanding that new media with its flexibility and media
convergence capability, offers an avenue for analysis of issues on development and
economy such as environmental sustenance. Notably, just 12% indicated local institutions
and bodies as being a viable channel for accessing media reports. This establishes a gap,
as many rural residents, farmers and community members may not have literacy level or
social nous to latch on to newspapers, television sets or electronic gadgets. This would lead
them to depend on institutions such as local governments, farmers’ associations and health
agencies to devise a public sphere for divergence of opinions and possible information on
government initiatives and new developments on environmental issues. It was on this basis
that Dietz & Stern (2008) observe that when done well, public participation could
incorporate a collaborative model that improves the quality and legitimacy of a decision
and can lead to better results in terms of environmental quality.
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The third objective aimed to evaluate perception of media reports on environmental

degradation in the sampled communities. On frequency, 38% of respondents were of the
view that coverage on these issues were considerably low, meaning more media attention
is attributed to other issues. This is synonymous with Aiyesimoju & Awoniyi’s (2012) take
that that press should give more attention to various issues on environment, as well as
developmental programmes in its reportage and intensify efforts on setting environmental
agenda so as to facilitate sustainable development in agriculture and environment. On
worthiness of reports based on quality, balance, dimension and objectivity, 35% considered
media reports to be of high standard. More so, the next highest return was a similarly large
25% of respondents opining that quality of reports were low. This indicates that while the
efforts of the media in handling environment-related reports may be commended, there is
a lot of room for improvement. In reference to the environmentally responsible behaviour
theory, Matre (1990) observes that environmental information that just educates people
about the environment without asking them to make changes in their own lives is not
environmental education but merely natural science. Hence, as posited by Asemah et al
(2017), media should marry trustworthiness with impeccable expertise by objectively
covering all key aspects and even salient undertones of stories.
Objective 4 was coined to weigh the influence of media coverage in stimulating
behavioural change and institutional action. 40% of respondents view that media reports
have a very high influence on behavioural change by individuals towards environmental
issues. As Fewtrell et al (2001) established, in risk communication and situation
management, interested parties must include government, agencies, corporations and
industry groups, unions, the media, scientists, professional organisations, interest groups
and individual citizens. Worryingly though, a combined 67% of respondents perceive that
media coverage on these issues in the area are either utterly ineffective or relatively
ineffective in spurring government and institutional bodies into forming policies and
creating intervention schemes. On this premise, Lucas (2013) argues that environmental
issues may attract widespread attention in mass media but then decline from public view,
with issues remaining largely unresolved. Hence, governments, agencies, law enforcement,
institutions and authorities concerned with environmental sustainability are tasked with
comprehending the need to tackle issues with utmost urgency and progressive
interdependency.

Media practices powerfully shape and negotiate meaning, influencing how citizens make
sense of and value the world. Media representations bridge different ways of knowing
about the environment and often mediate public perceptions, attitudes, perspectives and
behaviours related to environmental issues. Accidental happenings and continuous
pressure on the environment can exceed the carrying capacities of the ecosystem, leading
to environmental degradation. This in turn impairs economic well-being and sustainable
development. Hence, it is recommended that:
182
1. As agriculture in many parts of Nigeria largely depends on irrigation, with water

supplied through open channels built over many centuries, media should tailor
intervention programmes to enhance knowledge of water management practices and
existing distribution channels.
2. Government institutions should devise well-tailor rural planning methods and
mechanisms to stay closer to grassroots and accommodate environmental pollution
mitigation measures.
3. Collective efforts are needed in keeping river channels free from any form of
obstructions and pollution. So, authorities concerned with environmental
sustainability should complement media’s efforts by being more pro-active in
responding to emerging issues as reported by the press.
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CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
OPINIONS OF JOURNALISTS IN YENAGOA METROPOLIS ON
FAKE NEWS AND MISINFORMATION IN CITIZEN JOURNALISM
PRACTICE IN NIGERIA
Introduction
The practice which enables individuals with access to digital media technologies to
participate in reporting events around them and disseminate information is what is termed
‘citizen journalism.’ It is a term referred to, especially to those who use digital media to
publish and exchange news, opinions and views in contradistinction to that found in the
mainstream media. According to Glaser (2006), cited in Amobi & Sunday (2011), ''the
idea behind citizen journalism is that people without professional journalism training use
the tools of modern technology and the global distribution of the internet to create, augment
or fact check media on their own or in collaboration with others'' (p. 636).
Glaser (2006) notes that citizen journalism practitioners could be described as
dilettantes, particularly when it concerns the basic principles of news reportage in
mainstream journalism. Citizen journalism can also be described as journalism without
borders. It is the latest communication fad and constitutes an integral part of mass
communication. Bowman & Willis (2003) as cited in Uzochukwu & Ekwugha (2011, p.
648) validated the above proposition when they said “citizen journalism is the act of
allowing ordinary individuals to play an active role in the process of collecting, reporting,
analysing and disseminating news and information to the public.” Similarly, Sifry (2003)
corroborates the above assertion when he conceptualised citizen journalism “as the latest
buzzword to describe a global publishing phenomenon that began as an amateur pursuit
but which now has increased fragmentation of the mass media. It was once a passive
consumer audience.” Furthermore, Rogers (2011) cited by Joseph (2011) states thus:
Citizen journalism is when individuals do essentially what professional
journalists or reporters do; that is, source and report information which take
many forms, from a podcast editorial to a report about a city council meeting
on a blog. It can include text, pictures, audio, and video. But it is about
communicating information of some kind. This practice was largely
enhanced by the emergence of the internet, mobile phones and other ICT-
with blogs, podcast, streaming videos and other web-related innovations (p.
657).
Interestingly, since the advent of digital media platforms, there exists a noticeable
change in paradigm in the communications landscape from a passive audience receiver
phenomenon to user-generated content (UGC). The overriding philosophy behind citizen
journalism is to create citizens’ access to the media and for the citizens to play an active
role in the processes of collecting, reporting, analysing, and disseminating news or
information. This has transformed the citizens from content consumers to content
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producers, which McQuail describes as the PROSUMER phenomenon. In this regard,

citizen journalism practice certainly serves as a veritable complementary source of
information dissemination to the traditional media (print & electronic). This view also
resonates with the postulation of Uzochukwu & Ekwugha (2011) who argued that ''citizen
journalism has not come to replace the traditional media rather it is complementing the old
media'' (p. 649).
Citizen journalism practice has created wide opportunities for citizens to participate
in the exchange\dissemination of information. Scholars also argue that citizen journalists
engage in and contribute meaningfully to critical national issues; however, to what extent
have citizen journalists contributed to critical national discourse is subject to robust
argument. It has the potency of speedy and instant first-hand reportage of occurrences,
sharing of photos, video footage and messages with instant feedback. It enables and
provided the citizens with the opportunity to play the watchdog role hitherto the exclusive
preserve of professional journalists. In alluding to the above statement, Banda (2010)
writes thus:
Thus citizen journalism is an evolving form of journalism through user-
generated content. When a common man in his capacity as a citizen of a
nation takes up the initiative to report things or express his views about
happenings around him … The internet gave average people the ability to
transmit information globally. That was a power once reserved for only the
very largest media corporations and news agencies.
In Nigeria, it is common to read breaking news and watch photos, video footage
and other occurrences posted by citizen journalists on digital media platforms such as
Blogs, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, WhatsApp and Google. For instance, between 26th
July and 1st August 2019, the digital media platforms in Nigeria and beyond were awash
with video footage and photos of a stranded Whale somewhere in Brass Local Government
Area of Bayelsa State, Nigeria. Video footage and photos of how the Whale was been
butchered by the Brass people, even using a chain-saw machine. This attracted a lot of
criticism from environmental activists (foreign and local). This is a typical example of the
importance of citizen journalism practice, its use and its abuse. However, the credibility of
some of these reports is questionable. The question raised above constitutes a hotbed of
manifold tension among scholars. It is in the light of the foregoing that Tilley & Cokley
(2008); Hamdy (2009), cited in Amobi & Sunday (2011) argue that:
Bloggers are not necessarily journalists and do not feel that they should be
following guidelines, press laws, or ethical codes set for journalists. They
are instead masters of producing raw, uncensored flows of communication
and are thus often referred to as citizen journalists...benefiting from the use
of personalised digital technologies and powerful innovative content, these
citizen journalists are disrupting old media monopolies with the discourse
on their blogs (p. 637).
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A synthesis in the light of the above will reveal by extrapolation that citizen
journalism practice is frosted with encumbrances such as fake news, misinformation, lack
of integrity, posting of uncensored information, lack of professionalism, violation of
privacy, disdain for media law and ethics. The media suitable for citizen journalism
practice is digital media platforms. In this regard, it can be said without any equivocation
that the popularisation of citizen journalism practice is a function of the emergence of
digital media platforms. In Nigeria, this has brought about an unprecedented paradigm
shift, particularly in the way people cover and report events, issues, and happenings around
them via digital media. Digital media platforms are very important social channels for
interaction, exchange of ideas, information dissemination, and transmission of cultural
heritage. Essentially, in contemporary times, no discourse on media can be complete
without any mention of digital media.
Social or digital media importance presupposes the fact that they have the
advantages of speed, immediacy, accessibility, feedback and usability. This offers the
audience opportunity to contribute and actively participate in any topical issue, thereby
expanding the frontiers of communication. Commenting on the importance of social media,
Idumange (2013) posits that ''the rapid and pervasive growth of social media technologies
and their relative ease of use and availability have made social media a popular form of
communication'' (p. 5). To further corroborate the above assertion, Banda (2010) points
out that “although citizen journalism has been in existence for decades, in various forms,
the movement is currently experiencing a marked rise in popularity with the advent of new
media technologies and the democratic nature of the internet” (p. 321).
These channels of communication have far-reaching implications based on the fact
that each form of digital media platform is highly interactive and can shape opinion. A
social media platform is a potent tool for not just communication, but speedy and feedback-
oriented communication, interactivity and continuous flow of communication. Despite its
potential, it has been observed that it is inveigled with some ethical dilemmas as regards
compliance with the journalistic codes of ethics.
Salami (2020) notes that “one of the products of the digitisation of the information
industry is citizen journalism. The revolution has empowered the audience for full
participation, thereby breaking the monopoly of information hitherto domiciled in the
traditional media; thus making everyone a communicator” (p.130). Despite the laudable
features and potential of social media and as it relates to journalism practice, citizen
journalists who often are not trained professionals have been observed to be engaged in
unethical practices. In the circumstances of the above, this study set out to examine citizen
journalism practice, as well as determine if fake news and misinformation in citizen
journalism practice are inherent or deliberate through the prism of journalists in the
Yenagoa metropolis.

1. Examine fake news and misinformation in citizen journalism practice in Nigeria.
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2. Determine if fake news and misinformation in citizen journalism practice are

inherent or deliberate.
3. Find out citizen journalists' compliance with professional codes guiding the
journalism profession.
The theory considered suitable for this study is the technological determinism theory.
Technological determinism theory is also known as medium theory. Chandler & Munday
(2011) claim that technological determinism is ''a term coined by Veblen'' (p. 422). It was
said to have been improved and developed through the works of McLuhan. However, most
communication scholars agree that the technological determinism theory was postulated
by Marshall McLuhan in 1962. The basic assumption of this theory is that technology plays
an essential role in determining what goes on in society by shaping how individuals
communicate, relate and interact. Extrapolation, explains that we learn, think and feel the
way we do based on how we share information, messages and ideas through current
technologies in use. It also presupposes that media technology plays a dominant role in the
assignment of meaning in society.
In a somewhat similar manner, Rodman (2012) points out that ''the introduction of
every new technology changes society, sometimes in unexpected ways'' (p. 60). Similarly,
Burton (2011) explains that ''technology itself shapes society and can be a cause of social
change (p. 177). Following this line of thought, Pavlik and Mclntosh (2013) also affirm
that ''technology causes certain human behaviours'' (p. 454). Succinctly, the invention of
digital media platforms has brought about unprecedented changes in our life. Predictably,
technological determinism theory presupposes that with the introduction of every new form
of media technology, society will change and adapt to the new technology. The theory is
relevant to this study since it presupposes that technological dynamics determine media
use and adaptation.
Fake News and Misinformation in Citizen Journalism Practice

Citizen journalism as a term in communication studies has evolved with a crescendo of
popularity and excitement. The citizen journalism revolution via digital media platforms
has fundamentally transformed the nature of journalism. However, it is imperative to
inform how this journalism fad came to be. Historiography of the emergence and
development of citizen journalism is traceable to the developed countries in about the 18th
century. According to Glaser (2006), cited in Joseph (2011, p. 658) observes that “the
earliest form of citizen journalism is traced to the founding of the United States in the 18th
century when pamphleteers such as Thomas Paine and the anonymous authors of the
Federalist Papers gained prominence by printing their publications.” Joseph (2011) further
states:
In the modern era, video footage of the assassination of President John. F.
Kennedy in the ‘60s and footage of police beating Rodney King in Los
Angeles in the ‘80s were both captured by citizens on the scene. Plus, the
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rise of talk radio and even the styling of cable access TV gave average folks
the chance to share their views with a much larger audience (p. 658).
In a contrasting view, Amobi & Sunday (2011) claim that “Rosen traces the origin
of citizen journalism to Abraham Zapruder, who filmed the assassination of President J. F.
Kennedy with a home-movie camera” (p. 637). A distillation of the etymology of citizen
journalism as recorded by the above authors reveal that the practice of citizen journalism
is not tied to digital media technologies. It implies that the media for citizen journalism
practice at incipient were the traditional media forms broadly classified as print and
electronic media. Citizen journalism is a notion that advances the idea that the audience or
the public gets involved in the news production and dissemination process. Citizens’
involvement in the news production processes automatically engenders interactivity and
participation.
In Nigeria like any other country in the world, citizen journalism was popularised
by the unprecedented ICT penetration in the late 90s. Then there was no widespread
citizens’ access to the media. Today, citizen journalism practice increases by the day and
this could be attributed to many factors which include: media convergence which
characterizes digital media technology, favourable government information policy, the rise
of internet cafes across the country, the coming on-stream of multiple telecommunication
networks/services, citizens’ accessibility and use of sophisticated information and
communication technologies amongst others. This, no doubt, has afforded Nigerians the
opportunity to engage in the massive gathering and dissemination of all manner of
information via digital media platforms.
The concept of citizen journalism and its underlying assumptions are seemingly a
manifestation of the vestiges of the notion of libertarianism of the normative theory as
postulated by Siebert, Schramm, and Peterson in their book “Four Theories of the Press.
Its core assumption is predicated on the fact that the media, its operations, and ownership
be liberalised and made accessible to the citizens. Accordingly, Okon (2001, P. 105) points
out that “the essence of the libertarian theory of the press, therefore, is to provide a free
marketplace of ideas so that men may exercise their God-given gift of reason.” Similarly,
Hasan (2014) clearly states that “the libertarian view rests on the idea that the individual
should be free to publish whatever he or she likes” (p. 168). Here lies the relationship
between the libertarian theory and citizen journalism – the process whereby citizens play
an active role in news gathering and reporting, as well as the dissemination of information.
Onyinye & Onyebi (2018) contend that “when a common man in his capacity as a citizen
of a nation takes up the initiative to report things or expresses his views about what happens
around him, then the practice is popularly termed citizen journalism or participatory
journalism.” (p. 322). Little wonder that John (2013) “describes social media in journalism
as a phenomenon that has assumed the momentum of a revolution in journalism because
the platforms have narrowed the distance between journalists and the public, encourage
likely, immediate and spirited discussion and promoted vital news gathering and delivery.”
(p. 242). Laying credence to the above assertion, Idumange (2013) points out that “new
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media as a postmodern public sphere in which citizens can interact, debate and exchange
ideas” (p. 18).
One major attribute of digital media is the speed with which information is shared
among users. Digital media have become an indispensable aspect of our life since they took
the centre stage in citizen journalism. Obono (2016) in identifying with this line of thought,
says that “Web 2.0 technologies have revolutionised information publishing, access, and
consumption, changing the art of communication, information dissemination and
networking and making computer-mediated communication all-pervasive” (p. 48). There
is no doubt that digital media platforms have shaped society and served as a catalyst for
social change. Citizen journalism practices via digital media platforms have proven to be
potent tools for effective information dissemination. Accordingly, Asemah (2011, p. 205)
argues that the existence of the new media has created new horizons for the ways people
communicated with others. People adopt these new media and embed them into their
everyday activities; consequently, these new media become parts of their social space
which play a role in creating new communication potentials and constructing new social
ties (p. 205).
The emerging scenario in the contemporary communication sphere is such that the
audience largely depends on information from citizen journalists. However, there exists an
abuse of citizen journalism practice via digital media. This is predicated on the fact that
most citizen journalists are not professional journalists and hence often jettison adherence
to journalistic principles and ethical codes of the pen profession. Oftentimes areas of abuse
of citizen journalism practice via digital media are found in the following:
a. The dissemination of fake news.
b. The use of vulgar and inappropriate language.
c. The posting of an unverified piece of information as news thereby leads to
misinformation.
d. Dissemination of obscene materials.
e. Manipulation of images such as photos and video footage via digital technology in
defiance of photojournalistic principles.
f. Errors associated with unprofessional news coverage.
This view also resonates with the postulation of Iyorza (2018) who argues that “this
type of journalism by untrained members of the society is that they lack the professional
knowledge of what can be made public or not” (p. 242).
Methodology
The research design for this study is survey. This is because the researcher had to reach
and seek the opinions of journalists in the Yenagoa metropolis on the issue of citizen
journalism practice in Nigeria. According to Bronia (2009), survey “involves the collection
of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions” (p. 160).
Similarly, Wimmer & Dominick (2011, p. 214) contend that “survey research is an
important and useful method of data collection”.
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Since the study is focused on journalists in the Yenagoa metropolis, all registered
journalists in Yenagoa form the population of the study. The total registered number of
journalists is 409. The sample size of 201 was arrived at using Krejcie & Morgan’s sample
size determination table. By operationalisation, journalists in Yenagoa refer to those
registered with the Nigeria Union of Journalists, Yenagoa chapter and residents in the
Yenagoa metropolis and its environs. The overriding philosophy is that journalists have
the practical and professional experience to make a critical assessment of what constitutes
fake news and misinformation in citizen journalism practice in Nigeria. A breakdown of
the population of registered journalists according to their chapel is shown below.
Table 1: Population Distribution

S/N Chapel Number of Journalists
1 Correspondent 27
2 NTA 12
3 The Delight 22
4 Information 136
5 Radio Bayelsa 55
6 House of Assembly 13
7 NDTV 39
8 New waves 40
9 Creek 28
10 Radio Nigeria (Creek FM) 11
11 AIT/Raypower 13
12 Royal FM 13
Total 409
The data collection instrument was the questionnaire. Descriptively, the
questionnaire was sectionalised along psychographic and demographic lines. It comprises
a 5-item scale questionnaire to measure the opinions of journalists in the Yenagoa
metropolis on whether fake news and misinformation in citizen journalism practice are
inherent or deliberate.
The sample size for this study is 202; this was arrived at using Taro Yamane’s
sample determination formula. The researcher adopted the purposive sampling technique
of non-probability sampling. This is because it involves the researcher using his expertise
to select a sample that is most useful to the purpose of the research. In this case, practising
journalists are best suited to examine the subject matter and express their opinions.

Data were presented using tables while analysis was done using simple percentages and
weighted mean score (WMS) based on a four-point Likert scale. Responses were weighted
as follows:
Strongly Agree (SA) - 4 points
Agree (A) - 3 points
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Disagree (D) - 2 points

Strongly Disagree - 1 point.
The weighted mean score is calculated by summation (4+3+2+1 = 10 ÷ 4 = 2.5). Therefore
2.5 was used as the criterion for a decision on the responses to each item.
Table 2: Fake News and Misinformation in Citizen Journalism Practice

Nature of Response Response in mean score WMS Decision
SA A D SD
Item 1: most news 4x72 3x111 2x13 1x6 3.2 Affirm
288 + 333 + 26 + 6 = 653
emanating from citizen
journalists are mixed
with fake news and
misinformation
In table 2, the response shows that most news emanating from citizen journalists are mixed
with fake news and misinformation. This is based on the fact that the mean score recorded
was 3.2 which is above the 2.5 criterion for a decision on responses to each item.
Table 3: Manifestation of Fake News and Misinformatio in Citizen Journalism

Practice
SA A D SD
4x173 3x18 2x6 1x5 3.7 Affirm
Item 2: Fake news and
692 + 54 + 12 + 5 = 763
misinformation are
manifested in citizen
journalism practice due to
lack of gatekeeping. 4x57 3x61 2x55 1x29 2.7
Item 3: Since most citizen 228 + 183 + 110 + 29 = 550 Affirm
journalists are not
professionals, they may not
be aware of the codes
guiding the pen profession
hence the fake news and
misinformation
While it was reasoned that fake news and misinformation manifest in citizen journalism
practice for lack of gatekeeping, it further affirmed that fake news in citizen journalism
thrives mostly for a lack of awareness of codes guiding the pen profession.
193
Table 4: Citizen Journalist’s compliance with Professional Code of Ethics

SA A D SD
Item 4: Non adherence to 4x104 3x53 2x30 1x15 3.2 Affirm
416 + 159 + 60 + 15 = 650
professional ethics is
responsible for fake news
and misinformation in
citizen journalism practice.
In table 4, it was affirmed that citizen journalists non - compliance with professional ethics
is responsible for fake news and misinformation in citizen journalism practice. The 3.2
recorded mean score was above the 2.5 criterion for decision.
Table 5: Media Literacy and Fake News/Misinformation in Citizen Journalism

Practice
Nature of response Response in mean score WMS Decision
SA A D SD
Item 5: Fake mews/ 4x38 3x92 2x35 1x37 2.6 Affirm
152 + 276 + 70 + 37 = 535
misinformation thrive in
citizen journalism practice
because of low level of
audience media literacy
skills.
Low level of audience media literacy skills responsible for fake news and misinformation
was however affirmed but was not generally perceived to be a fundamental influence on
the citizen journalists.
Table 6: Fake News and Misinformation inherent or deliberate in Citizen Journalism

Practice
Nature of response Response in mean score WMS Decision
SA A D SD
Item 6: Fake news and 4x64 3x87 2x41 1x10 3.0 Affirm
256 + 261 + 82 + 10 = 609
misinformation is inherent in
citizen journalism practice
because of the nature of
digital technology and its
accessibility to the internet.
Item 7: fake news and
4x49 3x63 2x67 1x23 2.6 Affirm
misinformation in citizen
196 + 189 + 134 + 23 = 542
journalism practice is deliberate
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It was affirmed that the widespread fake news in citizen journalism practice is inherent in
the nature and ease of use of digital technology, though affirmation was given to item 6, it
was not significant as the recorded mean score was 2.6 as against the 2.5 criterion for
decision.
There is no doubt that every new media form comes with its uniqueness in terms of
application and certainly distinctive and standardised style element. The convention of the
new fad in journalism coined as citizen journalism has thrown up issues that border on
professional ethical codes, as well as, the social responsibility of the media. This aligns
positively with the tenet of technological determinism theory which presupposes that with
the introduction of every new form of media technology, society will change and adapt to
the new technology.
Findings revealed that citizen journalism practice is mixed with fake news and
misinformation. This finding supports the technological determinism theory’s basic
assumption that technology plays an essential role in determining what goes on in society
by shaping how individuals communicate, relate, and interact. Also media technology
plays a dominant role in the assignment of meaning in society. Findings also revealed that
the widespread misinformation and fake news in citizen journalism practice are attributable
to non-adherence to a key journalistic convention – gatekeeping and to a certain degree of
unawareness of the professional code of ethics by the citizen journalism practitioners. The
above finding corroborates scholars’ view that most citizen journalist are not professional
journalist. It was discovered that among other variables, a low level of audience media
literacy skills also enhances the spread of fake news and misinformation in citizen
journalism practice.

Based on the aforementioned findings, the researcher concludes that citizen journalism
practice is widely enmeshed with fake news and misinformation. This is a clear violation
of the pen profession’s code of ethics and the social responsibility of the media. Fake news
and misinformation in citizen journalism practice are attributable to the inherent nature of
the technology, lack of gatekeeping and to a certain extent of citizen journalists'
unawareness of the professional codes of ethics. Thus, the following recommendations are
hereby given:
1. Regulatory agencies like the National Communications Commission (NCC), the
National Broadcasting Commission (NBC) and the Nigerian Union of Journalists
(NUJ) should develop strategies to tame the reportorial behaviour of citizen
journalists.
2. Government should commission information and communication technology
departments of regulatory agencies to develop software that consists of the basic
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principles of journalism to automatically pop up at intervals on phones that use

the internet. This will serve as a reminder to the citizen journalists.
3. Government regulatory agencies, media organisations and journalists should adopt
a co-regulation framework to curb fake news and misinformation among citizen
journalists.
4. There is a need for further research to set parameters and develop strategies on how
to check the growing abuse of citizen journalism practice.
References
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journalism? In O. Omojola (Ed.) Media, Terrorism and Political Communication
in A Multicultural Environment (pp. 636-646). Ota: ACCE.
Asemah, E. S. (2011). Mass media in the contemporary society. Jos: University Press.
Bronia, F. (2009). Research methods: Cases. London: SAGE.
Burton, G. (2010). Media and society: Critical perspective. Berkshire: Open University
Press. Joseph, W. (2011). Ethical issues in citizen journalism practices in Nigeria.
In O. Omojola (Ed.). Media, Terrorism and Political Communication in A
Multicultural Environment (656-664). Ota: ACCE.
Chandler, M. & Munday, R. (2011). Oxford: Dictionary of media and communication.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hasan, S. (2014). Mass communication: Principles and concepts (2nd ed.). New Delhi: CBS
John, I. (2013). Basic principles and ethics of social media. Retrieved from
http:/www.thisnigeriavoice.com.
Obono, K. (2016): The architecture and use of social media in the 2015 Nigeria general
elections. The Nigeria Journal of Communication, 13(1), 47-78.
OKon, G. B. (2001). Basic dimension in mass communication. Enugu: HdX
Communications.
Okon, G. B. (2017). Direct social media posts by Presidents and their implications for
integrity management: Opinion from communication Educators in River State.
Journal of Media Practice and Research, 3(1), 14-32.
Onyinye, N. E. & Onyebi, A. (2018). Citizen journalism and news objectivity: A content
analytical study of Sahara reporters and select Nigerian national newspaper. In A.
Udoudo & C. Ochonogor (Eds.). Integrity in News Reporting: A Reader (pp. 321-
339). Port Harourt: UNIPORT Press.
Pavlik, J. V. & McIntosh, S. (2013). Converging media: A new introduction to mass
communication (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rodman, G. (2012). Mass media in changing world: History, Industry and controversy.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Salami, O.S. (2020). The challenges of digital media and citizen journalism in Nigeria. In
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in Nigeria (pp. 15-28). Uyo: ACCE.
Wimmer, R. D. & Dominick, J. R. (2011): Mass media research: An introduction (9th ed.).
New Zealand: Wadsworth.
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CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
FACTORS THAT INDUCE THE CONUNDRUM OF OBJECTIVITY
IN MASS MEDIA REPORTAGE
Introduction
Journalism which is the creation and purveyor of information has in time past and even in
contemporary times, been a subject of critical analysis among scholars, media professionals
and researchers. The theme of this debate is focused on the practice of professional
journalism which is a key principle of the journalism profession. While it is true that access
to information presents greater opportunities for citizens to be well-informed, foremost is
the issue of reporting for the mass media objectively. Walter Lippmann states that "the
supply of trustworthy and relevant news is inevitable.” The distillation of Lippmann's
statement is that objectivity is a necessary factor in reporting for the mass media.
In their contribution to the objectivity debate, Pavlik & McIntosh (2011, p.285)
define objectivity as "a journalistic principle that says journalists should be impartial and
free of bias in their reporting." Further, Pavlik & McIntosh (2011, p.285) note that "this
principle has come under attack in recent years because of the responsibility of people
being completely objective and has largely been replaced by the concepts of fairness and
balance.” According to Rishante (2014, p.85), "every news has only its credibility and
reputation to rely on and it is based on this that a binding relationship is built between the
public and the organisation. And this is the basis of objectivity in journalism." Journalists,
journalism or professionals provide citizens an avenue to get in touch with reality through
the mass media. It, therefore, behoves the journalists to ensure that issues are reported with
the utmost professionalism which objectivity is a core component. As the media is referred
to as the fourth estate of the realm, it is the need and a requirement of the media practitioner
to carry out this responsibility properly and objectively.
Laying credence to the above, Deuze & Witschge (2018. p. 267) assert that"
journalists tend to benchmark their actions and attitudes self-referentially using ideal -
typical standards, see themselves as providing a public service; being objective, fair and
trustworthy; working autonomously...and having a social responsibility and ethical
sensibility." Objectivity in reporting for the mass media simply refers to presenting the
news as it is; devoid of bias and embellishment. However, the conceptualisation of the
dynamics of objectivity in media reportage has always oriented towards the media
operating principle of ownership and control as the sole influence of objectivity. This study
is a radical departure and a shift in mental perception, hence a paradigm shift.
Origin of Objectivity in Journalism

The concept of ‘objectivity’ is traced to the 80s and attributed to the Associated Press (AP)
in America. The Associated press was said to have started the production and distribution
of news for subscription also known as syndication of news. The potential of the telegraph
then made possible the formation of the Associated Press of New York, USA in 1848. In
his contribution on creating a nexus between the formation of the AP and the emergence
of objectivity in news reportage, Rodman (2012, p. 92-93) states:
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The Associated Press (AP) became a nationwide association in which

hundreds of papers shared their local news and correspondents. Before the
AP, America still has a partisan press, which meant that most papers had a
decidedly politically point of view. With the formation of the AP, however,
each paper had to make its articles appropriate for other papers, on all sides
of the political spectrum. This began the journalistic ideal of objectivity, the
writing style that separates fact from opinion.
Similarly, Pavlik & McIntosh (2011, p.385) argue that" one reason news became
more impartial - what is known in journalism as 'objectivity,' was the emergence of
newswire service in the 1840s. In 1848, publishers of six New York newspapers organised
the Associated Press (AP), in large part to take advantage of the capabilities of the telegraph
as a high -speed communication medium."
Conceptual Clarification
Objectivity in news reporting is a prescription for journalists to present facts in the news,
devoid of biases and prejudices. This type of reporting helps the readers to judge truth for
themselves. Roma (2007), cited in Asogwa & Asemah (2012) avers that objectivity is the
dominant ethos of modern journalism; it underscores notions of fairness, accuracy and lack
of bias in the media. The term ‘objectivity’ is perceived in different ways by different
scholars. However, in its simplest sense, objectivity pertains to the reportage of events as
it is. It emphasises the representation of the real event or issue in the society via the different
media forms and genre (on the screens of television, digital media, newspapers and radio).
The media has a responsibility to its audience to present an objective report. It then means
that objectivity is a continuous process that every journalists should strive to attain.
Rodman (2012, p. 93) defines objectivity as "writing style that separates facts from
opinion." Further Kolade, Ojomo & Ige (2012) assert that "the most central concept in
media theory relating to information quality has probably been that of objectivity,
especially as applied to news information." Laying credence to the above propositions
(Glasser as cited in Rishante, 2014) contend that "objectivity is, therefore, professional
principle through which journalists write news responsibly and present it to their audience
as a final product." It must be noted at this juncture that there has been an academic debate
on the attainability of objectivity in real practice as it relates to journalism. Thinking along
this line, Pavlik & McIntosh (2011, p. 285) state that "this principle has come under attack
in recent years because of the impossibility of people being completely objective and has
largely been replaced by the concepts of fairness and balance."
Coalesce of scholars have outlined certain parameters to measure objectivity.
Maras, in his book "objectivity in journalism" cited in Sonnemaker (2015) identifies three
key aspects; they are:
a. Values: On values, Maras points to three aspects that seem to satisfy the list
identified by Everett Rogers: separating facts from opinion, presenting an
emotionally detached view of the news and striving for fairness and balance.
b. Process: On process, Maras asserts that process refers to the collective practice of
journalists and editors that provide epistemic and procedural objectivity and are
central to the commitment to verification and truth underpinning objective
methods." Sonnemaker (2015) on this point explains that ‘‘while specific processes
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may not be identical across various media, publications and forms of journalism,
they all represent the application of objectivity to the activities of reporting and
editing.’’
c. Language: In the case of language, Maras notes that the language of objective
journalism plays a critical role in convincing the reader that "the account can be
trusted because it is unadorned." He further maintains that this involves using a
rhetorical style that clearly, concisely and accurately retells events and details. The
language used by journalists must be neutral enough in its connotations that readers
do not perceive the reporter as the one shaping the story, but rather, feel the story
unfolding as it would naturally and independently of her or him (Sonnemaker,
2015).
Also, Tuchman (2000), cited in Rishante (2014) observes that the concept of
objectivity has two norms through which it can be tested; they are:
a. Through the norm of factuality which requires that a journalist look at the
truthfulness of information collected and its relevancy.
b. Through the norm of impartiality which requires a reporter to detach and disengage
himself and herself from the event himself and herself is covering.
Rodman (2012) posits that objectivity will have to be looked at from four aspects:
a. What are the apparent goals and objectives of the author?

b. What opinions are expressed?
c. Is the page a mask for advertising or some other form of persuasive message?
d. If it is, assume the information is biased.
Empirical Review
In the study conducted by Sonnemaker (2015) titled "objectivity and the role of journalism
in democratic societies, it was found that objectivity was a needed ingredient to legitimise
the authority of the press and to safeguard the forum of democracy. Apuke (2016) founded
that revealed that news commercialisation was a major factor that affected objectivity and
balance in reporting. Rishante (2014) carried out a study on objectivity in television news
reportage and the findings revealed that ownership always influenced the objectivity of
reportage of television stations. In another review of cases in Nigeria as it relates to
objectivity, Kolade et al (2012) also discovered that ownership was a major distorting the
objectivity of the press in Nigeria. They concluded ownership will equally continue to
influence media objectivity as no entrepreneur would abandon vital decisions on his
business interest to an employee.
Theoretical Foundation
The study is hinged on social responsibility theory. The social responsibility theory is
considered to be an off-shoot of the Report by the American Commission on the freedom
of the press headed by Robert Hutchins, popularly known as the "Hutchins Commission."
Nevertheless, it is one of the normative theories of the press as propounded by three
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communication scholars, Siebert, Peterson and Schramm in 1956. The theory prescribes
that the media and media professionals should function and operate ethically within the
ambit of the law of society. The theory as noted by Asemah, Nwammuo & Nkwam-
Uwaoma (2017) lays emphasis on the fact that freedom goes hand-in-hand with
responsibility. This is because media do not operate in a vacuum, but within the framework
of a given society. In order words, journalists should uphold the tenets of journalism which
includes accuracy, fairness, truth, balance and objectivity. Social responsibility theory aims
to ameliorate the excess of the libertarian theory on the recommendation of the Hutchin's
Commission of 1957. The first point of the theory is that anyone who has something
significant to say should be given an avenue to do so; in order words, the media should be
available for the representation of all shades of opinion and interest (Ndimele & Innocent,
2006, p. 268).
The libertarian theory seems to have taken the notion of liberty to the extreme.
However, this liberty to express all manner of information as expressed in the libertarian
theory must be moderated for the interest of society and based on professionalism.
Nwabueze (2014, p. 51) informs that "the libertarian theory came under attack for giving
the press too much freedom without explaining obligations attached to such freedom, the
commission was set up. Thus, the social responsibility theory was developed to check the
excesses of the free press. The extrapolation is that society has given freedom to the press
to operate, the freedom should carry certain obligations. What this implies is that press
freedom is not synonymous with absolute freedom. Accordingly, Asemah (2011, p.147)
posits that" freedom carries commitment obligation and the press which enjoys a privilege
position under a government(democratic government) is obliged to be responsible to
society for carrying out certain essential tasks of mass communication in contemporary
society." McQuail (2005, p.170) outlines the basic tenets of this theory thus:
 The media have obligations to the society.
 Media ownership is public trust.
 News media should be truthful, accurate, fair, objective and relevant.
 The media should be free but self- regulated.
 The media should follow agreed codes of ethics of professional conduct.
However, under certain circumstances, the government may need to come in to
safeguard public interest. Therefore, media and its professionals ought to operate within
the confines of the social responsibility theory. The social responsibility theory is suitable
for this study in the sense that it is concerned with the press being committed to churning
out contents that are a direct reflection of occurrences and happenings in the society
without necessarily taking any stance.
Methodology
The researcher adopted the library research method. Library research is an integral
component of research projects in most academic settings. Researchers are charged with
the responsibility to carefully examine relevant information to determine usefulness,
reliability and authority regarding the research projects in which they are involved (the
Sage Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods). Similarly, George(2008)
defines library research as a ‘‘technique of collecting data by learning and understanding
data which has close relation with the problems from books, theories, notes and
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documents.it is a general or specialised library that collects materials for use in intensive
research projects." This method was adopted because of the study's orientation to
qualitative research.
Factors that may induce Objectivity in News Reporting

This study is focused on factors that induce objectivity, a departure from previous studies.
The factors identified are by no means exhaustive. It is worthy of note to mention here that
the parameters identified by Sonnemaker (2015), the two norms listed by Rishante (2014)
and Rodman (2012) identified four aspect are intricately intertwined. The following factors
induce objectivity in news reporting:
a. News Commercialisation: While describing the state of news in the world,
UNESCO (1980) paints an ugly picture of the situation thus: “The news has become
commercial product... important developments in the countryside are pushed aside by
unimportant, even trivial news items, concerning urban events and the activities of
personalities.” This situation has continued to slide since then, especially in countries
where the economies are in a mess. News commercialisation greatly induces objectivity.
According to Omenugha & Oji (2008), the situation has led to a lot of compromise, with
sensationalisation of news stories and half-truths reaching alarming stage. Ekwo (1996, p.
63) defines news commercialisation as “a phenomenon whereby the electronic media
report as news or news analysis a commercial message by an unidentified or unidentifiable
sponsor, giving the audience the impression that news is fair, objective and socially
responsible.” Instances abound where news commercialisation results in the compromise
of professional codes of ethics. Once news is paid for as a commodity, its accuracy, fairness
and balance cannot be guaranteed. Omenugha & Oji (2008) identify two levels that news
commercialisation operates; they are at the level of the media organisation and through
placement of charges for special programmes. The implication here is that a programme
that costs millions of naira will be given preference over the news of the day no matter the
nature of important stories on the news bulletin. The second level identified is at the
individual level of the journalists, where they demand for monetary inducements to cover
stories. The implication is that if such money is not paid, the event will not be on the news
of the day no matter its importance.
b. Media Ownership and Control: It is a statement of fact that "he who pays the
piper calls the tune." How objective a media house and a journalist is reflects to a large
extent, the influence of the owner. In alluding to the above statement, Omenugha,
Uzuegbunam & Omenugha (2013) state that:
Ownership describes the proprietorship right that an individual, a group or
organisation, exercise over a media house. Unfortunately, many proprietors
have misinterpreted the powers of ownership by believing that ownership
right empowers them to determine the content, viewpoint and the direction
of the media outfit.
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This is very obvious, especially in government-owned media outfits in Nigeria,

where content is directly influenced by the government in power with little or no room for
constructive criticisms, thereby making the media house to be nothing, but agent of
propaganda by the government in power. This is not restricted to state-owned media houses
as the privately-owned media houses are also culpable.
c. Reporter’s Affiliation: The affiliation of a reporter may affect the objectivity of
his news story and by extension, the media house. For instance, religion, ethnic and
political affiliation certainly will affect the objectivity of such journalist’s report. Similarly,
personal experiences of the reporter on certain subject matter or on particular areas may
affect how they will write stories. For example, a communal clash between two
communities will not be fairly written by a reporter who is from one of the warring
communities. No matter how objective the reporter may try to be, there are tendencies of
adding his/her bias in the story. In such situation, it is always good for the background of
reporters to be considered before attaching them to particular stories
d. Reporter’s Background: Background here has to do with where we grew up, the
environment, family values and upbringing have influence on the reporter and affect how
objective he or she is in reporting certain issues. The level of exposure of individuals affect
their perception of things and issues. This will influence the angles through which
journalists view stories. For example, a reporter who is not conversant with the Japanese
educational system may look at a story on Japanese education from the perspective of the
Nigerian educational system and this may not be fair to the Japanese system. In the same
vein, one’s understanding of the culture and civilisation of certain places and people will
shape his understanding of news stories from such areas and thereby affect the content of
his story in terms of objectivity. Ones level of training, especially professionally also plays
a major role in objective reporting. A writer that has gone through journalism school is
likely to look at stories from an ethical point of view in line with his/her training as against
a citizen journalist without training in news gathering and reporting.
e. Transient Events/ Structures: Events/ structures that are transient by their nature
affects objectivity when reported. For instance, in industrial canopies with the state of the
art facilities such as air conditioners are erected somewhere for temporary camp. A reporter
who covered event in such a place will report it as real. But after the industrial canopies
are removed, the house been described, experienced and observed becomes an illusion.
This can also affect objectivity.
Conclusion
Objectivity is a cardinal principle in the practice of journalism. This is premised on the fact
that the media and journalists have a responsibility to the audience to present an objective
report. From exploring related literature, it was discovered that most studies conducted
were similar in their objective and approach. The researcher concludes that ownership and
control of media station alone are not adequate to influence objectivity; hence, it identified
intervening factors such as news commercialisation, media ownership and control,
reporter’s affiliation, reporter’s background, transient event and structures as factors that
induce objectivity. Thus, the researcher recommends that analysis of objectivity should
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not be pegged in the media operating principle of ownership and control as this does not in
actual sense, reflect the dynamics of objectivity in media reportage.
References
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research methods. London: SAGE Publications.
Asogwa, C.E and Asemah, E.S. (2012). News commercialisation, objective journalism
practice and the sustenance of democracy in Nigeria. Journal of Higher Education
in Social Sciences, 3 (2), 27-34.
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journalism. Journalism, 19(2), 165-181.
Ekwo, U. (1996). Commercialisation of the news in Nigerian media: An impediment to
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Kolade, A., Ojomo, O. W. & Ige, B. (2021). Influence of ownership on media objectivity
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Harcourt: M and J Grand Orbit Communications.
Nwabueze, C. (2014). Introduction to mass communication: Media ecology in the global
village. Owerri: TopShelve Publishers.
Omenugha K. A. & Oji, M. (2008). News commercialisation, ethics and objectivity in
journalism practice in Nigeria: Strange bedfellows? Estudos em Comunicação, 3,
13-28.
Omenugha, K. A., Uzuegbunam, C. E. & Omenugha, C. N. (2013). Good governance and
media ownership in Nigeria: Dillematic practices, stoic challenges. Global Media
Journal African Edition, 7(2), 92-115.
Pavlik, J. V. & McIntosh, S. (2011). Converging media: A new introduction to mass
communication (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Rishante, S. P. (2014). Objectivity in television news reportage: An evaluation of "occupy
Nigeria movement"(oil subsidy protest). International Journal of Arts and
Humanities, 3(2), 84-103.
Rodman, G. (2012). Mass media in a changing world: History, industry, controversy (4th
ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
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CHAPTER NINETEEN
INFLUENCE OF MISINFORMATION ON THE VOTING
BEHAVIOUR OF SELECT UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN NORTH
EAST NIGERIA
Nassir Abba-Aji, PhD; Adamkolo Mohammed Ibrahim & Hajara Umar Sanda, PhD
Introduction
Nigeria’s political arena is tense and given the increasing security threats in different parts
of the country, perceived marginalisation, anger, confusion and economic challenges, there
is a tendency that political actors can take advantage of these lapses either to misinform,
disinform, promote apathy or skew voting choices for the forthcoming elections (CDD,
2018a, b; Pate, 2018). These issues deserve serious attention from all: they offensively,
progressively and relentlessly destroy relationships, heighten animosities across
communities and threaten democratic survival in the country (CDD, 2018a, b; Pate, 2018).
Nigeria is experiencing tense and difficult times. Equally is its democratic process.
Political campaign times often come along with multiple conflicts including heightened
political horse-trading, systemic and widespread corruption and threats of secession.
Nonetheless, these are also times of free flow of information courtesy of the revolution in
digital media that have tremendously democratised and simplified access and
dissemination of information across boundaries and in real time (Ibrahim & Adamu, 2016;
Pate, 2018). Unfortunately, it is during these times that Nigeria, like many other countries,
is battling with the rise in populism politics, radicalisation, extremism, terrorism, drug and
human trafficking, ethnic nationalism and dangerous speech, fake news and wilful
rewriting of the country’s history, among others. Indeed, these are critical times for the
media, the electoral process and the country (Agbese, 2017; Aminu, 2018; Pate & Ibrahim,
2020).
The political climate in Nigeria has changed rapidly in recent years, signalling new
developments and challenges to the country’s young democratic system. Largely, politics
has evolved due to the development of information and communication technology (ICT)
(CDD, 2018; Pate, 2018). The different interconnected parts of the country have become
ever more pervasive, ubiquitous and prominent. This, in turn, has amended both the
delivery and form of communication of political ideas within Nigeria’s democratic system,
as well as shifted and undermined the accountability for those messages. Journalistic
actions that have been ethically and morally frowned at such that they are labelled as
‘yellow journalism’ and ‘character assassination/slander have suddenly metamorphosed
into digital media ‘fake news’ (Agbese, 2017; Wasserman & Madrid-Morales, 2018). The
digital media fake news raises growing concerns that the electorate (Nigerian votes) are
constantly accessing content which is inaccurate and/or misleading without adequate, or
any, prior control (gatekeeping) or verifiable attribution (Agbese, 2017; Hankey, Marrison
& Naik, 2018; Pate & Ibrahim, 2020).
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There is a wider lack of understanding of the concept of fake news despite recent
scandals involving the 2016 election that brought the United States’ President, Donald
Trump to power and his rhetoric of the election being “stolen” during the 2020 election
that led to the defeat of Donal Trump and the coming to Power of President Joes Biden. In
addition, there is a wider lack of understanding of how digital media platforms aid the
spread of fake news and what steps could or should be taken to make political
communication and advertising accountable, by political parties and actors (Hankey et al
2018). The worst part of the whole thing is that the current breed of ‘yellow journalism’
and ‘character assassination’ known as ‘fake news’ is largely modern technology-
dependent (e.g., digital media platforms and the internet) than traditional technologies such
as radio, TV, newspaper or magazine (Okoro, Abara, Umagba, Ajonye & Isa, 2018;
Wasserman & Madrid-Morales, 2018).
Moreover, among the traditional media outlets that peddle fake news broadcast
media (radio and TV) are worse at it “because of the media’s strategic position and
influential status in the lives of ordinary Nigerians. Broadcasting/publishing fake news can
confer legitimacy, credibility and provide unquantifiable reach to such fakery” (Pate, 2018,
p. 10). This has led to growing concern about the shape of and any gaps in the current
technology use regulatory regime vis-à-vis the rising tides of digital media fake news
bedevilling the democratic processes in many countries. To say the least, that is a
phenomenon that even mighty nations such as the United Sates (US) and Britain have
grappled with politically (Hankey et al 2018; Sadiku, Eze & Musa, 2018). Those concerns
could have real consequences for Nigeria’s democratic process, more so (as at the time of
this writing), with the 2023 elections just months ahead.
Fake news, not only has the capability to generate specific items of misleading
information (Pate, 2018), it also has the capacity to undermine faith and sincerity in
political messaging in general thus, leading to hiccups in Nigeria’s democratic
development and sustainability (Verjee, Kwaja & Onubogu, 2018). Fake news and the use
of online personal data for political campaign remain overly involved with speculation.
However, with technology developers and regulators rushing to find answers for how
political organisations’ data that were hacked online were used during past electoral
processes, the electorate may lose confidence in the capacity of the government, the
electoral umpire (INEC), regulatory regime and the integrity of the democratic process
itself (Ogola, 2017). This problem may not go away; in fact, it can only be worsened by
the continued pace of technological and people’s behavioural changes. Such is the pace of
change that awareness of digital technological developments and their consequences often
occur only after the event, while the regulatory landscape and the government are barely
able to keep pace (Hankey et al 2018; Pate & Ibrahim, 2020). Therefore, this study aimed
to examine the collision between political news and youths’ political participation vis-à-
vis the debacle of digital media fake news and its influence on youths’ voting behaviour.

Specifically, this study was guided by the following objectives:
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1. Determine the influence of digital media political news on the students’ voting
behaviour.
2. Determine the influence of digital media political news on the students’ perception
of party candidates.
3. Find out how often the students access political news on digital media.
Concept of Digital Media

Digital media, which includes digital media, refers to “a broad and growing portion of the
internet that is designed as a platform which allows users and groups of users, to create and
exchange content, often in an interactive or collaborative fashion” (Gainous & Wagner,
2014, p. 2). Digital media for news consumption is a double-edged sword due to its low
cost, easy access, and rapid dissemination of information, which has lead people to seek
out and consume news (Shu, Sliva, Wang, Tang & Liu, 2016). The increase in spread of
fake news during elections in countries has been an issue of concern. Gelfert (2018) and
Shu et al (2018) explained that fake news is widely believed to have played a significant
role in shaping the outcome of political contests and can break the authenticity balance of
the news ecosystem. In the last decade, it has become a common and trending term all over
the world. Digital media is seen as a present phenomenon that derives its significance from
the real-world effects of the proliferation of news content both as a means of giving
misleading reports and as a rhetorical device for shutting down critical reporting
(Adegunle, Odoemelam & Odoemelam, 2019). Digital media are relatively cheap
compared with traditional media, affordable for most new and small scale businesses as
well (Nkwam-Uwaoma & Asemah, 2020).
The relationship between fake news consumption and political participation is
unclear. Results of initial studies during the past ten years suggest that in some instances
there is a positive relationship between fake news and political participation. Others
suggest little to no relationship (Curry, 2018). Political advertising has become a tool of
political communication, which also interacts with democracy (Lahi, 2015). Politicians as
a whole have begun using the internet more and more for campaigning (Adegunle et al
2019).
An example of how digital media can be utilised to skewer elections in Nigeria is
the Anambra governorship elections of November 2017; Where the Independent People of
Biafra (IPOB), almost thwarted the Anambra 2017 governorship elections when it peddled
highly emotive and divisive content with the aim of a creative fake narrative designed to
deceive the populace. Reliance on digital media for news and political information could
cause people to digest and act upon information from unreliable sources (Adegunle et al
2019; Curry, 2018).
Many Nigerian universities are now equipped with Wi-Fi which is available to
students at little or no costs. Many students now own laptops/net books and other mobile
devices like iPad, blackberries, iPhone and other smart phones through which they access
digital media sites like Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Tiktok and YouTube on the internet.
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The Nigerian youth make up a substantial part of the Nigerian populace as well as eligible
voters (Adegunle et al 2019; Ajibola, 2015).
The relatively new nature of digital media as a tool could account for some of the
differences. As it ages, Adegunle et al (2019) and Curry (2018) noted, more and more
people are adopting it as a source of information, in particular younger generations.
According to (Musa, 2015), the majority of the students of mass communication in Nigeria
use digital media for communication, collaboration, news sharing, research, expression of
opinion, maintaining a connection, and making friends from other countries.
Conceptualising Fake News

The term ‘fake news,’ may sound new, but it is not new. Being an emerging field of
research, there is no single standard definition of fake news. However, the term can simply
be defined as “false, often sensational, information disseminated under the guise of news
reporting” (Collins Dictionary, 2017). The term gained so much attention in the last couple
of years that it was named the Collins Dictionary Word of the Year 2017 due to its
unprecedented usage increase of 365% in the Collins Corpus (Towers-Clark, 2018).
Even though the concept of news articles aimed to mislead readers is apparently
new (Standage, 2017), by no means is it any new. An incident occurred in the 18th century
that changed news reporting forever. This was the birth of ‘fake news’ (Okoro et al 2018).
Another school of thought opined that fake news could be traced to the year 1439, when
the first printing press was invented and news began to circulate widely (Shu et al 2016).
According to Okoli (2017) and Persily (2017), globally, the issue of fake news has become
a popular concern because of its unprecedented impact in the 2016 US presidential
campaign and Brexit referendum. “Talking about the issues of fake news are of
fundamental importance to democracy. The greatest enemy of democracy is
disinformation, which is even worse than a pure lack of information” (Pate & Ibrahim,
2020).
Although, the rising ‘profile’ of fake news as it stands today would not have been
possible without the advent of the internet, a relationship between the very expression ‘fake
news’ with the 2016 presidential election in the US (Davies, 2017; Persily, 2017) and the
Brexit referendum (McGonagle, 2017) has been established. Although, research indicated
that fake news did not influence the outcome of the US president elections, 20% of the
voters said that news on digital media influenced their choice of candidate (Okoro et al
2018). Arguably, however, recent developments in the U.S. political arena have proven
otherwise. The New York Times reported that Roger J. Stone, a longtime President Trump’s
adviser has been indicted in the as part of the investigation by the special counsel, Robert
S. Mueller III, an incident that shows a link between Trump campaign and WikiLeaks
(Mazzetti, Sullivan & Haberman, 2019).
Despite being a relatively emerging field of research, fake news is a complex
phenomenon (Tandoc Jr., Lim & Ling, 2018). Because this version of fake news is a recent
phenomenon, literature on it is quite limited as research and conference papers on the
phenomenon are currently filing up. Fake news has been defined based on several
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typologies. Most of the existing definitions are not comprehensive and are based on
content-structure (Okoro et al 2018) and focusing on (online) fake news detection (Rubin,
Conroy, Chen & Cornwell, 2016; Shu et al 2016) from linguistics perspective rather than
incorporating other salient dimensions of the phenomenon, such as source type and extent
of influence (impact). Largely, the authors also observed that despite news and information
generally (whether factual or deceptive) are fundamentally communication matters (Bitner,
1989; Laswell, 1948; Littlejohn & Foss, 2009), there is a dearth of literature providing
further understanding about it, especially regarding theoretical concepts, from
communication perspectives. This is a literature void that this chapter identified and
attempted to provide knowledge for further research that can lead to the closure of the gap.
Digital Media and Fake News in Nigeria

Information and news are very important because they keep members of the public updated
about events and other occurrences around and beyond their immediate environment.
Reports have shown that most adults access their news using digital media such as digital
media and traditional search engines (Gottfried & Shearer, 2016) rather than using
traditional media. Internet and digital media made it easier to spread deceptive news, hence,
they may cursorily be referred to as the ‘dark web’ (Abbasi & Chen, 2007). Fake news has
numerous impacts. There are claims it even influenced the 2016 US election (Allcott &
Gentzkow, 2017; Okoro et al 2018).
Furthermore, according to the National Democratic Institute (NDI) as internet
penetration deepens across the country, millions of Nigerians now access and share
information via smartphones and other digital media such as Facebook and Twitter and
messaging platforms such as WhatsApp (NDI, 2018). The 2017 Afrobarometer poll for
Nigeria stated that 39 percent of respondents regularly consume news on digital media.
These platforms offer new ways for citizens to engage in political and electoral processes.
They also offer political parties, the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC)
and government institutions to share information with voters. However, some Nigerians
are fearful that, if not used responsibly, these platforms could become vehicles for
disinformation. Disinformation (sometimes called fake news) is the deliberate generation
and dissemination of false information to manipulate public opinion and perceptions
(Adamic, 2015; NDI, 2018).
The spread of fake news and utter provocation to violence and social destabilisation
have never been so easy to be made. Although, fake news can be disseminated via any type
of medium, the recent category of fake news (especially as triggered by the 2016 US
presidential election) is rather a child of the internet-based media ( e-mails, web portals
and digital media) (Oro, 2011; Persily, 2017) rather than the traditional media. However,
this is without bias to the fact that fake news can also actively spread over the broadcast
media (radio and TV) especially in the less-technologically developed nations (Bartels,
1993) such as Nigeria. Hence, online fake news can be said to be a form of cyber
propaganda; and propaganda (whether in digital environments or in real life) is just a time
bomb waiting to explode (Abdullahi, 2018). In fact, selective disclosure and delicate lies
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have been described as active tools of propaganda (Swire, Berinsky, Lewandowsky, &
Ecker, 2017); something fake news does as well.
By turning democracy’s weapon against itself, those who would rather live above
accountability have achieved what physical suppression could not have accomplished in a
hundred years (Persily, 2017). The worst danger that fake news poses to democracy and
social harmony is not in the manufacturing of alternative reality itself, but in creating a
condition that makes it easy to doubt reality no matter how plausible it may be. Such a
situation can ‘competently’ undermine the existing harmonious societal order and create
chaos with untold consequences (Garrett, 2017).
In the past two decades, Nigeria has seen significant gains in consolidating its
democracy. Voters’ expectations regarding the upcoming elections will likely be driven by
public opinions and issues surrounding fake news (misinformation) in their perceptions of
credible political campaign information and messages in towards the upcoming 2019 polls
(NDI, 2018). With the digital media, technology has become democracy’s life support
system (Okoro et al 2018). Quite ironically, however, through the same digital media,
technology has also become the means by which democracy can easily commit suicide. If
information is power, and it is agreed that, absolute power corrupts absolutely (Persily,
2017), then one cannot help but say that “power without control is nothing” (Abdullahi,
2017; Verjee et al 2018).
Previously, people dismiss as mere rumor any information that cannot be confirmed
by the evidence of a newspaper or media broadcast. Nowadays, if you tell someone that
you have read something in a newspaper or heard it on radio, he or she will still ask you,
‘but how can you be so sure it is true?’ By undermining the sacredness of facts, fake news
makes it easy to deny anything and everything and makes accountability almost impossible
(Wasserman & Madrid-Morales, 2018).
Impacts of Digital Media Fake News in Nigerian Democracy

The term ‘fake news’ is not new. The term is rather, essentially an oxymoron. The
attachment of the negative word ‘fake,’ which causes eyebrows to be raised whenever it is
mentioned, to an invaluable word ‘news’ heightens the degree of the perceived effect of
the term. News, simply put, is an account of what happened. Because of the value attached
to it, news is envisaged to be the truth, the absolute truth and nothing but the truth.
However, in a global era of post-truth and a country that has lived in non-truth for years
even “the two fundamentally contradictory terms can occupy the same textual space”
(Abdullahi, 2017; Malaolu, 2012; Pate, Gambo & Ibrahim, 2019).
BBC News interviewed a group of experts what was their opinion about the greatest
challenges of the 21st century. Several them indicated that the failure of credible
information sources is one of the serious problems Nigerians faced nowadays, indeed the
entire humanity (Wasserman & Madrid-Morales, 2018). In fact, truth has nowadays shifted
to become relative, facts have assumed more prominence to having alternatives, and news
has been converted into a weapon of war of words. Nigeria’s Minister of Information and
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Culture, Lai Mohammed described this phenomenon as probably the most dangerous threat
to the country’s democratic process (Jimoh, 2018).
A further analysis of news and information dissemination in Nigeria takes us to the
purviews of constitutional provisions. Section 22 of the Constitution of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria, 1999, as amended assigns a role to the press. The role is “The press,
radio, television and other agencies of the mass media shall at all times be free to uphold
the fundamental objectives contained in this chapter and uphold the responsibility and
accountability of the government to the people” (Abdullahi, 2017). Furthermore, Section
24 of the 1960 Constitution, which became Section 25 of the Republican Constitution of
1963 and formed the major part of Section 36 of the 1979 Constitution and Section 39 of
the (current) 1999 Constitution states that:
(i) every person shall be entitled to freedom of expression, including freedom to
hold opinions and receive and impact ideas and information without interference
and (ii) without prejudice to the generality of Sub-section (1) of this Section every
person shall be entitled to own, establish and operate a medium for the
dissemination of information, ideas and opinions… (Ibrahim, 2017, pp.4-5).
Most of Nigerian Constitutions have been framed as part of the process of
democratisation (Abdullahi, 2017). Therefore, the authors can confidently say that the
makers of the Nigerian constitution recognised freedom of expression and freedom of the
press as fundamental elements in every democracy (Epstein, 2011). Democracy thrives
only when the people have free access to genuine and correct information about issues and
matters that affect them and can use this information to make informed decisions and
choices (Ibrahim & Pate, 2019; Oro, 2011).
Taking from the famous words of former US President, Abraham Lincoln who
defined democracy as the government of the people, for the people and by the people
(Haney, 1944), democracy is a system of government, which is founded on the consensus
of the majority of people. For upholding the democratic principles of equality and plurality,
democracy assures that everyone would have their say, but the majority must have their
way. The fundamental assumption behind this principle, however, is that the choice that
people make would be based on facts, or correct information (Ezema, Ezeah, Ishiwu &
Ikwueze, 2012; Kazeem, 2018 November 29). In other words, if facts were suppressed or
distorted, then the right of the people to choose what or whom they want freely would have
been subverted (Eskridge Jr., 2010 November 19).
Therefore, the escalating negative effects of fake news and the scholarly discussion
about ‘alternative facts’ are a direct assault on the fundamental principle of democracy,
both in theory and in practice. This treatise agrees with the argument that the freedom or
right to act is falsely attributed to individuals who do not have the capability to act. Section
39 of the Constitution provides for every Nigerian citizen the freedom to hold opinions and
to receive and impart ideas and information without interference (Oro, 2011). However,
“interference is exactly what fake news does”; and by battling for space and vying for
acceptability with authentic information and news, fake news deprives people of the very
210
constitutional right to hold opinions and receive and impart ideas and information
(Abdullahi, 2017 March 13, online; Oro, 2011).
Side by side with authentic information, the creation of alternative facts often
makes it difficult for people to distinguish truth from untruth. When people get confused
as to what the truth, or genuine information is, certainly, they cannot create a shared starting
point from which to engage in meaningful conversations about issues and matters affecting
them, let alone able to hold their political representatives accountable for their stewardships
(Wasserman & Madrid-Morales, 2018). Instinctive understanding over what happened
paves the way for meaningful debate over what needs to be done and how. The urge to
solve any problem must advance from a common understanding of what the problem
constitutes and upon what objective sets of facts it is based. If the facts become disputed,
people’s engagement in the process of finding solutions to their common problems
becomes almost impossible (Ezema et al 2012). The Information and Democracy
Commission (IDC) (2018) summarises this discourse as follows:
Political control of the media, subjugation of news and information to
private interests, the growing inﬂuence of corporate actors who escape
democratic control, online mass disinformation, violence against reporters
and editors, and the undermining of quality journalism, threaten the exercise
of the right to knowledge. Any attempt to, abusively, limit it whether by
force, technology or legal means, is a violation of the right to freedom of
opinion. (p.3)
The freedom to receive and share information is the soul of any democracy (IDC,
2018). Hence, one can confidently say that digital media are the greatest democratic forces
in human history. Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and WhatsApp have empowered the
people tremendously more beyond the imagination of everyone, from mere content
consumers to content creators (Abdullahi, 2017; Buzzetto-More, 2013). ICT and other
forms of the new media have ensured that people can access vast amounts of information
virtually free of charge. With the unprecedented ubiquity and pervasiveness of the new
media technologies, it is almost impossible to be not to be informed (Oro, 2011) much as
it is almost impossible to not to communicate as an individual, group or organisation. For
example, if you own a mobile phone or smartphone, you have one of the cheapest means
of accessing information; at least this is true with most urban phone owners and internet
users (Ibrahim & Adamu, 2016).
Furthermore, as people actively use digital media platforms by uploading and sharing
as well as tweeting and retweeting contents, ordinary people have become active agents in
the information value chain, not only receiving but also creating and recreating meaning.
Once again, no phenomenon in human history has had such a pervasive revolutionary
influence on society and human relationships as digital social media (Abdullahi, 2017).
Furthermore, to borrow from Lai Mohammed’s assertion (cited earlier in Okakwu,
2018), the rise of fake news beckons Nigerian democracy’s capability for disintegration.
While ICT has provided us with the means and power to manipulate reality in many ways
211
that were hitherto considered ‘humanly’ impossible. For example, the internet and digital
media have made it possible for us to propagate this misleading reality and trumped-up
stories at an incredible speed regardless of one’s geographical location (Ibrahim & Adamu,
2016). For example, a picture snapped or contrived in this place and shared on the internet
can go online viral and make it across the country faster than one can imagine.
The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) research team discovered in
November 2018 that Nigerians are one of the major preys of fake news because they are
concerned about not falling behind the news and this has led to increase in fake news in
the country. Studies that do examine voting have found some positive relationships
between online or digital media news consumption and voter’s turnout.
Fake news is false information, and often comprises photos or videos purposefully
created and spread to confuse or misinform and manipulate or deceive others. Fake news
also involves satire or parody, which means no harm but can fool people (BBC News, 2018
November 12). In addition to the definitions provided earlier, the Ethical Journalism
Network (EJN) defined fake news as information deliberately fabricated and published
with the intention to deceive and mislead others into believing falsehoods or doubting
verifiable facts. Fake news is often embellished, sensationalised and made alarmingly
attractive by its peddlers. Fake news can be difficult to detect except through critical
examination of embedded evaluative, judgmental or emotive words mostly designed to
capture and retain the attention of listeners or readers in an uncommon way Fake news is
subtly factually incorrect with most often, unverifiable sources or claims. It often violates
contextual and multicultural realities (Kenix, 2011; Jimoh, 2018 August 7).
The Medium Theory
The theory originated from Marshal McLuhan’s ‘the medium is the message’ postulation.
McLuhan (1964) in his work, he challenged conventional definitions when he claimed that
the medium is the message. The medium theory focuses on the characteristics of each
medium (or of each type of medium) that make it physically, digitally and psychologically
different from other media. The theory also examines how communications through a
particular medium or type of medium compare and contrast with face-to-face interaction.
Medium theory analyses differences among communication environments (Asemah,
Nwammuo & Nkwam-Uwaoma, 2017; Adegunle et al 2019).
With this claim, he stressed how channels differ, not only in terms of their content,
but also about how they awaken and alter thoughts and senses. He distinguished media by
the cognitive processes each required. Furthermore, the theory claims that channels of
communication are primary causes of cultural change. According to him, family life, the
workplace, schools, health care, friendship, religion, recreation, politics are all touched by
communication technology.
McLuhan (1964) viewed every new form of media innovation to be an extension
of some human faculty. He argued that the media are not simply channels for transmitting
information between two or more environments, but are themselves distinct social-
212
psychological settings or environments that encourage certain types of interaction and

discourage others (Ellis, 2009). It emphasises that a particular channel can influence human
thinking and social organisation. Here the channel is seen as key in understanding how
mass communication influences at both the individual, social and cultural levels.
On the social level, medium theories note how changing patterns of social
interaction attributable to medium differences (internet, cell phones, Blackberries) change
social structure in general. Thus, the internet has altered the speed, storage and availability
of information and created an information class including changed patterns of reading.
Digital media has influenced social capital or the resources accumulated through the
relationships among people and allows for the formation of new social networks (Adegunle
et al 2019).
Methodology
This study used the focus group discussion (FGD) and survey research design. According
to Kumar (2011), FGD is a form of strategy in qualitative research in which attitudes,
opinions or perceptions towards an issue, product, service or programme are explored
through a free and open discussion between members of a group and the researcher. The
issues discussed in focus groups are more specific and focused. In this case, the method
becomes appropriate as it avails the opportunity to have discussion with youths on the
subject of fake news on digital media and how it affects their political participation.
Meanwhile, the survey research is one that a group of people or item is studied by collecting
and analysing data from only a few people or items considered a representative of the entire
group. According to McBurney (1994), survey is defined as accessing public opinion or
individual characteristics by the use of questionnaire and sampling methods. Asemah,
Gujbawu, Ekhareafo & Okpanachi (2012) note that survey is a method of collecting and
analysing social data via highly structured and often very detailed questionnaire, in order
to obtain information from large number of respondents, presumed to be representative of
a specific population.
The total population of the students at both Borno State University (BOSU) and
Yobe State University (YSU) is 22,500:
 Borno State University student population = 10,100
 Yobe State University student population = 12,400
With this population size of 22,500, the study’s sample was drawn as follows:
Using SurveyMonkey (an online sample calculator), the sample size of 250 was obtained
using the following parameters:
 Population = 22,500
 Confidence level = 95%
 Margin of error = 6.2
 Survey Monkey calculated the sample size as 248
In order to obtain a whole number, we completed the sample size of 248 to 250 by
adding only two samples.
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A multi-stage sampling technique was used in the sampling of the institutions for
the study. At the first stage, the universities were grouped into six geopolitical regions
including the northeast, north-west, north central, southeast, south-west and south-south
was selected using the simple random technique. At the second stage, the universities were
grouped into two sets of private and public universities and one group was selected
comprising of Yobe State University, Damaturu and Borno State University, Maiduguri
also using the simple random technique.
Due to the relatively larger student population at Yobe State University, it was
selected for the survey research while Borno State University was selected for FGD. Two
hundred and fifty (250) students were surveyed using the simple random sampling
technique while 15 students were involved in the FGD sessions; thus bringing the sample
size to 265. For the FGD sessions, two groups consisting of 8 males and 7 females were
had. The purposive sampling technique was used to select the FGD participants. This
technique provides that the characteristics or features of a subject grant him the
qualification to be included in the sample. It ensures that only those elements that are
relevant to the research are selected (Adegunle et al 2019).
Although, the study adopted a mixed method (quantitative questionnaire survey and
qualitative focus-group discussion), it focused on the quantitative aspect of the study. By
principle, quantitative surveys require samples drawn using random methods (Asiamah et
al 2017; Babbie, 2020; Gusau, 2017). To fulfil that requirement, this study adopted a
random sample selection method. Random sampling require sample frame; and this study
obtained sample frames from both BOSU and YSU from where the samples of the
respondents were drawn. To achieve that, the researcher sought the help of the following
sources from either of the two universities: the Office of the Deans of Student Affairs, the
Registrar’s Office and the leadership of students’ unions. Electronic students’ records were
accessed from online public domains. From YSU’s records, 130 students were randomly
selected using Survey Monkey random calculator while from BOSU, 120 students were
selected randomly using the same randomiser. This gives a total of 250 respondents.
A 17-item-survey questionnaire was administered on 250 students at Yobe State
University in Damaturu, the state capital. The FGD sessions were had with the 15
participants using a three-question question guide that focused on the objectives of the
study. Many follow-up questions were asked as discussions unfold during the FGDs. Data
were analysed using descriptive statistics like percentages and frequencies were used to
analyse and present the findings of the survey study and the thematic analysis technique
was used to analyse the FGD data.
In the data analysis, information regarding the FGD participants were coded using
a combination of the code number of their FGD respective group and individual
participant’s serial number. Two groups of FGD participants were had, Group A for males
and B for females. So, for example, ‘Participant A1’ means participant who was assigned
serial number 1 in the male groups; while ‘Participant B5’ means participant was assigned
serial number 5 in the female group.
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Results and Discussion

Results of the Survey Study
Table 1: Results of the Survey Study
Question 1: I find it unconvincing to vote for a party candidate after accessing fake news
about the candidate on digital media.
Strongly disagree 6%
Disagree 27%
Neutral 14%
Agree 24%
Strongly agree 29%
Question 2: I found accessing political news on digital media regarding my choice of
party candidate helpful.
Strongly disagree 5%
Disagree 17%
Neutral 13%
Agree 22%
Strongly agree 43%
Question 3: How often do you access political news on digital media platforms?
Daily 65.2%
Weekly 21%
Bi-weekly 11%
Monthly 2.2%
Rarely 0.6%
Results of FGD
Participant A3 and B4 cited an example that:
“There was a fake news about a so-called certificate scandal involving a political aspirant
during the 2019 election season. However, this aspirant is my dad’s childhood friend and
my dad confirmed to me that he (the candidate whose fake news was circulated on digital
media) was an outstanding student in their secondary school days and that he passed his
WAEC with excellent grades. Because of this, I’m extra careful about what I read, or
watch, or hear on digital media now. I don’t allow fake news to affect my vote for a
candidate of my choice.”
Participant B1 in FGD Group B opined that:
“Digital media fake news affected my voting behaviour because I voted at Old GRA here
Maiduguri and I was supporting the APC candidate representing the consistency in State
House of Assembly before I heard social media rumours that the candidate was a drug
baron. So, I changed my mind and voted for the opposition party but that candidate won. I
late discovered that supporters of the ruling party’s candidate doctored the fake news in
order to discredit the candidate’s image.”
215
Participant B6 explained that:

“I do not really think political news about a candidate affects my perception of the
candidate because when it comes to politics, it is like a game. Everyone wants to win; this
will now create avenue for witty information in order to tarnish the image of their
opponents.”
Participant A8, however, notes thus:
“To me if I get news about a party candidate, I often tend to make further investigation to
ascertain whether it is true or false. So, for me, honestly, political news on digital media
does not affect my perception of a candidate unless I confirm it personally by research and
investigation and verification.”
Participant B4 explains thus:
“It is said that information is power. But sometimes, information can be debilitating.
Because of fake news and digital media rumours, we get to know so much about our
candidates’ identity and profile, much of which often turns out be character assassination
and blackmail. These are the foot soldiers of fake news. But if a candidate gets true
information of his being circulated on digital media, it can serve as a better publicity for
them.”
During the FGD sessions, Questions 4 and 5 were asked for the discussants to
identify how fake news in digital media influenced their voting behaviour. Participants A1,
B3 and A6 in FGD Group 1 agreed that fake news could affect their vote for a particular
candidate; explaining that if the news was favourable to the candidate, that could make
them to consider voting the candidate and if it were negative, it would make them to
consider not voting for the candidate. Participants A1 and B3 however, added that,
“although, that all depends on the depth of the fake news and, possibly absence of any
counter-evidence” at their disposal to help them decide otherwise. Participant B7 and A8
separately responded, “Definitely, it affects me because it is difficult to disbelieve it is true
given how fast it spreads viral on social media” (Participant B7). “It is afterwards that one
finds out that it is fake and by then the elections could have been done and over”
(Participant A8). Research found that during electoral campaigns, citizens’ perception is
analysed, and the new message is shaped often based on political marketing tools creating
this way, a circle of information from politics to voters and vice-vasa (Adegunle et al 2019;
Lahi, 2015).
The data indicated that 29% of respondents strongly agreed that they found it unconvincing
to vote for a candidate after accessing fake news about the candidates, 24% of them simply
agreed to this statement while 14% of them reserved comments by selecting remaining
neutral. However, while only 6% of them strongly disagreed 27% of them simply
disagreed. Political news on digital media is likely to determine the choice of a party
candidate among the respondents. Many of the respondents found it difficult to vote for a
candidate after consuming fake news digital content about the candidates and, moderately
the negative story circulated in the fake news is likely to affect their choice of a party
216
candidate. This agrees with Asemah (2009) who suggested that the media, whether
electronic, print or new media, often set agenda for the public to follow; they monitor trends
and events in our society and raised their agenda based on what they have monitored and
whatever issue the media raised becomes an issue of public concern.
The media, especially digital media, help the electorate to make informed choice of
candidates during election times. This is done in form of digital media campaigns, paid
political advertisements, commentaries and news stories (Adegunle et al 2019; Curan,
2005).
The findings further showed that accessing political news on digital media is
helpful and that the respondents accessed political news on digital media on a daily basis.
This is based on the fact tha majority of the respondents answered in that direction. The
results showed that majority of them accessed political news on digital media daily. The
results showed that the students of Yobe State University, Damaturu use digital media as
their preferred sources of political news and they accessed political news from digital
media daily. This indicates that university students use digital media for political purposes.
These findings agree with Adegunle et al (2019) and Abdu, Alamai, Musa & Halilu’s
(2018) finding that ‘the use of digital media has grown in recent elections, particularly
among the youth.
Furthermore, the findings showed that fake news did not influence the way the
respondents voted for a particular party candidate during election and that fake news on
digital media did not affect their choice of candidate during the 2019 general elections. It
was also discovered that political news on digital media changes their perception of
political candidates. This tallies with Kaur (2015) who found that the emergence of digital
media has a bigger impact on the young people. It affects young people who are growing
up in an age when media is not about broadcast content from the TV, but is about
interactivity, multimedia and multi-tasking.
The results also indicated that political news about a candidate is likely to affect the
respondents’ perception of the candidate’s ‘voteworthiness’ and that they found political
news on digital media important to their choice of party candidates. These findings were
supported by Adegunle et al (2019) and Kaplan & Haenlein (2010) that the digital media
and the concept of self-presentation in any type of digital interaction that people have, there
is a desire to control the impressions of other people. According to them, this is done with
the objective to influence others to gain rewards. These findings also corroborate
Odoemelam & Odoemelam (2018) and Adegunle et al’s (2019) findings that unverified
information on digital media is a factor to be concerned.
Conclusion
This study has shown that the digital media is a major tool in the spread of fake news,
especially in the political space. It is important to note that the university students are aware
of the spread of fake news on digital media. Despite the fact that most of the university
students can differentiate between fake news and political advertising in the digital media,
217
political news on digital media still affects their perception of candidates. However, this in
turn, influences their voting behaviour.
Based on the findings, the researchers, therefore, recommend that authorities
should provide more internet services such as free Wi-Fi and subsidise costs of data bills,
especially for on-campus students, since many of the university students are internet savvy.
This will create an opportunity for the youth to express themselves, be part of the
development of the country and as well, enhance democracy at all levels. In addition,
political parties and candidates, civil organisations, non-governmental organisations,
National Orientation Agency and Independent National Electoral Commission need to
upgrade their internet platforms constantly, using the digital media more often and creating
avenues for digital media interactions. This will lead to increase in political participation
and involvement among university students.
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106946.
221
CHAPTER TWENTY
INFLUENCE OF "OBIDATTI" ONLINE CAMPAIGN ON THE
POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR OF YOUTH IN BENIN DURING THE
2023 NIGERIAN PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION
Augustine A. Ayeni; Adeline O. Nkwam-Uwaoma, PhD &
Oluwafisayo E. Ogunyemi, PhD
Introduction
Since the emergence of internet, political campaigns across the world has witnessed a
paradigm shift from the traditional mode. Political parties and politicians are now
gravitating towards the new platform (internet) for their political communication. Vergeer
(2013) notes that since the dawn of 21st century, the internet has become an important
means through which politicians connects with the electorate, pointing out that the Internet
allows political parties and candidates to increase their online visibility and interactivity.
Commenting on this development, Asemah, Anum & Ogwo (2012) note that politicians
and political parties commit ever-mounting resources to the pursuit of convincing and
persuading citizens. Dimitrova & Mathes (2018) observe that internet platforms such as
Facebook, Twitter and Instagram have changed how political campaigns are run and how
public opinions and attitude are formed in a political process. Online/internet campaign is
a type of campaign that is done on the virtual space (internet). Online campaigns are usually
carried out on social media platforms, which are essential components of the internet.
Itek & Ogaruku (2013) see political campaign as the mechanism through which
those seeking election, communicate their aspirations, policies and attributes to the citizens
who equally need those information to make informed political decisions. Political
campaigns are characterised by events, which need to be conveyed to the electorates to
attract supports. The paradigm shift in the modern political campaign is tilted towards
internet. This is why Asemah (2014) observes that social media networks have created a
phenomenon on the internet that has gained popularity over the last decade. Politicians
know this for a fact. They know that online campaign have the power to reach the mass
audience, change their attitude and persuade them to take certain decisions. This explains
why any serious minded politician who wants to win an election in this jet age, make frantic
effort to have a social presence. Asemah (2013) avers that one of the objectives of the
media is to understand the popular feelings and give expression to it. This view finds
fulfillment on how politicians perceive the internet as a “hunting ground’ for supporters
and their patronage of it.
Globally, recent trends in the political arena have shown how politicians have
leveraged on the power of internet to influence voter’s decision in their favour. We have
seen eloquent testimonies of online political campaigns that have translated into electoral
victories. The electoral campaigns that brought in Barack Obama as president of US in
2008 was a classic example. The incumbent French President, Emmanuel Macron is
another showcase. Just when the World had thought that such phenomenon could only
happen in the Western World, it reared its head in Africa, Kenya precisely, when Mr
Willian Ruto, the so called “social media president” emerged victorious at the presidential
222
poll in August in 2022 against all odds. These cases and many others have made political
candidates to act along this line. Thus, the emergence of “Obidatti” force as a product of
online campaign in the Nigerian political climate has become a subject of interest to keen
observers in the race for 2023 presidential election. The force which merely started as an
online phenomenon, has metamorphosed into the biggest political movement in Nigerian
history. The movement has reshaped the Nigerian political setting ahead of the election.
“Obidatti” is the campaign name of the Labour’s Party Presidential candidate, Peter
Obi and his running mate, Yusuf Ahmed Datti (Obidatti) which started as a mere campaign
name, has become a movement pervading the length and breadth of the country. The
movement is championed by the Nigerian youths, who labelled themselves “Obidients.”
Obidatti movement started shortly after the presidential primaries in July which saw the
emergence of Peter Obi as the standard bearer of the Labour Party and Yusuf Ahmed Datti
as his running mate. This was after the presidential primaries of the main political parties
(APC and PDP) had been concluded, and it became clear that Nigerians were going to be
served by the so-called, old and self-serving politicians. The emergency of Bola Ahmed
Tinubu as the Flag bearer of APC generated mixed feelings from many Nigerians, who felt
he was too old for the job. PDP that would have brought succour to Nigerians, also decided
to gamble with their presidential ticket, which led to the emergence of a northerner, Atiku
Abubakar. The emergence of Atiku did not go down well with many Nigerians, particularly
those from the southern extractions, who felt power should shift to South having had a
northerner holding power for the past seven years. To them, allowing power to remain in
the north, would be unjust and inequitable to the southerners and may further worsen the
disunity of the country. Thus, the emergence of Obidatti amidst this political imbroglio
seemed to have appealed to many Nigerians, particularly the youth, who have been
disenchanted with the situation in the country.
Obidatti campaign movement was orchestrated on social media. Peter Obi, having
understood the plight of the Nigerian youth, as a set of people, who have been excluded
from the Nigerian political system, decided to leverage on the power of the Internet (social
media) to drive his political campaigns through constant social media engagement and
inspiring press interviews, which were often circulated on the social media. He did series
of strategic communication activities to influence the youths to believe in him as the
“Redeemer” of the bad situation in the country. Knowing that the youth constitute more
than half of the voting population, he strategically centred his messages on them, charging
them to “take back their country,” telling them that they are his "structure” in winning the
election and by extension, redeeming the country. With continuous media engagements
and wide circulation of the messages on social media, the objective of the message, which
was targeted to influence the audience, gradually started achieving its objectives among
the youths. Before long, he started winning their loyalty and followership. His commitment
to transforming the country in his series of statements appeared to have stirred the youths
to go haywire on social media and began to him promote him aggressively. Before long,
this phenomenon snowballed into chains of movements which culminated in the mass
rallies and marches that swept across most states of the federation between August and
October 2022. The enthusiasm that subsequently thrall the propagation of “Obidatti”
movement among the youth, particularly the Benin youth is quite fascinating and calls for
interrogation.
223

The enthusiasm of the Nigerian youth, particularly that of the Benis towards Obidatti
presidency is quite intriguing. Many are wondering how the youth who used be apathetic
about Nigerian politics, have suddenly become politically active; engaging in all sorts of
aggressive campaigns to project their preferred candidate for the 2023 presidential election.
Some of the youth have taken it upon themselves to selflessly organise different events to
advance the cause of Obidatti presidency. The celebrities among them such as Edo Pikin,
Young Elder, Mc Casino among others have carried out several promotional activities and
mobilised their teeming fans to support the movement on social media. The youth have
developed serious fraternity with Obidatti with the way they go about campaigning. Recall
that before the official commencement of the campaigns, Benin youth came out in full
force and marched through major streets in the city to demonstrate their support and
solidarity for Obidatti presidency. Most of the marchers were not even members of Labour
Party. The intriguing thing about it is that the exercise was selflessly sponsored by people.
The same enthusiasm was demonstrated by them when Obidatti official campaign landed
in Benin. The whole city was agog in jubilation. The demonstration of these gestures are
reflective of the people’s determination to bring Obidatti’s presidential aspiration into
fulfilment. This got many people thinking as to the spirit behind the movement. It kept us
wondering as to what the young people see in Obi that inspires them to supports him
fervently? Are they positively promoting the change we need and crave for or are they
reacting to the feeling? Or do they see Labour Party as the vehicle for change and the
rallying point to effect the change in our dear nation? We do not quite understand exactly
their motivations are and the possible factors responsible for the perceived influence of the
online campaign on them. This study, therefore, seeks to examine the influence of Obidatti
campaign movement on the attitude of Benin youth toward the 2023 presidential election.

1. Find out the extent of exposure of Benin youth to Obidatti online campaign.
2. Determine the online channels through which the youth are exposed to Obidatti
online campaign.
3. Ascertain the degree of the influence on their attitude toward 2023 presidential
election
Conceptual Review
Ogaruku (2013) sees campaign as a planned set of activities that people carry out over a
period of time in order to achieve something. Thus, political campaign can be defined as a
set of organised activities and strategies designed to gain public support and acceptance for
a political cause. Political campaigns involves all forms of campaigns geared towards
winning elections or seeking political influence. They are orchestrated activities meant to
garner public support through persuasive communication in order to influence public
policy in their favour (Anonymous). The goal of every political campaign is influence. This
explains why influence cannot be divulged from political campaigns. The whole essence
of political campaign is to win public support and acceptance through strategic and
persuasive communication.
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Political behaviour on the other hand, is the study of the way people think, feel and
act with regards to politics. Bhalnagar (n. d) notes that political behaviour is characterised
by influence which presents a rich gamut of activities. Influence is the power or capacity
of causing an effect in indirect or intangible ways. In other words, influence is an act of
producing an effect without physical force. Since political campaigns are aimed at
influencing audience behavior in certain ways, it is expected that such campaign messages
be packaged in a manner that will influence the audience in an intended direction. This is
what Obidatti campaigns have demonstrated with the instrument of social media.
Fadhkurrohman & Purnomo (2019) argue that in political contestation, the media
are often used as tools to build the image of the candidates and influence public support
and opinion, pointing out that the media help to create advertisements and images of the
political candidates. Fadhkurrohman & Purnomo further note that most times, when the
image-making of a political candidate is well carried out by the media, particularly the
internet, it tends to have significant influence in the outcome of the election as witnessed
in the cases of Barack Obama, Emmanuel Macron, Ruto and many others. Before the
advent of the internet, television, radio and newspaper were the main avenues for political
campaigns. However, in modern politics, the internet has become the most influential
channel for campaigns on account of its outreach, engagement and efficiency. This is why
Alami (2014), cited in Fadhkurrohman & Purnomo (2019) observe that the media are very
influential in creating desired attitude and in winning competitive political contestations.
Hence, candidates are now compelled to tilt towards it in their bid to gain popularity and
public acceptance. Since the online presence of a candidate, goes a long way in determining
his seriousness, popularity and visibility, politicians are now compelled to invest their
resources on it.
Online, in a generic sense, refers to when an electronic device is on and connected
to the internet. Merriam Webster Dictionary views online as connected to, served by or
available through a system such as the internet. In a simple term, to be online means to be
connected to the Internet. Internet is a cyberspace of several computers with different
networks by various users. The internet has platforms that connect users together. The most
widely used platform on the internet are social media. This is because they enable people
to share messages and interact with one another. Social media provide platforms that allow
political candidates to directly inform citizens about their aspirations and programmes.
Golbeck et al (2010) in Itel & Ogaruku (2013) portrayed social media as a platform that
possesses the capabilities to facilitate interpersonal and group interaction. Political
campaigns are characterised by events, which need to be conveyed to the electorates to
attract supports. This is where the media come to play. The paradigm shift in the modern
political campaign is tilted towards internet. Politicians know this for a fact. They know
that the media have the power to reach the mass audience, change their attitude and
persuade them to take certain decisions. This explains why any serious minded politician
who wants to win an election in this jet age, make frantic effort to have a social presence.
Commenting on the power of the internet, Rodman (2006) in Itek & Ogaruku (2013)
describes the internet as the “supreme being” of the media because it enables and facilitates
volumes of information to millions as well as connection. The ubiquitous nature of internet
and its accessibility to people, have endeared it to politicians for their campaigns activities.
225
Empirical Review
Okeke, Chinonye & Obi (2016) carried out a study titled social media as a political platform
in Nigeria. The researchers examined the extent of youth’s involvement in social media for
electioneering process. The data generated were analysed using frequency distribution and
simple percentage. The findings indicated that the political campaigns through the new
media had significant effect on the electorate’s decision-making and participation in
Nigerian elections. The study therefore recommended that social media should be
embraced for successive political campaigns that grants the electorate the interactive
opportunity with the political candidates.
James (2016) carried out a study on the influence of mass media on voting pattern
in rural areas of Nigeria. The study was anchored on agenda-setting theory and two step-
flow of information theory. The findings showed that rural dwellers in Nigeria are not
adequately informed about the political process and development like their urban
counterparts. The researcher recommended the establishment of community radio station
in rural areas for political mobilisation and information. Kasirye (2015) conducted a
research using social media for political campaign communication and its impact on
political polarisation among youth in Uganda. The findings of the study revealed that youth
in Uganda often use Facebook, WhatsApp, Twitter and Instagram while looking for
political-related information to help them form a decision on who to give their support in
the election.
Public Sphere Theory

The concept of “public sphere” was developed in the 18th century. The term was coined
by German philosopher, Jurgen Habermas, who defined the public sphere as the gathering
of private people as a public to articulate the needs of the society with the state. Public
sphere is generally conceived as the social space in which different opinions or concerns
are expressed and collective solutions are developed communicatively. Gerard Hauser, a
communication scholar, defines it as "a discursive space in which individuals converge to
discuss matters of mutual interest and reach a common judgment. According to Asemah,
Nwammuo & Nkwam-Uwaoma (2016), the notion of public sphere is at the centre of
participatory democracy because it creates platforms where citizens come together to
exchange opinions or form common opinion regarding public affairs. Public sphere takes
place through physical meetings, mass media, academic publications, government policy
documents and more recently, through social media. The fastest growing and the biggest
public sphere in modern society today is social media. This is because it enable millions of
people to gather virtually regardless of the spatial differences to discuss. This theory finds
fulfilment in this study because it provides a theoretical framework to understand how
“Obidients” movement was formed on social media to carry out different initiatives to
advance Obidatti presidency.
226
Social Presence Theory

This theory was propounded by John Short, Ederyn Williams & Bruce Christie in 1976.
The theory measures communication media based on the degree of awareness of the other
person in a communication interaction. According to Tu & McIsaac (2002), cited in
Asemah et al (2016), “social presence is the degree of feeling, perception and reaction of
being connected to another intellectual entity on computer mediated communication.” He
notes that communication is effective if the communication medium has appropriate social
presence required for the level of interpersonal involvement required for a task. Social
presence also involves the way individuals represent themselves in their online
environment and their willingness to engage and connect with other persons in their online
community. In relating this to the study, the theory provides a framework upon which we
are to have a deeper knowledge of how Obi was able to use social media to brand himself
and engage with people in virtual community. By virtue of the connectivity and
interactivity a seamless communication experience is created. His effective utilisation of
the social media has gone a long to boost his social presence. Suffice to say that it was
because of his social presence that he was able to capture the devotion of many social media
users and ardent supporters.
Methodology
Survey method was adopted for this research for data collection. The researchers adopted
this method because it allows him to carry out appropriate sampling of the population.
Asemah, Gujbawu, Ekhareafo & Okpanachi (2012) note that survey research focuses on
people, the vital facts of people; their beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivations and
behaviour. The population of this study is made up of Benin City youth with a population
of 348,529, according to Zhujiworld (2023). A sample size of 384 respondents was taken
for the study. The sample for the study was gotten, using Krejcie & Morgan’s (1970)
sample size calculation formula. The sampling technique was the multi-stage sampling
research design. In the first stage, the researcher picked 3 most populated Local
Government Areas within Benin metropolis; namely: Oredo Local Government Area,
Ikpoba Okha Local Government Area and Egor Local Government Area. In the second
stage, the researcher randomly selected highly populated areas in the three local
government areas. For Oredo, New Benin were selected. For Egor, Uselu was selected
while for Ikpoba-Okha, Aduwawa was selected. In the third stage, the researcher chose
simple random sampling technique to distribute 128 copies of questionnaire each to
residents of Egor, Ikpoba-Okha and Oredo respectively. Thus, 384 copies of questionnaire
were distributed face-to-face to respondents in Benin City. However, 377 were retrieved
while 375 were found usable. Therefore, our data analysis was consequently based on 375.
Table 1: Awareness of “Obidatti” Online Campaign

Strongly agree 227 60.5%
Agree 116 30.9%
227
Undecided 13 3.5%
Disagree 11 2.9%
Total 375 100%
The data in the above table show that Benin youth are very exposed to the “Obidatti” online
campaign movement. This is based on the fact that majority of the respondents answered
to that effect.
Table 2: Level of Awareness to ‘‘Obidatti’’ Campaign

Very high 159 42.4%
High 116 30.9%
Can’t tell 21 5.6%
Low 46 12.3%
Very low 33 8.8%
Total 375 100%
The above data indicate that the level of awareness of ‘‘Obidatti’’ online campaign is high
among Benin City youth.
Table 3: Online Channels through which the Respondents accessed ‘‘Obidatti’’

Campaigns
Facebook 132 35.3%
WhatSapp 144 38.4%
Twitter 53 14.2%
Instagram 46 12.3%
Total 375 100%
It can be deduced from the data in the above table that the channel through which most
Benin City youth got to know about ‘‘Obidatti’’ campaign was Whatsapp.
Table 4: Influence of the Campaign on your Attitude towards the 2023 General
Elections
Motivate me to vote in the 2023 election 120 32%
Brought me the hope of possible free and fair election 60 16%
Encouraged me to be politically active 122 32.5%
Given me the hope that a new Nigeria is possible with 73 19.5
the elections
Total 375 100%
From the data in the above table, it can be inferred that the online campaign movement
positively influenced Benin youth in several ways towards the 2023 general elections.
228
Table 5: Degree of the influence

Very high 192 51.2%
High 126 33.6%
Undecided 32 8.5%
Low 15 4%
Very Low 10 2.6%
Total 375 100%
The data in the table are affirmations that the “Obidatti” online campaign had a great deal
of influence on Benin City youth. This is reflected in the number of respondents that
indicated Very high and high, which gulped 84.8 percent of the sampled population.
Table 6: Factors Responsible for the Influence

Credibility and capability of the ‘‘Obidatti’’ candidacy 204 54.5%
Dissatisfaction with the credible of other candidates 101 26.9%
Determination to make positive change in the 2023 election 70 18.6%
Total 375 100%
It can be inferred from the data table that the majority of the youth are enthusiastically
supporting the ‘‘Obidatti’’ presidential bid because they believe so much in the capability
of the candidates. This is confirmed as 54.5% of the sampled population made this
indication.
The findings showed that majority (91.4%) of the respondents are very much aware of
“Obidatti” online campaign movement. This percent is drawn from those that jointly
indicated “strongly agree and agree.” This suggests two things: the wide spread of the
online campaign and the active exposure of Benin City youth to online platforms. Attempt
to measure the level of the awareness of the campaign among the youth, reveals that the
degree is high as alluded to by 73.3% of the respondents. Considering the high penetration
of the campaign, it is safe to say that the exercise was very effective. The convergence of
the youth on social media platforms to discuss issues and programmes relating to the
advancement of ‘‘Obidatti’’ presidency aligns with the position of public sphere theory
which recognises internet as a public sphere where people converge, discuss and form
public opinion. The findings also revealed that most Benin youth accessed ‘‘Obiddatti’’
Online campaign more on Whatsapp and Facebook than other social media platforms. The
reason can be attributed to two factors: First, the two platforms are mostly used by them.
Secondly, ‘‘Obidatti’’ online campaign activities were frequently posted on Whatsapp and
Facebook platforms than any other platforms. Thus, it becomes easy for them to get the
exposure. The publicity carried out by ‘‘Obidatti’’ supporters on social media to win more
supporters corroborates the position of social presence theory, which measures
communication media based on the degree of awareness of the other person in a
229
communication interaction. ‘‘Obiddatti’’ supporters were able to converge on Facebook

and Whatsapp groups platforms for meetings, which culminated in the mass rallies and
other campaign programmes that have been sweeping across the country since September,
2022 till now. This explains why Asemah et al (2016) view public sphere as the centre of
participatory democracy because it creates platforms where citizens come together to
exchange opinions or form common opinion regarding public affairs. The use of social
media platforms for political campaigns is in consonance with the findings of Kasirye
(2015) whose study reveals that youth in Uganda often use Facebook, WhatsApp, Twitter
and Instagram while looking for political-related information to help them form a decision
on who to give their support in the election.
The findings also showed that the online campaign movement positively influenced
Benin youth in several ways towards the 2023 general elections. As shown in their
responses, 32% confirmed that they were motivated to vote. This is surely a sign of
positivity as many of the youth over the years have demonstrated voter’s apathy to
elections. Another significant number of 32.5% noted that they became politically active
by reason of the campaign movement. Meanwhile, 16% opines that they foresaw free and
fair election as a result of this movement; while 19.5% were very optimistic that the online
campaign movement would translate into victory at the election, thereby bringing about
the hope of a new Nigeria. The positive result of this influence points to the fact that the
messages canvassed in the online campaign movements have had huge influence on the
thinking pattern of Benin youth in their dispositions to Nigerian elections. This result
confirms the assumption that campaign messages can potentially alter the attitude of the
audience.
In an attempt to determine the degree of influence on the audience, the researcher
found that ‘‘Obidatti’’ online campaign movement had a great deal of influence on Benin
youth. This is reflected in the number of respondents that answered in that direction
(84.8%). By implication, the ideas that were canvassed on the campaign had huge influence
on their thinking pattern and political behaviour. This findings align with Fadhkurrohman
& Purnomo (2019) who observed that the media are very influential in creating desired
attitude and in winning competitive political contestations. Since the online presence of a
candidate goes a long way in determining his seriousness, public acceptance, popularity
and visibility, politicians are now compelled to tilt towards that direction. Okeke, Chinonye
& Obi (2016) observe that exposure to political campaigns encourages people to equate
their feelings about related target attitudes. The findings indicated that the political
campaigns through the new media had significant effect on the electorate’s decision-
making and participation in Nigerian elections.
The findings showed that the credibility and capability of the duo to perform also
greatly influenced the youth. Another propelling factor is their dissatisfaction over the
capacity of other candidates. This is not far-fetched as many of the youth have bitterly
complained about the recycling of what they termed “old cargoes.” Another factor
responsible for their youthful exuberance in support of ‘‘Obidatti’’ campaign movement is
their desire to make positive impact in 2023 presidential election with the hope of using
230
‘‘Obidatti’’ to vote out the “old system” and bring out their desired change. The findings,
therefore proved that the “Obidatti Online Campaign Movement” has had measurable
influence on the political behaviour of Benin youth. As a consequence of their high
exposure, their political behaviour has been greatly influenced: their negative disposition
towards Nigerian elections has changed to a positive one and by extension, they are now
politically active and are ready to actively participate in 2023 general elections. This
position aligns with Yaroson & Asemah (2008), cited in Asemah et al (2017) that that
content is the key variable in understanding when and why media alter audience feelings
and behaviour.

The “Obidatti” online campaign movement had great influence on the political behaviour
of Benin youth. The campaign movement did not only change their negative disposition
towards Nigerian politics, but also motivated them to participate actively in the build-up to
2023 general elections. Most of them who used to be apathetic about previous elections
demonstrated renewed commitment towards the 2023 general election. The renewed
commitment by the youth towards Nigerian electoral process was confirmed to be
motivated by their faith in the capability of Peter Obi and his running mate, their
dissatisfaction with the capabilities of other leading candidates and their desire to effect a
positive change in 2023 presidential election. Thus, the following recommendations are
hereby given:
1. Considering the positive influence of the ‘‘Obidatti’’ online campaign movement
on the political consciousness of Benin youth, it is recommended that this political
activism be sustained to gain political relevance and combat the age long exclusion
of the youth in the scheme of things.
2. Since the online campaign movement has been proven to have high degree of
influence on the political behaviour of the youth, they (youth) are, therefore,
implored to sensitise others that are offline as to enable them get the exposure and
make informed voting decisions.
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CHAPTER TWENTY ONE

PERCEIVED INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL MEDIA SKITS ON
BEHAVIOURAL CHANGE AMONG TERTIARY LEVEL
STUDENTS IN EDO STATE, NIGERIA
Florence O. Chukwuebuni; David S. Tam & Omowumi Bukola Olaseinde, PhD
Introduction
Social media skits have become a popular medium of entertainment among young people
in Nigeria who have a high level of online presence. Social media also allows people to
network as users connect each other via their profiles. Social media skits are short comedy
clips delivered in the format of a video (Ojomo & Sodeinde, 2021). The shortness of such
video clips coupled with the proliferation of smartphones has allowed for content creators
on various social media platforms to produce comedy clips that can be downloaded easily
and watched on various mobile devices. These comedy clips have been variously referred
to as “social media skits.”
Ojomo et al (2021) describe social media skits as short, often funny performances
designed to educate, inform or make people laugh. Skits are typically short ideally, but
their popularity has been as a result of the content of such skits. The skits provide an
entertainment value based on their content that generates audience engagement in ways
that differ from electronic and print media broadcast. Ojomo & Sodeinde (2021) note that
skits utilise comedy as entertainment. Comedy is utilised to get people to laugh. The aim
of a comedy skit is to get people laughing through humorous narratives, characters and
situations (Ojomo & Sodeinde, 2021) while laughing, the skit can serve other purposes
such as reflecting the society, persuading the audience, providing solutions to societal
issues, promoting talents and simplifying social and civic issues. Quoting Eastman &
Ferguson (2013), Ojomo & Sodeinde (2021) note that achieving a humorous reception is
based on the use of attractive characters, romantic themes, engaging dialogue, nostalgia,
high emotion and suspense. These features are such that they stimulate entertainment.
The comic feature of skits has been explained as popular due to audience who get
bored and have a low level of attention span. The key feature of skits as a medium is that
it can be shared across various platforms. Awakalu (2016, p. 3) notes that skits can “be
absorbed and deconstructed by thousands of people in a matter of minutes” it is comedy
delivered in small formats in opposition to full length comedy broadcasts that cannot easily
be shared. Comedy celebrities on social media have been referred to as skit makers or
content creator.
The attractive characters consist of celebrities with comic attributes. A celebrity is
a prominent person with stardom and great popular appeal. The comic celebrity in skits
usually have attributes that draw humorous responses. As such, the celebrity’s presence
can elicit humour while the celebrity can pass a message. Celebrities can endorse product,
lifestyle in a comedy, they can provide testament on a product or speak for a product, group
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or an organisation while eliciting laughter. Many skits rely on the feature of a comic
celebrity.
Social media has permeated the lifestyle of young Nigerians, especially those in
tertiary level of education (Molara & Joseph, 2014; Morah & Uzochukwu, 2019). With the
dominance of social media as the choice media among young people, the potential for high
levels of consumption of social media skits by this demography is apparent. Data on social
media use in Nigeria showed that concerted research focused on the social media aspects
of online personal safety and privacy is on-going and some noted studies in this area of
social media use, Facebook in particular, provide some pertinent perceptions which a study
such as this will consider. The researcher notes the growing interests of Nigerian social
researchers in social media, especially among students.
The youth population in tertiary institutions, many who have just passed their
teenage years present a developmental phase marked by an increasing importance of social
relationships as they are developing their sense of self and personal identity. With this
developmental phase and the socially conducive nature of the tertiary institutions in which
students are largely liberalised, coupled with the fact that this demography has a large
ownership of devices in which social media skits can be accessed, there is the concern that
the skits can become a veritable tool to address the myriad problems associated with this
demography.
The rise in immoral behaviours and behaviours that threaten public health has been
particularly noted among students in tertiary level of education (Abiodun & Balogun, 2009;
Okafor & Duru, 2010). Different approaches have been adopted to understand this
perennial problem in order to proffer lasting solutions to them. The aspect of the role of
social media skits has not been investigated. With growing research that indicates that
young people, especially those who fall below the age of 25 use social media extensively
(Landry, Vyas, Turner, Glick & wood, 2015). Thus, the study was motivated by the need
to determine the perceived influence of social media skits on the students of select tertiary
institutions in Delta state, Nigeria.
Research Questions
The following research questions were designed to guide the study:
1. To what extent are social media skits perceived by students in tertiary level of
education to be deployed for behavioural change?
2. What is the perceived effect of social media skits on behavioural change among
tertiary level students in Edo state?
Theoretical Framework and Review of Literature

The theory for this research is the technological determinism theory. The theory was
propounded by Mcluhan (1964) who believed that the new media technologies would
determine social changes, turning the world into a global village. He trusts socio-political,
economic and cultural changes are inevitably based on development and diffusion of
technology. Mcluhan argues that technology undoubtedly causes specific changes on how
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people think, how society is structured and the form of culture created. Communication is
the basic tenet of technological determinism theory. The theory seeks to explain social and
historical phenomena in terms of the principal determining factor (technology). The theory
states that communication technologies in general are the prime causes of changes in
society. Asemah, Nwammuo & Nkwam-Uwaoma (2017) note that the technological
determinism theory presumes that it is technology that drives development in any society;
thus, the level of development of any society is dependent on the level of the technological
advancement of that society.
The entertainment role played by the media is very prominent across the world
(Asemah, Anum & Edegoh, 2013). The entertainment role has been predicated on the need
for gratification. This need for gratification has been noted on social media with the
popularity of social media skits. The skits have a primary function of education, but such
skits can play a secondary role of behaviour modification. According to the Joint United
Nations programme on HIV/AIDS (1999, p. 4) , behavioural change communication can
be defined as a “research-based consultative process of addressing knowledge, attitudes
and practice through identifying, analysing and segmenting audiences and participants in
programmes by providing them with relevant information and motivation through well-
defined strategies, using audience appropriate mix of interpersonal, group and mass media
channels, including participatory methods.” Salem, Bernstein & Sullivan (2008) defined
behaviour change as a process that motivates people to adopt and sustain healthy
behaviours and lifestyles.
Behavioural change has the goal of altering behaviour from an undesirable state to
a desirable situation (Hill & Dixon, 2010). In the fight against cancer for example, the
ultimate goal of behavioural intervention is to help individuals reduce the risk of cancer by
adopting recommended behaviours (Hill & Dixon, 2010). In the campaign to promote the
use of reusable drinking cups, the goal is to reduce littering (Keller, Kohler, Eisen,
Kleihauer & Hanss, 2021).
The second important element of behavioural change intervention is the reliance on
the individual to stop a pattern of behaviours that are deemed problematic and the adoption
of a new behavioural pathway out of the prevailing order of the situation. The behaviour
of the individual is the focal point of such interventions which will move from a position
that is undesirable to a desirable state of events. This relies on an understanding of human
behaviour that identifies human capacity for intentional acts. Based on the two premises of
goals and the capacity for individuals to make desirable modifications to behaviour,
scholars in the field of psychology have proposed theories of reasoned action, rational
choice theory and the likes which suggest that human behaviour is random, but based on
internal dispositions, just as behaviour depends on a number of individual level factors and
dispositions, behaviour can be altered or modified by enlisting the individual through
specific and targeted behavioural modification interventions. Behavioural change therefore
draws from insights in the field of psychology. Bartsch (2017) notes that entertainment can
help in the management of moods, meaning making, absorption of attention, character
affiliation and self-affirmation.
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Social media skits as stimuli can play a number of interactional roles. In changing
the effect of behaviour, a skit could indicate that an undesirable effect could result from a
pattern of behaviour. In shaping the sphere of behaviour, there could be an attempt to
modify the experiences and even debate the experience. In creating a behaviour product,
the social media skit could serve the role of advertising as it promotes a particular brand of
a product that suits a life style. In the presentation of images and sounds, the skits could be
bringing some brand, personality or product to the consciousness of the public. In
presenting model behaviour, the skit could be showing what a desirable behaviour should
be (Flury-Kleuber et al 2001).
Young, Russell, Robinson & Barkemeyer (2017) carried out an experiment to
determine whether social media can be used to influence the behaviour of a large retailer’s
customers on the reduction of food waste in households. The mechanisms applied were
traditional interventions such as information provided in magazines and e-newsletters and
the use of social media. They anchored their research on social influence theory. The
findings showed that customers who viewed social media based intervention (Facebook)
showed a significant difference in their frequency of food waste from Time 2 (M = 2.47,
SD = 0.91) to Time 3 (M = 2.41, SD = 0.91); t (2.19, p = < 0.05). Participants who observed
Facebook intervention demonstrated a significant change in reported quantity of food
wasted from period 2 (M = 1.36, SD = 1.49) to Time 3 (M = 1.17, SD = 1.33); t (3.47, p =
< 0.05). Their findings showed that social media was efficacious in behavioural change in
food waste reduction.
Hang, Foo, Kang & Wong (2018) investigated if generation Z, aged between 6 to
23 years old exposure to social media platforms affected their behaviour, attitude,
personalities, mentality, lifestyle, values and belief around the issue of climate change. The
study was anchored on social cognitive theory. The findings revealed that YouTube had
the highest percentage of use (24.5%) as 21.8% of total respondents use Facebook and
11.1% of them use Twitter. The relationship with behavioural change showed a high level
of impact. In fact, behavioural change was the highest noted impact on the respondents.
The research study identified the use of social media as a tool of gratification for the very
young respondents (GenZ).
Methodology
This study employed the survey research design technique. A survey research design was
employed for this study as a result of the nature of the research. Wimmer & Dominick
(2011) posit that “a large amount of data can be collected with relative ease from a variety
of people.’’ Surveys are good measurement for attitude, perspectives or circumstances
common with a large population (Asemah, Gujbawu, Ekhareafo & Okpanachi, 2012) . The
population covers three tertiary institutions in Edo state selected for this study. The tertiary
institutions are University of Benin, Auchi Polytechnic and the College of Education,
Ekiadolor.
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Table 1: Selected Schools for the study

S/N University Population
1 University of Benin 75,133
2 Auchi Polytechnic 10,041
3 College of Education, Igueben 3,021
Total 88,195
The total population for this study is 88,195. The sample size is 399 respondents. This is
calculated based on the Taro Yamane formula for sample size calculation. Where
n=N/(1 + 𝑁(𝑒)2).The sample size is n=399. The multistage sampling technique was
employed for this research. It involves the taking of samples in stages while progressively
using smaller and smaller sampling units at each stage. The first stage of sampling is the
departments. The Departments of Mass communication in the University and Polytechnic
were selected. The department of mathematics education was selected in the college of
education. The last level of selection used the simple random sampling to select
respondents in each School. The research instrument chosen for this study was the
questionnaire.
Table 2: Perception of the Extent Social Media Skits are perceived to be deployed for
Behavioural Change
Statements (x) Standard Decision
Mean Deviation
Social media skits have been used to show the negative 3.51 .88614 Accepted
effects of bad behaviour.
Social media skits have been used to show an experience in 3.80 1.23279 Accepted
ways that we didn’t see an issue before.
Social media skits have been used to promote products. 3.05 .26910 Accepted
Social media skits have been used to promote lifestyles. 3.98 1.540 Accepted
Social media skits have been used to promote good 3.31 .8761 Accepted
behaviour.
Social media skits have been used to take stand on political 3.79 1.888 Accepted
and social issues.
Social media skits have been used to have been used to call 3.00 .9566 Accepted
people to action
Decision level>2.50
Responses in the table above indicate that the average response for “skits used to show the
negative effects of bad behaviour” is significant (3.51± .88614). This suggests that skits
makers are using the skits to portray that certain actions are evil and should be avoided.
The respondents on average agree that “social media skits have been used to show an
experience in ways that we did not see an issue before” (3.80±1.23279).This also means
that skits have been used to show a different perspective on issues. Responses also showed
that on the average, social media skits have been used to promote products (3.05±.26910),
promote lifestyles (3.98±1.540) and to promote good behaviour (3.31±.8761). This shows
237
that respondents perceive the skits to be a veritable vehicle for the promotion of lifestyles,
products and expected behaviour. Respondents agreed on the average that social media
skits have been used to take stand on political and social issues (3.79±1.888). Lastly, the
mean score for responses to the statement social media skits have been used to have been
used to call people to action is also significant (3.00±.9566). This clearly indicates that
social media skits are playing a secondary function of behavioural modification on students
in the tertiary institutions in Edo state.
Table 3: Perceived Effect of Social Media Skits on Behavioural Change

Statements (x) Standard Decision
Mean Deviation
Social media skits I have watched have modified 3.98 1.540 Accepted
perceptions about certain things or issues.
Social media skits have made me get some understanding 2.67 2.331 Accepted
about certain issues clearly.
Social media skits have made me change some goals and 3.79 1.888 Accepted
have new aspirations.
A social media skit I watched has made me drop some ideas 3.31 .8761 Accepted
about certain things which would have taken my time.
A social media skit I watched made me to adopt new 2.89 1.098 Accepted
strategies for achieving my goals
A social media skit I watched have made me adopt new 2.09 2.091 Rejected
behavioural programmes.
Decision level>2.50
Respondents agree on the average on all the indices of influence on behaviour as the mean
scores indicate. Respondents agree that social media skits they have watched have modified
perceptions about certain things or issues (3.98± 1.540); they also agreed on the
average that social media skits have made them get some understanding about certain
issues clearly (2.67± 2.331). The average response to the statement “social media skits
have made me change some goals and have new aspirations” is significant (3.79± 1.888).
Respondents also agreed on the average that a social media skit they watched motivated
them to drop some ideas about certain things (3.31± .8761). Respondents also agreed on
the average that a social media skit they watched made them to adopt new strategies for
achieving goals (2.89±1.098). Lastly, respondents disagreed on the average that a social
media skit they watched have made them adopt new behavioural programs (2.09±2.091)
The findings of this study indicated that social media skits are potent means of persuasion
and influence among the young people in the select tertiary institutions in Edo state. The
persuasive power of the social media lies in its unique features which allows for very
mobile population to have the various benefits of the media while on the move. It is,
therefore, not surprising that social media will be perceived favourably by young people
who are very much present on online platforms. This is in line with the observations in the
study by Young et al (2017) where social media was observed to be very effective in
behavioural change. The researchers found that respondents understood social media skits
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as avenues for effecting behavioural change. Beyond entertainment, social media skits are
pursuing a secondary function of behavioural modification on students in the tertiary
institutions in Edo state.
This study also agrees with the findings of Hang et al (2018) that the skits are
impactful in influencing behaviour as the mean scores indicate. The very popular channel
of Youtube which was observed in the study by Hang et al (2018) as a most popular site
for social media engagement among GenZ students is incidentally the platform where
social media skits are available and accessible for consumption. This study findings are in
line with the postulations in the theory of technological determinism that the new media
technologies determine social change.
Conclusion
Social media skits can effectively be used to show the negative effects of bad behaviour,
show an experience in a different perspective and promote products, lifestyles and good
behaviour. The implication, therefore, is that skits can become a very good cultural tool
when used for promotion and to discourage certain unexpected behavioural patterns in the
populace. More importantly, respondents observed that social media skits can become
political tools for making a stand on social and political issues of the day. Thus, the
researchers recommend that skit makers should utilise their platforms to set the agenda in
the society towards behavioural change at various levels and that the government begins to
provide incentives to reward skit makers that advance noble objectives of the society in
order to encourage more engagements in behavioural change communication.
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CHAPTER TWENTY TWO
AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION AND NATION BUILDING

Gabriel Independence, PhD
Introduction
There is no doubt that building a nation is a very vital issue for all human societies.
Probably because of the unprecedented attention it has received controversies that have
arisen as to what building a nation is. Looking at it closely, national development is a
dialectical phenomenon in which the individual and society interact with their physical,
biological and inter human environments, transforming them for their own good and that
of humanity at large. The lesson here and the experience acquired in this process are passed
unto future generations, enabling them to improve their capacities to make further valuable
changes in their inter-human relations and their ability to transform nature. Meanwhile,
the terms ‘national development’ and ‘nation building’ for the purpose of this work are
used interchangeably to mean the same thing.
Furthermore, nation building can be seen as a change from one state to another to
the extent that the new state is different from the former in terms of characteristics. The
aspects of nation building that are useful to man include his social, cultural, moral,
religious, political and economic life. Thus, national development consists in all, activities
which bring positive improvement in society. Positive improvements here should not be
interpreted solely in material terms. A nation can have plenty of material wealth and yet,
within it we, find many people languishing in penury, moral decadence, sickness and crime,
as we presently find in Nigeria. This retards the growth of a nation. It should be taken to
mean plenty of those things that man need to live a decent livelihood in accordance with
human dignity and God’s design for man. Therefore, it should be understood to mean
plenty of material blessings and good health, peace, tranquility among others.
The development of a nation such as we envisage cannot be achieved by the mere
accumulation of material things, of the procurement of life of comforts and ease, often to
a limited few. This alone will not make man really happy for the simple reason that man
is not mere matter. He has a spiritual part, which matter is too base to satisfy. Man is a
composite of this world. He has an eternal destiny. Ariostle, the great Greek Philosopher
as cited by Kanu (2004, p79) was well aware of this when he said: “… the end of state is
not mere life; it is rather good quality of life…”
According to Ariostle, the work of nation building must concern itself with more
than mere temporal care of the individual. It is solidly hinged on the formation of man in
such a way that the society enjoys true goodness. The development of a particular society
is first and foremost the building of the people that make up the society which in effect
boils down to the building of the individuals themselves. Justice, love and peace, are
essential ingredients for national development and as products of the human heart, these
qualities cannot be imposed by the force of arms. They cannot exist in the society if they
do not first and foremost exist in the human heart and minds. Man must deliberately make
241
effort to do good and avoid evil. He must see himself as a creature that owes his existence
to a higher power, from whom he came and to whom he must render account for his
behaviour and who will ultimately reward him for his conduct (Kanu, 2004, p. 811). This
is where African traditional religion plays a major part in nation building. The religion
teaches man that he is a creature of an all powerful father on whom he depends for his life
and well-being and to whom he must render account of his life. Man learns from religion
that he has specific obligations to himself, to his fellow human being and the society to
which he belongs and above all, to his maker. Religion of its nature tends to unite
individuals, communities and nations under the divine umbrella of one and the same
heavenly father, God.
Remove this religious inclination from man, it will blot his mind and belief in his
maker who rewards the good and punishes the wicked; the fact that he has an eternal destiny
and what we have left is an animal who acts out of sheer material egotistical motives and
sheer convenience, one who obeys the law out of fear of punishment or hope of material
gain or for pure intellectual satisfaction. African traditional religion, therefore, has a vital
role to play in nation building. Our task in this paper is to consider what African tradition
religion and its ethics, good values, customs, norms and health system have been doing and
continue to do in nation building specially in Nigeria.
What is African Traditional Religion?

African Traditional Religion is that religion that is indigenous to Africa and it is traditional
because it is handed down from age through oral tradition. The origin of the religion and
its morality is established in mythology. But its faith, principles and moral values, precepts
and customs, its practices and promises are all embodied, conserved and transmitted by
oral tradition from generation to generation. The question that comes to the fore is has
African Traditional Religion played any role in the development of Nigeria? The objective
of this research, therefore, is to articulate the roles that African Traditional Religion have
played in the development of the Nigerian nation.
While the religious beliefs are rehearsed in the folklore, they are expressed by songs
and minstrelsy, also re-enacted through rituals and festivities. While the philosophy of the
religion is uttered in proverbs, its mysteries are analysed and interpreted in a complex
divination system. While the power of the religion is expressed in traditional medicine,
magic, occultism and spiritualism, the religion itself is embodied in the priesthood and
other mediums and enshrined in African culture. Religion indeed has contributed
immensely to the development of the various cultures in Nigeria and Africa at large and
not much has been recorded concerning this development. This is indeed a problem to the
author and for this reason, the author has decided to document more of such contributions
of the religion to the development of Nigeria as a nation. Hence, by the phenomenology
of religious approach, the article seeks to document and bring to the fore the unique ways
that African traditional religion has contributed to the development of Nigeria as a nation,
especially in the parlances of morality, ethics, traditional medicine, security or social
242
control, preservation of Africa culture, African history and arts, among others (Allison &
Gabriel, 2017, p. 5).
The Origin of African Traditional Religion

The origin and history of African traditional religion is as old as the continent itself, one
would say. This is because the culture and lifestyle of the people assume the dimension of
a religion. Although, the religion of Africa is not documented, but oral in its nature and
handed down from generation to generation and as such, it has a progressive movement.
Allison & Gabriel (2017) further enunciated this point when they posited that:
The indigenous religion of Africans is called “traditional” is given full
explanation by Awolalu when he says: “when we speak of African
traditional religion, we mean the indigenous religion of the Africans. It is
the religion that has been handed down from generations to Africans. It is
not a fossil religion (a thing of the past) but a religion that Africans today
have made theirs by living it and preaching it.
Contributions of African Traditional Religion to the Development of Nigeria

The distinctive and conspicuous role of African traditional religion in Nigeria cannot be
overemphasised. In terms of ethical or moral values, African traditional religion will have
no rival in the institution of its shrine, as a tribunal of justice. The pouring of libation, the
initiation ceremonies and rites of passage, traditional prayers and incantations all have the
ideas of justice as their basis. It is so unique that any attempt to abandon the holistic nature
of traditional justice will wreck the entire system. Allison & Gabriel (2017) subscribe to
this notion when they said “the old god and ancestors have been so closely entwined with
moral sanctions that the decline of old cults might be disastrous.”
The shrine, again, as a tribunal of justice, is a religious, social and sometimes,
political institution that wheels the community after the desire of the gods. The activities
connected with the shrine: swearing, ethical stability, declaration of innocence, focus of
celebration, appeasement, peace and order, all have socio-religious bearing and, therefore,
prevent the norms of the African society from indiscriminate violation and this by
implication enhances peace and tranquility in the country. Furthermore, the shrines of
African traditional religion are tribunal of justice because of its impact in the present social
system. It is the basis for horizontal fellowship; it has a grip upon the mentality of the
people; hence, anything ratified before the shrine holds-way. The shrine is symbolic and
significant in that it holds the village together. It has a very high sense of moral justice. So,
then, the ethical dimension of the African traditional religion is enormous since the shrine
was a symbol of adjudication. Consequently, African traditional religion is a force to be
reckoned with in terms of academics. Universities both within and outside Africa, now
have African traditional religion in their religious studies departments. Today, there are
renowned scholars in the field of the traditional religions of Africa. Indeed some of the
ancestors and peoples’ intellect far more superseded and, sometimes contradict that of
some known scientific proficiencies. To sum it up, Allison & Gabriel (2017) had this to
say:
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African traditional religion is finding its way into the curriculum of every
higher institution of learning throughout the world … doctoral theses are
being written and accepted on the subject almost throughout the world.
To be precise, some of the issues raised by African traditional religion are yet to be
answered and this would, once again, show the relevance of such a transfused religion as
that of the Africans. Though in the words of Allison & Gabriel (2017), “some academic
soothsayers have assumed categorically that African traditional religion is on the decline
and that it is only a matter of time before it would be stamped out; although, the religion is
still alive. Every African may wish to be regarded as connected with one or the other of
the two religions; that is, Islam and Christianity,” most are at heart still attached to their
own indigenous beliefs, reiterating further they said:
This type of religion is best injected in the homes and perhaps in the schools
as well, for these are the background areas which are more influential in
shaping the total image of the individual … such religion need not be
articulated in a uniform creed… it needs no formal advocates … nor even
buildings and priests. It is in the ideals, teachings, standards, principles
ethics and experiences of the institutionalised religions … That this
transfused religion makes an impact on individuals and society.
Another parlance where African traditional religion has idiosyncratically
distinguished itself is in the medical or healing area. In most African societies, Nigeria
inclusive, diviners who are devotees and practitioners of African traditional religion are the
medicine men and major illnesses and troubles are usually regarded, treated and explained
by these cultic officiants as religious experiences. Traditional religion is regarded as the
final succor by many Africans when we talk in the term of personal matters in relations to
the passages of life and the crisis of life. For example, in hospitals, people who, on
admission, have declared themselves Christians and indeed are practising Christians, have
medicine prepared in the traditional way smuggled into them, at least, that is more effective
in that it is consecrated medicine with the touch of the divine healer, in contrast to the
European’s mere coloured water or mere pills.
Furthermore, while analysing African traditional religion and medicine in Africa,
Jegede (2010, p. 3) suggests that “before the introduction of Western medical science,
traditional medicine was used in the diagnosis, treatment and management of
bio/psycho/social disorders and illnesses.’’ ‘‘Herbal preparations, rituals and incantation,
as reflected in the Ifa verses Odu, provided effective therapy…” Unfortunately, modern
medicine cannot solve all health problems, especially those which are spiritual in origin.
In such cases, the advice given is E. Lotowo ile boo Co (use the traditional method), modern
medicine doctors resort to this reform system, when Orthodox medicine fails to cure an
illness, especially when the illness defies diagnosis. It has been noticed in matters
concerning providence, healing and general well-being that, most Africans still look up to
their own religion and culture as the way out. There is this saying that a nation that is not
healthy cannot develop. This is what African traditional religion has rendered to Nigeria.
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African Traditional Religion and Social Facts of Development in Nigeria

In the first place, there is no imposition of belief and conviction in African traditional
religion and culture in Nigeria; rather, people are born into the system. People
acknowledged and respected the values and the belief systems of their neighbours, a
situation which enhanced co-existence and stability. Oath taking also serves as means of
social contact and as centre for pilgrimage, where people meet and exchange cultural
values, friendship, intercultural communication and share various social benefits that are
necessary for social development in Nigeria.
Priests in African traditional religion, medicine men and other religious
functionaries facilitate and promote development. Priests and medicine men and social
workers promote development as custodians of cherished traditions of immemorial
heritage. Traditional architecture and engineering which are oriented in the people’s world-
view and religious precepts help in the construction of ideas and structure of roads, houses,
bridges, high ways and all the infrastructural needs of the society, towards meeting needs
and adaptation of the time. African traditional midwives are custodians and forerunners of
medical care of women even as modern orthodox approach to childbirth is eulogised.
Traditional birth attendants are still providing essential services to pregnant women and
others with gynecological-related cases. It is for the above reasons that Gabriel “calls on
Nigerian Government to encourage traditional medicine in the country as they are already
looking to that direction,” (Gabriel, 2012, p. 275).
It is encouraging to note that individual Nigerians and governments, including the
Federal Government of Nigeria, are beginning to realise the important roles that healers in
the traditional religion; that is, medicine men, diviners and traditional midwives, can play
in our society. As a matter of fact, the Federal Government of Nigeria has established a
National Committee on Traditional Medicine and the Ogun State Government, too, is
reported to have given traditional healers official recognition. Lateef Jakande, a one time
Governor of Lagos State, even established the Board for Traditional Medicine. In the
address he delivered during the inauguration in April 1980, he indicated that 60% of babies
born in Lagos State are delivered outside hospitals and maternity homes.” Most of these
were delivered by traditional doctors or midwives, who are adherents of African traditional
religion. The World Health Assembly (WHA) also has officially recognised the
incorporation of traditional medicine into the health care delivery system for a fuller
realisation of good health for all. “The Alma Ata Conference on Primary Health Care, also
recommended that government should encourage research into traditional medicine with a
view to standardising and integrating it into modern medicine, as heralded by Jegede (2010,
p. 2). There are several aspects of the African Traditional religion that are of benefit to
mankind. Instead, the life of Africans, as it were, are enmeshed in their indigenous
religious conceptions, interpretations, prescriptions and guided projections from pregnancy
and formation of the foetus to death and burial. African traditional religion trough its
kinship structures, rituals of passage and initiations, influence the character and personality
formation of the young for adaptation and conformity with shared norms and values of
their societies and various groups. This is how the general African personality and the
specific cultural identity of the ethnic groups are formed in the individual. This act of
African traditional religion can be said to have in no small measure led to the development
of concepts in Nigeria.
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The tourism potency of African traditional religion in Nigeria is embedded in the

traditional religious practices and cultural heritage. Religious artifacts, practices and
symbols, such as the Opongi masks and masquerades among the Kalabiri, in Rivers State;
the Nwontam Masquerade of Bonny, the Okonko war dance of the Ohafia in Abia State;
the Amadioha Ozuzu shrine and Ogbudu Ala-Oruwu shrine in Etche, Rivers State; the Uge
Adiafa and the Obunemu Epie New Yam Festivals of the Atissa and Epie Clans in Yenagoa
Local Government Area of Bayelsa State, the Egungun Masquerade festival in Lagos State
and several other festivals that adorn the various seasons of the year in the country are
veritable tourism resources. There is also the Gelede and Oshun Oshogbo sacred grove
and festival in Oshun State, the Efi Lake Fishing Festival of Sabagriea and the Amassoma
Siegbein Fishing Festival, the Atilogwu Dance of the Igbo people, the Odi Ogoruba Uge
festival of the Odi people in Bayelsa State, are some other religious and cultural-oriented
tourism products. Such cultural tourism resources have equally boosted the socio-
economic image and rising political profile of Nigeria and in the international scene. In
Nigeria, for instance, UNESCO has enlisted some of the traditional religious heritage as
international centre of tourism, for mankind.
African Traditional Religion as a Foundation for Sustainable Development in Nigeria

A study of African traditional religion and culture is a necessary reflection on the traditions
of the past, useful for articulating, enabling and sustainable conditions for change and
development in Nigeria. This could be a means of establishing relationship between the
past and the present. Salim (2003, p.12) makes it clear that “culture and tradition on the
one hand, and modernity and technology, on the other hand, are compatible.” This is the
experience of Japan, where there is socio-economic development, alongside the harmony
that exists within their beliefs and cultural values. Given that Africa is proud of its religion
and various cultural heritage, it can, therefore, not afford to replace its cultural values with
some other world culture. Bridging the gap between the borrowed technologies of other
continent and the indigenous technologies, Awoonor (2001, p. 24) opines that:
The bridge must be constructed with well grounded notions of function,
religious and moral to and the social and communal material nature and
function of all productive enterprises.
Such strategy will afford deeper understanding of the past and present day realities.
“Traditional society has been usually considered as the starting point of the process of
modernisation and seen as fixed and stable system, as a society in equilibrium. As heralded
by Allison & Gabriel (2017), we cannot plan sustainable development programmes in
Africa without recourse to its traditional religion and culture. This is a religion that is of
peaceful dispensation, it has not ignited any religious riot in Nigeria.
African Traditional Morality and National Development

African traditional morality though not written, is found in the peoples’ daily life. The
Yoruba traditionalists attach much importance to “telling the truth, humility, loyalty,
honesty, sincerity, justice, goodness, kindness, respect for old age and responsibility”
(Kanu, 2004). In Igbo traditional society, morality is divided into major and minor. The
major ones are stealing of yams, homicide, incest, sexual relationship between an Osu and
freeman, suicide, poisoning, theft of domestic fowl or sheep and theft of any kind by an
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Ozo title man. The minor ones are wife throwing their husband on the ground during a
fight, killing and eating totem animals, deliberately cutting of yam tendrils and burning of
a person’s house. All these moral codes as identified are attached with the dictum “thou
shall not.” They all have some moral guilt attached to them. In some places in Igbo
traditional society, there is what is called ‘’week of peace” during which people are
supposed to maintain absolute peace. There should be no fighting or exchange of hot
words. People who run fowl of this all important law go against the moral tenets of their
society. Unmasking of a masquerade is also a crime in Igboland. When these moral codes
are defiled, they are regarded as taboos. “Taboo is a system of prohibition connected with
things considered holy things prohibited for religious reasons and on moral grounds”
(Kanu, 2004, p. 86). It is agreed that morals sharpen people’s dislike and avoidable vices
like cheating, treachery and theft. Morals give a sense of inner peace to one who observes
them. This accounts for the reason why the older generations lived longer than the present
generation. They observed high moral standards.
The morality of the people of Africa is largely indicated by the taboos with which
their life is surrounded. The Igbos believe that any “sin” committed by them is against the
Ala deity, which is highly regarded. They believed that Ala has ears, eyes and other sense
organs. Moreover, it can punish offenders instantly. The Igbos regard any calamity as
pollution of the land somewhere along the line by which harmony between man, nature
and spirits is broken, hence, certain abnormalities. In view of this, they tried to avoid doing
evil or anything considered bad. The Igbos also believes that any sin committed is against
the gods and the ancestors. These have in no small measure help in ushering in peace in
the country and which has helped in the development of the Nigerian nation.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is arguable that if African traditional religion offers a basis for ethics and
morals, trado-medical healing and economic enhancement, then, it has contributed
something of immense value to Nigeria. African traditional religion has aided nation-
building, in as much as it makes its adherents loyal to the state and regimes. As earlier
indicated, it is equally on record that the shrines of African traditional religion are tribunals
of justice. The pouring of libations, the initiation ceremonies and rites of passage,
traditional prayers and incantations inherent in the religion, all have the idea of justice as
their basis. The activities associated with the shrine – swearing in, ethical stability,
declaration of innocence, focus on celebrations, appeasement, peace and others, all have
socio-religious bearing and by so doing, prevent the norms of the African society from
atrophying, African traditional religion has provided succour for medically indigent
patients. The myriads of divinatory system had served as mechanisms for social control in
Africa. Its benefits in nature and content are innumerable and so, there is no contradiction
for one to assert that African traditional religion has contributed a lot to the development
of Nigeria as a nation.
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References
Awoonor, F. K. (2001). A socio-cultural proposal for African development. Culture and
Development, 1(1), 20-33.
Charles, A. S. & Gabriel, I. (2017). The resilience of African traditional medication in
modern African society’ seminar paper presented at International Conference,
2017 organised by Society for Research and Academic Excellence, University of
Nigeria, Nsukka.
Gabriel, I. (2012). Aganaga divination in Epie- Atissa, Yenagoa, Bayelsa State:
Unpublished PhD Dissertation, University of Port Harcourt.
Obafemi, J. (2010). Incantations and herbal cure in Ifa divination, Ibadan. African
Association for the Study of Religion.
Owete, I. K. & Iheanacho, N. N. (2009). West African traditional societies: Fundamentals
of religion and socio-cultural heritage (Reprint). Port Harcourt. Stepson
Printing Press.
Rex, K. C. (2004). African traditional morality and nation building. In M. H. Okwueze
(Ed.). Religion and Societal Development: Contemporary: Nigeria Perspectives
(pp. 80-93). Lagos: Merit International Publications.
Salim, S. (2003). Opening remark. In I. Serage & F. J. Taboro (Eds.). Culture and
Development in Africa. Chicago: World Bank.
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CHAPTER TWENTY THREE

MEDIA APPROACH TO COVID-19 REPORTAGE
Ifedayo Akinwalere, PhD; Kehinde Grace Adeosun, PhD &
Olujoke Funmilayo Asekere, PhD
Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic outbreak and the escalating containment measures, especially
the lengthy lockdown, have seriously disrupted economic activity around the world. The
mass media climate was already precarious before the pandemic in Nigeria broke out, but
the sickness has made things worse, endangering the future of this thriving sector. During
the coronavirus pandemic in Nigeria, a number of issues made it difficult for the media to
exist. The pandemic has the potential to significantly upset mass media operations and
practices, and adopting tactics and strategies that are sincere, purposeful and sustainable is
essential to the industry's survival and sustainability. Like many other underdeveloped
nations throughout the world, Nigeria's mass media experienced a number of difficulties
before the coronavirus pandemic. The media sector is crucial to the development of a
politically, socially and economically aware populace. Because of this function, the
industry has become a significant player in the political, sociocultural, and economic
advancement of the populace. However, with the advent of the digital age, shifting social
norms, and a faltering global economy, this crucial position has become seriously
threatened (Kusugh, Suemo, Ngufan & Nyiete, 2022).
Mass media are essential in today’s society for offering a unified platform for all
public health messages, comprehensive healthcare education guidelines and efficient social
distancing techniques that preserve interpersonal ties. It might provide equal access to
healthcare, do away with discrimination, and lessen social stigma. Understanding and
investigating how the media and public health communications can be used to battle
COVID-19 and future outbreaks is crucial (Anwar, Malik, Raees & Anwa, 2020).
How to make use of new technology and find strategies for popularising their online
offering was the biggest problem for Nigerian newspapers. The future survival of print
newspapers in Nigeria is both a challenge and an opportunity brought about by
technological advancements. It is well recognised that newsworthy occurrences, such those
involving health concerns, get media attention. Print, electronic, internet or social media
attention are all possible forms of this; most often, a combination of them all. The degree
or impact of media participation in public health crises, particularly disease outbreaks, is
what matters most, regardless of its format. Although, it cannot eradicate the virus, the
media can reduce its transmission. Therefore, the media's role in health promotion and
intervention involves more than just raising awareness of a specific health concern or
disease outbreak; it also involves emphasising the angle or direction of reporting on such
an issue or outbreak. These media-based approaches to presenting health issues adopt the
form of media framing to sway public opinion and trigger an attitude change that results in
constructive behavioral adjustments (Kusugh, Suemo, Ngufan & Nyiete, 2022).
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As a result, prioritising novel diseases can be helpful because occasionally dramatic

and rare instances serve as sentinel events. As a result, it has been found that engaging with
the media to better their understanding of science and epidemiology will enhance risk
communication to the general public and lessen unwarranted anxiety. Media coverage is
drawn to newsworthy events, such as public health crises like the COVID-19 epidemic.
This can come in the form of media attention in print, electronic, online or on social media
or in some situations, a combination of all of these. The degree or impact of media
intervention in health crises, especially disease breakout, matters more than the specific
form it takes. The American Society of Medical Practitioners states that although mass
media cannot treat a virus, it can limit its transmission. This claim makes clear the
importance of the media in reporting on health issues, particularly in preventing the spread
of infectious disease outbreaks. A small Huanan South China Seafood Market in Wuhan,
Hubei Province, China was reportedly connected to a cluster of people with pneumonia of
unclear cause in December 2019 (Adhikari, Meng, Wu, Mao, Ye, Wang, Sun, Sylvia,
Rozelle, Raat & Zhou, 2020).
The mainstream media which include television, radio, print and more lately, social
media, continue to play a crucial role in organising and containing pandemics. These media
are regularly used to promote healthy public health practices like hand washing, respiratory
hygiene, and government epidemic response plans. In order to tackle the COVID-19
pandemic, which is becoming more widespread and enduring longer, a diversified strategy
is required. The media's responsibilities in combating pandemics have been recognised.
The media did a fantastic job of covering the Covid-19 outbreak in Nigeria (Smith & Smith,
2020).
Research Questions
The following questions were designed to guide the study:
1. What was the depth of reportage of COVID-19 stories by the select newspapers?
2. What were the sources of COVID-19 stories by the selected newspapers?
Literature Review
A respiratory sickness outbreak that started in December 2019 in Wuhan, Hubei Province,
China, has been linked to the coronavirus disease (COVID-19). By the end of January
2020, this epidemic had reached the nations where people were dying. It has been deemed
a Public Health Emergency of International Concern by the World Health Organisation
(Adhikari, Meng, Wu, Mao, Wang, Sun, Sylvia, Rozelle, Raat & Zhou, 2020). The Chinese
Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC) dispatched a fast response team
to assist Hubei province’s and Wuhan city’s health officials in conducting epidemiological
and etiological investigations in response to the epidemic. The Huanan South China
Seafood Marketplace was linked to the coronavirus epidemic outbreak, according to the
WHO, but no particular animal associations were found. The novel coronavirus's origin
was immediately investigated, and on January 10, 2020, a scientific team lead by Prof.
Yong-Zhen Zhang published the first genome of COVID-19 (Adhikari et al 2020).
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Some health systems have been overwhelmed by the virus outbreak and manpower
and resources for biomedicine have run out. This has shown that more assistance is needed
to help health systems prepare for such an increase in cases (WHO, 2020). In relation to
products, the importance of services has increased due to the development of the global
economy. Businesses now operate more globally and innovation has gone worldwide. Even
more fundamentally, the proliferation of connectivity and the cascading flood of digital
information have accelerated the exchange of ideas and virtual connections between
people, organisations and countries. Quarantining the substance is not an option (Gibney,
2020). The World Health Organisation, a capable multinational organisation, helped to
moderately coordinate the response to end COVID-19 prevention (at least in terms of the
medical component) (WHO). Even nationalist leaders have reluctantly acknowledged this
as one aspect of globalisation that is proving beneficial (Kostakos, 2020). Kostakos (2020)
asserts that the COVID-19 war's unforeseen beneficial outcome is a decrease in greenhouse
gas emissions and damaging particle emissions as a result of factory closures and a general
decline in economic activity; but that is expected to be short-lived.
Social media and telecommunications in general have shown to be helpful during
the COVID-19 problem as examples of globalisation's elements. A phone conversation, a
video conference, an exchange of letters or the sharing of jokes are all safe ways to
communicate the sense of community that is so important in trying times. On the other
hand, the spread of false information that may mislead or cause panic is also a concern
(Kostakos, 2020). In a sense, false information stems from well-known facts. This holds it
together and gives it credibility. When false information appeals to the senses or is strongly
anticipated, people are more inclined to accept it as fact. In most circumstances, inaccurate
knowledge has negative effects. Misinformation about the coronavirus was shared with a
lot of WhatsApp groups and contacts (Victor, 2020). People and the media should seek out
information from reliable sources during a crisis of this sort.
A variety of elements usually determine the value and complexity of news
reporting. The components can include prominence, explicit messages, and the overall
quantity of content. Each of these elements is included in the formula that, when applied
to each article, yields a score for content analysis. A quality of coverage score is created as
a result. Many of these factors are highly arbitrary and frequently not constrained by results
(Michealson & Griffin, 2005). In journalism, the depth of news reporting is typically
measured in columns in newspapers and periodicals, or in pages or half pages in magazines.
In other words, it is acknowledged that news stories presented in many columns are more
thoroughly reported than those in double and single columns.
In Nigeria, newspapers are the earliest form of contemporary mass media (Duyile,
2007 cited in Abimbola, 2014). News is gathered by reporters from a variety of sources
throughout the globe. The "prominent themes or meanings inside or perceived from a news
article as a whole" are influenced by every journalistic decision, including the sources used
and the point of view adopted (local, foreign, victim, offender, or eyewitness) (Kaur, 2013).
It is useful to describe the level in terms of journalism and its calibre. For instance, source
variety is frequently mentioned as a goal for good journalism (Napoli, 1999, 2003
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referenced in Lacy, 2015), yet the level at which the term "source" is used varies. For
instance, a single story cannot have many sources of diversity, however, there could be
variance in all of the news reports about a specific incident that were broadcast that day
(Lacy, 2015).
Regarding how much and what kinds of information should be published, the
source has strong opinions. The media is aware of this and is aware that if it reports
something that the news source despises, the source may stop providing information.
(Garcia-Pires, Kind & Sorgard, 2012).
Mach, Reyes, Pentz, Taylor, Costa, Cruz, Thomas, Arnott, Donald, Jagannathan,
Kirchhoff, Rosella & Klenk (2021) examine print and online newspaper coverage of the
coronavirus disease COVID-19 for the three countries of Canada (with the lowest per-
capita case and death rates during the study timeframe), the United Kingdom (with a
noticeable early spike) and the United States from March 2020, when the global pandemic
was declared, through August 2020 (with persistently high rates). Multiple indices of
scientific quality (i.e., reporting that represents the level of scientific knowledge) and
sensationalism can be measured using tools that have already been validated for news
records connected to pandemics (That is, strategies rendering news as more extraordinary
than it really is). In 12 newspapers across the political spectrums of the three countries,
1331 sampled pieces from COVID-19 had minimal sensationalism and a moderate level of
scientific quality. The least accurate scientific reporting was found in populist-right
oriented newspapers, which in some cases also had very little sensationalism. The study
found that, despite having disease rates that are among the highest in the world, US
newspapers on the political left had more exposing coverage, such as articles that focused
on policy mistakes or false information, and more cautionary articles that highlighted the
dangers of the disease likened to right-leaning American newspapers. Despite the generally
accepted advantages of low sensationalism, pandemic-related reporting of poor scientific
quality that also failed to warn readers of public-health concerns, false information, or
policy failures may have made the disease's consequences on the public's health worse.
Such complexity is likely to continue to be at the center of both public health initiatives
that depend on it and pandemic news media reportage (Mach etal 2021).
Theoretical Review
The theoretical framework for the study is agenda setting theory. Despite the generally
accepted advantages of low sensationalism, pandemic-related reporting of poor scientific
quality that also failed to warn readers of public-health concerns, false information, or
policy failures may have made the disease's consequences on the public's health worse.
Such complexity is likely to continue to be at the center of both public health initiatives
that depend on it and pandemic news media reportage.
If there is an outbreak, people frequently go to the media for information. Over 20
million coronavirus mentions were found in COVID-19 on March 11 according to Sprinklr.
The audience is already confused by the variety of news stories being covered.
Furthermore, the dissemination of unreliable information via instant messaging
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technologies contributes to fear. An alternative name for it is "headline stress disorder."

During this pandemic, false and misleading information spread unchecked across a variety
of mediums. After realising this, social media businesses started deploying independent
fact-checkers to stop the spread of incorrect information (Anwar, Malik, Raees & Anwa,
2020).
Thus, the media raise salient issues in our society and people begin to think along that
line (Asemah, Nwammuo & Nkwam-Uwaoma, 2017). The public is alerted to specific issues
through the media. They create and implant in the minds of the general public the idea that
some concerns are more crucial than others. The public should follow the agenda that the
media established. The majority of the images, ideas and concerns that media consumers have
are based on what they read, heard, or watched on various forms of mass communication. The
frequency with which a story is reported is one way that the media sets agendas or assigns
weight to issues.
• Playing up a news report in the media by using headlines and picture presentation techniques.
• Reports that allow for arguments and responses (Anaeto, Onabanjo & Osifero, 2008).
Hundreds of more recent investigations on how the media position and frame topics
for their viewers have been influenced by and developed from this approach (Baran &
Davis, 2009) point out that Walter Lippmann, a journalist and media researcher from
Harvard University, was the first to present the concept of agenda setting to the public,
despite the fact that he did not use the term "agenda setting" at the time. In 1922, Walter
Lippmann made the claim that people react more to "images" in their thoughts than to their
immediate surroundings. He maintained that the real world is too vast, complicated, and
transient for close acquaintance. Instead, man exists in a mental environment made out of
images. According to Lippmann, the media would be crucial in setting up these images and
forming the made-up environment. Although he, like Lippmann, did not use the term
expressly himself, Bernard Cohen is generally credited with developing Lipmann's ideas
into the theory of Agenda Setting, according to Baran & Davis (2009). Quoting Cohen
(1963), Baran & Davis (2009) state that:
The press is significantly more than a conveyor of information and opinion,
it may not be successful much of the time in telling its readers what to think
but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about and
it follows that the world looks different to different people, depending not
only on their personal interests but also on the map that is drawn for them
by the writers, editors and publishers of the papers that they read.
This theory known as the agenda-setting role of the mass media—was later
supported by Maxwell Mc Combs and Donald Shaw in their Chapel Hill Study from 1968.
They as well as David Weaver found a connection between the public agenda and the media
agenda. The two levels of agenda setting that they then proposed were as follows: The
media employs topics to sway what people should think about, therefore the first level
enacts the common subjects that are most crucial. There are characteristics that define
public issues and things that are the centre of media and public attention. Every topic has
a set of characteristics because when people think and discuss about an issue, some
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characteristics are highlighted while others receive less attention. This agenda of qualities
is another facet of the media's agenda-setting function. As a result, according to Mc Combs,
"influencing the focus of public attention is a strong function, but perhaps; influencing the
agenda of qualities for a problem or even a public figure is the apex of political power"
(McCombs, 2005).
Situational Crisis Communication Theory

W. Timothy Coombs introduced the Situational Crisis Communication theory (SCCT) in
2006. The idea identifies crisis management solutions that organisations could use. It
depends on who brought about the issue and how serious the threat is to the organisation's
reputation (Amaresan, 2019). Although, SCCT provides a roadmap for crisis
communication, the organisation still chooses its course of action based on the
circumstances. SCCT is based on the organisation's understanding of the situation as well
as its assumptions about how stakeholders will react to various types of responses
(Amaresan, 2019).
The situational crisis communication theory is based on the idea that crisis
managers use crisis response strategies in the event of a crisis. As a result, organisations,
nations and/or individuals must make sure they react appropriately and quickly during a
crisis to prevent the crisis from harming the organisation's reputation. In light of these
claims, this study aims to provide a multifaceted understanding of the role of mass media
in crisis and health communication.
Health communication, as defined by Akinfeleye (1989) is essentially any form of
communication that is broadcast through the media in order to provide sufficient health
care. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services' Office of Disease
Prevention and Health Promotion, health communication is the study and application of
disseminating information intended to promote good health, such as in public health
campaigns, health education, and doctor-patient interactions. According to Okunna (1999),
there are many different avenues via which mass communication occurs. As a result,
Okunna (1999) thinks it is accurate to say that media health communication is the
transmission of health information through the media in order to affect people's health
choices and enhance their health literacy for sustainable health development.
Odorume (2015) asserts that mass media health communication is essential for Nigeria's
continued advancement in terms of health. Odorume (2015) went on to note that in 2003
and 2004, the Northern region of Nigeria had a severe setback in the effort to eradicate
poliomyelitis, largely as a result of widespread myths and misconceptions among Muslims
over the safety of the vaccination. In order to allay these anxieties about the polio virus and
the safety of the vaccine, the federal authorities had to work with the media and traditional
leaders.
Methodology
The researchers employed the content analysis research method. Asemah, Gujbawu,
Ekhareafo & Okpanachi (2012) note that content analysis is an analysis based on the
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manifest content of the mass media message. Tejumaiye (2017) defines content analysis
technique as the systematic classification and description of communication content
according to certain pre-determined category. The major instrument for this research is a
coding sheet, which was used for facilitating generation of data for the study. The 178
editions of The Nation and thee Guardian newspapers from February 2021 to April 2021
were used as the sampling frame for the study and simple random sampling was used to
determine the sampling size. Taro Yamane's sampling technique included a statistical
formula to determine the sample size. The sample size of this study would be determined
using the Taro Yamane sampling method of n=N/(1+N(e)2) where:
n: signifies the sample size
N: signifies the population of the study
E: signifies the margin error of 0.05
n = 1,154/ (1+1,154(0.03)2)
n = 1,154/ (1+ 1,154 (0.006)
n = 1,154/ (1+7.924)
n = 1,154/8.924
n = 129 (Sample size)
The sample size of this research is 129 stories from The Guardian and The Nation
newspapers.
Content Category and Unit of Analysis

Depth of Coverage
Full Page – Most Important stories
Half Page – Important stories
Quarter Page – Not too important stories
Less than a Quarter Page – Least important stories
Sources: The news articles are grouped into local news and foreign news. Foreign news is
any news story which originates from anywhere outside the geographical borders of
Nigeria. Also, news about Nigerians in diaspora were classified as foreign news.
20% of the sampled news articles were randomly chosen and double-coded for the
intercoder reliability test. Themes scored 0.89 on Cohen's Kappa intercoder reliability test,
depth of coverage 0.90 and sources of news 0.89.
Results and Discussion

Table 1: Depth of Reportage of COVID-19 Stories by the Select Newspapers
Variable The Guardian The Nation Total
Full-page 6 (40%) 9 (60%) 15 (11.63%)
Half-page 13 (44.83%) 16 (55.17%) 29 (22.48%)
Quarter-page 24 (51.06%) 23 (48.94%) 47 (36.43%)
Less Than Quarter 17 (44.74%) 21 (55.26%) 38 (29.45%)
Total 60 (46.51%) 69 (53.49%) 129 (100%)
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Table 1 shows that throughout the study period, 11.63% of stories were published as full
pages, with The Nation newspaper publishing 53.49% of all stories and The Guardian
publishing 46.51%. Additionally, throughout the time period under consideration, 22.48%
of all published pieces appeared on half pages. The Nation newspaper published 55.17%
of the stories, compared to The Guardian's 44.83%. During the time period under
consideration, 36.43% of stories were published in quarter pages, while 29.45% were
published in less than quarter. This suggests that quarter-page publications comprised the
majority of the COVID-19 tales that were released during this time. In order to convey
information or tell brief, direct stories, quarter page stories are incredibly helpful.
Table 2: Sources of COVID-19 Stories by the Select Newspapers

Prominence The Guardian The Nation Total
Foreign News 39 (52%) 46 (61.33%) 75 (58.14%)
Local News 26 (36.36%) 28 (63.64%) 54 (41.86%)
Total 55 (42.64%) 74 (57.36%) 129 (100%)
Results from table 2 show that selected newspapers reported more international news than
local news. In all, 58.14% of the news that was published came from outside the country,
while just 41.86% of the news for COVID-19 came from domestic sources. As can be seen
from the table above, almost both of the publications taken into consideration published
more international news regarding the COVID-19 pandemic than local news. Information
from international organisations was more frequently covered, and the Presidential Task
Force on COVID-19 and the Nigerian Centre for Disease Control were the main sources
of notable Nigerian news.
Results showed that The Guardian and The Nation newspapers jointly published a sizable
amount of news items that covered a variety of reporting techniques, including features,
interviews, and infographics. By timely disseminating news and infographics to alert
readers about the spread of COVID-19, newspapers were successful in spreading
knowledge and raising awareness. As the information's gatekeeper and agenda-setter, the
media must prioritise the news it publishes because there is always a flood of information
that must be released.
The coronavirus epidemic was brought to public attention by the chosen
publications. According to the data, 29.45% of tales were published in less-than-quarter
pages, while 36.43% of stories were published in quarter pages. Findings also showed that
22.48% of all published stories were published as half pages, compared to 11.63% of tales
that were published as full pages. The results show that quarter-page publications
comprised the majority of the COVID-19 stories that were released during this time.
Quarter-page stories are excellent for conveying information or presenting direct
narratives. Odorume (2015) asserts that for Nigeria's health system to function sustainably,
mass media health communication is essential. As noted by Odorume (2015), in 2003 and
2004, the Northern region of Nigeria had a severe setback in the struggle to eradicate
256
poliomyelitis, largely as a result of widespread myths and misconceptions among Muslims

regarding the safety of the vaccine. In order to allay these anxieties about the polio virus
and the safety of the vaccine, the federal authorities had to work with the media and
traditional leaders.
News sources are divided into international and local news. Findings showed that
both media covered the COVID-19 pandemic with more foreign news articles than local
ones. More information from international organisations was shared, and the Nigerian
Centre for Disease Control was the primary source of notable Nigerian news and the
COVID-19 Presidential Task Force. Results showed that on COVID-19, newspapers
reported more foreign news than local news. In total, 58.14% of the news that was
published had a foreign source, while 41.86% of the news for COVID-19 came from a
local source. The findings indicated that almost all of the chosen publications covered the
COVID-19 outbreak with more foreign news articles than local ones. Information from
international organisations was more frequently covered, and the Presidential Task Force
on COVID-19 and the Nigerian Centre for Disease Control were the main sources of
notable Nigerian news. In accordance with WHO (2020), the findings show that early
December 2019 saw the development of symptoms in the first human instances of COVID-
19, the illness brought on by the new coronavirus that causes COVID-19. Wuhan City,
China, officials first reported the ailment in humans in December 2019. Some of the initial
cases were connected to a Wuhan wholesale food market, according to WHO (2020).
According to WHO (2020), the market in Wuhan City was either the origin of this outbreak
or contributed to its first amplification (WHO, 2020). The results are also consistent with
(Adhikari et al 2020), which found that a local Huanan South China Seafood Market in
Wuhan, Hubei Province, China, in December 2019 was connected to a cluster of
individuals with pneumonia of unknown cause.
Additionally, journalists get their news from a variety of sources around the globe.
The "prominent themes or meanings inside or perceived from a news article as a whole"
are influenced by every journalistic decision, including the sources used and the point of
view adopted (local, foreign, victim, offender, or eyewitness) (Kaur, 2013).

The Guardian and The Nation newspapers did not fall short in their duty as the watchdog
and gatekeepers of society, according to everything that has been debated and the
conclusions that have been highlighted. Newspapers quickly and accurately reported on
events relating to the COVID-19 outbreak both inside and beyond the nation. By speaking
with medical experts, whose suggestions and counsel were made public, they also offered
information on how to keep safe during the pandemic. Thus, the following
1. The following suggestions might be made based on the research's findings:
Newspapers should train environmental journalists to reduce their reliance on
imperialist and westernised material. This need became apparent as local journalists
turned to their western ounterparts in rich nations for reporting and research.
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2. To inform the Nigerian public about the threats to our environment, the Nigerian
media should publish more environmental news articles, editorials, features and
interviews.
3. The press should concentrate more on proximity of issues and publish stories
derived from local sources. When a news item is published, the readership's ability
to relate to the narrative heavily depends on how close they are to the target
audience. The media's audience is more likely to pay attention to domestic news
than news from abroad.
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CHAPTER TWENTY FOUR

ATTITUDE OF DELTANS TOWARDS MEDIA CAMPAIGNS ON
OKOWA'S VICE PRESIDENTIAL NOMINATION
Kassim Jonathan Onwubuoya; Cleta Nentawe Gaba & Agnes O. Ezeji, PhD
Introduction
A historical examination of Nigerian elections offers the chance to evaluate the many
functions that the media perform in Nigerian politics. In the election process, political
objectives are realised, depending on significant part on the degree to which the media
inform, educate and mobilise the people (Ademilokun, 2015; Asemah & Ogwo, 2013). In
Nigeria, there are many instances of candidate imposition, results tampering, and other
electoral malpractices that continue to put the likelihood of a legitimate, free, and fair
election outcome in jeopardy. Every democratic society has created the mass media as a
crucial tool for gathering and disseminating information, providing electoral education,
monitoring, enlightening the public and mobilising the populace (Asemah-Ibrahim,
Nwaoboli & Asemah, 2022; Asemah, 2013). Elections play a significant role in deepening
democracy in many parts of the world in the sense that they enable the governed to decide
who governs them. However, an election is not just an event, it is, more importantly, a
process involving a multiplicity of activities and stakeholders. Campaigns are one of these
essential activities. They play an important role in the relationship between election
candidates and voters and enable candidates to motivate people to vote for them on the
basis of the values and issues they present for consideration (Chime-Nganya, Ezegwu &
Ezeji, 2017). Thus, media campaign strategies are an important element in discussions
about electoral democracy.
A political campaign is an endeavour to achieve a certain political aims. It is about
enlisting (or attempting to enlist) widespread involvement in support of a certain issue,
candidate or programme, often by winning an election. It can also be described as an
organised attempt to influence the decision making process inside a group. The objective
is to convince as many individuals as possible to support the campaign. Political action of
this kind predates even the first efforts to construct representative democracy (Chime-
Nganya, Ezegwu & Ezeji, 2017). Political advocacy, lobbying, and communication are all
part of media campaigns (Asemah, 2011). It is a question of "knocking the other side," with
political campaigners often conflicted about the number and quality of the "knocking"
(Mayer 1994). The mass media are heavily relied upon, particularly for political media
campaigns.
Governor Ifeanyi Okowa of Delta State, in June 2022, emerged as the vice-
presidential candidate of the opposition Peoples Democratic Party (PDP). The PDP
presidential candidate, Atiku Abubakar, announced Mr. Okowa as his choice for the slot at
the party’s headquarters in Abuja. He was chosen over other contenders, including
Governors Nyesom Wike of Rivers State and Udom Emmanuel of Akwa Ibom State. Since
his nomination, there have been several applause and criticisms of his nomination and
260
chances of helping PDP win the presidential race. This study is, therefore, an attempt to
examine the attitude of Deltans towards media campaigns on Okowa's Vice Presidential
nomination.

The organisation and conduct of political campaigns during the 2023 elections in Nigeria
cannot be fully understood outside the political context of the elections. The 2023 election
is the first election in which Governor Okowa has been nominated vice president amidst
the many powerful contenders like Governor Nyesom Nwike of Rivers State. Within this
framework, the election has generated deep interest across the globe and has widely been
considered to be a litmus test of Nigeria’s commitment to electoral democracy and the
wider democratic ethos where vice presidential nominees greatly influence the outcome of
elections. However, since the nomination of the Delta State governor, Ifeanyi Okowa as
the vice presidential candidate of PDP, no study has been conducted on the attitude of
Deltans towards media campaigns of Okowa. This research gap is what this study intends
to fill as knowing the attitude of Deltans to Okowa’s vice presidential election would go
far in determining their level of support for PDP, Okowa and his principal, Atiku
Abubakar.
Research Objectives
1. Find out the level of exposure of Deltans to media campaigns of Gov. Okowa vice
presidential nomination.
2. Find out the media channels through which Deltans were exposed to media
campaigns on Gov Okowas 2023 vice-presidential bid.
3. Examine the attitude of Deltans to media campaigns on Gov. Okowa’s 2020 vice-
presidential nomination.
Concept of Political Communication

A system for producing, distributing, processing, storing, and exchanging standardised
political information that may have an influence on the accomplishment of political goals
is known as political communication. There are nine components that make up political
communication as a system: political actors, audiences, audience research organisations,
organisations that produce political communication content, organisations that ensure the
content is distributed, organisations that control the process of political communication and
organisations that regulate the process of political communication (Abubakar, 2012).
Political communication includes all verbal and nonverbal actions intended to
persuade voters and the general public that they are the best candidate in an election.
Politicians transmit meanings in discourse with the main goal of winning support for
certain politicians or political parties using a variety of visual tools, including vests,
headwear, dancing and arrogate language, among others (Adegbola & Gearhart, 2019).
Political communication is defined by Agudosi (2007), as quoted by Olutokun & Seteolu
261
(2001), as the distribution of knowledge about how a political entity functions in an effort
to influence the audience's behaviour in a number of ways. It is also an interactive
procedure for the dissemination of information among the public, the media, and
lawmakers (Olutokun & Seteolu, 2001).
Political Mobilisation Defined

Political mobilisation refers to initiatives intended to persuade a sizable population to voice
their opinions and take a certain political stance. It also refers to activities that aim to
compel sizable numbers of organised or unorganised people to voice their opinions and
engage in a particular political activity in order to advance political objectives. Political
mobilisation could be seen as the process by which candidates, parties, activists, and groups
induce other people to participate in politics to win elections, to pass bills, and to influence
policies (Igili, 2005). Political organisations may contact people and provide a specific
opportunity for political action. In most instances, political mobilisation is a key
prerequisite before any participation can occur (Nwaoboli, 2022). Political mobilisation
can further be defined as the way in which citizens organise people to put pressure on the
political representatives. Thus it could be any sort of movement which in the end results in
a change of policy, for example when a newspaper writes about malfunctioning within a
government, a lot of people read it and it gets picked up by the politicians who will start
working with it, and in the end are able to change the government’s composition. It could
be actions such as signing a petition to bring about change in public policy on issues.
Alawode & Adesanya (2013) assert that mobilisation is an important precondition
for most forms of political participation and engagement. Potential participants have to be
informed and recruited before they can participate. In fact, mobilisation and recruitment
processes are essential preconditions before citizens can become engaged in any form of
civic or electioneering action.
Overview of Mass Media Campaigns

A mass media campaign is a kind of intervention that uses a series of coordinated
communication acts to influence a large number of people over time in order to accomplish
certain results or effects (Adegbola & Gearhart, 2012; Nwaoboli, Chukwu, Arijeniwa &
Asemah, 2021). Massive audiences are often exposed to messages via mass media
campaigns employing already-existing media like television, radio and newspapers. The
majority of exposure to these messages is thus passive. Such programmes generally face
challenges from factors including intensive product promotion, important cultural
standards, and behaviour that is motivated by addiction or habit. Mass media campaigns
may result in positive changes in health-related behaviours or prevent negative changes in
significant numbers of people. Variables that affect these results, such as the simultaneous
availability of necessary services and commodities, the presence of neighborhood-based
initiatives and regulations that promote behaviour change (Akasoro, 2011).
The development and evaluation of large-scale media campaigns are complicated
by the legal status of the targeted conduct and any related enforcement. In order to
262
accurately identify the target group, it is important to consider the current issues (Asemah-
Ibrahim, Nwaoboli & Asemah, 2022) which include not only the legal situation but also
the nature and significance of the conduct.
Furthermore, it is best to avoid sending too many different messages at once.
Additionally, the message's content must be persuasive and grounded in reality (Asemah,
Nwaoboli & Beli, 2022). Fresh information-rich messages were shown to have a greater
effect. Another thing to think about is message style, which includes elements like the
spokesperson (if any) used and informed vs. emotive methods. Most of the time, it was
decided that a more emotive and unfavourable approach to advertising for road safety was
preferable. Fear appeals have been often used and have proved effective.
A Brief on Governor Ifeanyi Okowa

Gov. Authur Ifeanyi Okowa was born on July 8, 1959, in Owa-Alero, Ika East Local
Government Area, Delta State where he studied from 1970 to 1976. In 1976, he received
the second-best score in the then-Bendel State on the Higher School Certificate
Examination. He then continued on to the University of Ibadan, where he graduated in
1981 at the age of 22 with an MBBS in Medicine and Surgery. Following his year of youth
service, Mr. Okowa temporarily served as a medical officer for the Bendel State Hospital
Management Board. He eventually entered private practice when he opened the Victory
Medical Centre in Igbanke, a town on the boundary of the states of Delta and Edo.
In 1991, Mr. Okowa entered politics when he was appointed Secretary of the Ika
Local Government Area. By 1993, he had advanced to the position of Chairman of the
Council. Mr. Okowa joined the PDP when democracy was restored in the nation in 1999
and James Ibori's administration in Delta State was founded as a result. From 1999 to 2001,
he served in the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources as the Commissioner before
being appointed as Commissioner for Water Resources, where he remained until 2003
before moving to the Ministry of Health. Mr. Okowa resigned from his position as
Commissioner after serving in the three ministries to run for governor, but lost in the
primary. After winning the election, Mr. Ibori's cousin, former Governor Emmanuel
Uduaghan, appointed him secretary of the Delta State government in 2007.
Mr. Okowa expressed interest in the 2011 senate race. Although, he won the
primary, some party officials opposed his candidature because they wanted Marian Ali, the
wife of Ahmadu Ali, the previous National Chairman of the PDP. In a second round, Mr.
Okowa received 1,446 votes to Mrs. Ali's 108. He earned 98,140 more votes than Ned
Nwoko of the DPP, who, coincidentally, had just won the PDP primary to represent the
district in that year's election to the Senate to represent the Delta North Senatorial District.
Mr. Okowa served on a number of committees in the Senate, including the Committee on
Health.
Although, Mr. Uduaghan, the then governor, chose another candidate, an Urhobo,
the biggest ethnic community in the state, Mr. Okowa campaigned for and won the
governorship of Delta in 2015 on the PDP platform. In the end, Mr. Okowa defeated Great
Ogboru of the APC, who received 215,938 votes, to win the gubernatorial race with
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925,274 votes. Mr. Okowa's victory made him the first Anioma (Igbo-speaking) man to
hold the office of state governor. He became the state's fourth democratically elected
governor (2007-2015). In 2015, he was re-elected and in June 2022, was nominated as
PDP’s vice president for the 2023 presidential election.
Literature Review
Every campaign is unique (Asemah & Nwaoboli, 2022; Asemah, Nwaoboli & Nwoko,
2022). While certain basic principles can be applied to each campaign, it is important to
have a complete understanding of the particular situation and the conditions in which the
campaign will be waged. The first step in developing a winning strategy must begin with
a realistic assessment of the political landscape in which one will be running. It may be
enjoyable to participate in a political campaign. Between the start of the campaign and
election day, a lot will happen, but with a little forethought and preparation, one may be
ready for all the twists and turns and, in many instances, manage the situation.
Media campaign messages have to offer a persuading message to voters. It must
not lack focus from the outset as things will only grow worse. The campaign must also
have a clear understanding of which people it can convince and a succinct, convincing
message, and should not lack a practical strategy for what to do between the campaign and
election day in order to avoid wasting resources as it drifts aimlessly toward election day
(Asemah, Anum & Ogwo, 2012). Most often, a successful political campaign is the one
that takes the time to identify people, creates a compelling message and follows through
on a practical strategy to get in touch with those individuals personally.
The choice of Mr Okowa as the vice-presidential candidate throws up various
implications, which may make or mar Mr. Abubakar’s presidential quest, depending on
how the ensuing forms are managed or navigated. First, many analysts and PDP
stakeholders see the choice as wise, considering Mr. Okowa’s calm bearing and political
savvy nature which are the of the rough and confrontational approach of his Rivers State
counterpart, Nyesom Wike, who was Mr. Okowa’s main rival for the number two slot. In
Delta State, Mr. Okowa’s choice and possible emergence as the nation’s vice president, if
the PDP wins the coming presidential election, is bound to alter the political power
equation in the state. Since his election as governor in 1999, the Oghara, Delta Central-
born James Ibori, has been calling the shots, determining who gets what as far as the
governorship seat in the state was concerned.
Mr. Okowa’s emergence as Mr. Abubakar’s running mate also means that one of
the most formidable strongholds of PDP, the South-east geo-political zone, has become
potentially sidelined as far as the party is concerned. The zone, which has consistently
voted PDP overwhelmingly since 1999, now stands the risk of being excluded from the top
echelons of leadership if the PDP wins the coming presidential election.
The South-east had hitherto pushed for the zoning of the party’s presidential ticket
to the South and possibly micro-zoned further to it. However, such appeals and pressure
failed as the party threw its presidential ticket open with Mr Abubakar clinching it at the
convention of the party held on May 29. The unveiling of Mr Okowa as the running mate
264
might therefore be counted by some as the second successive loss for the South-east in
PDP. Nonetheless, if there is only a thin line between the clamour for Igbo inclusion and
that of the South-east, then Mr Okowa’s choice may assuage Nigeria’s third-largest ethnic
group. To many Nigerians, including some Igbos in the South-east and elsewhere, the Delta
State Governor is an Igbo man, at least linguistically. Mr Okowa may thus serve as a bridge
between the South-south and the South-east zones in the coming election.
Social Judgement Theory
The study is anchored on social judgement theory. The theory was developed by Carolyn
Sherif, Muzafer Sherif and Carl Hovland. It is the process of assessing a concept by
contrasting it with the attitudes of the moment (Asemah, Nwanmmuo & Nkwam-Uwaoma,
2017). To determine where a new idea should go on the attitude scale in one's brain, each
new idea is weighed and compared to one's present point of view. The theory refers to the
automatic classification of ideas that occurs at the time of observation. Social judgement
theory provides a theoretical framework for analysing human judgement. The study of
cognitive perspective or how you view the world, is governed by this meta-theory. For
instance, the fundamental psychophysical principle indicates that when a stimulus is close
to one's judgement anchor, an assimilation effect may happen and when the stimulus is far
from the anchor, a contrast effect may happen. The social judgement theory is an attempt
to integrate social judgement with the findings and concepts of psychophysical judgement.
The theory primarily focuses on an individual's internal processes of judgement with regard
to the link included in a sent message, with the individual's position of choice serving as
the judgement anchor (Sheeran & Abraham, 2013). According to the SJT, researchers’
expectations for attitude change may be influenced by the degree of involvement of the
message receiver, the stimulus' structure (and the number of alternatives it provides) and
the value (credibility) of the source. This theory is relevant to this study as it shows that
the way media campaign messages of Gov. Okowa’s vice presidential nomination are
presented could lead to alteration in the mind of Deltans about Gov. Okowa.
Empirical Review
Rasheed (2016) investigated how Nigeria's 2015 election campaign used broadcast media
as a tool for change. The researcher used a survey research design while questionnaire was
used as the instrument of data collection. The findings showed that broadcast media started
to engage the people in meaningful political awareness and enlightenment and that they
conducted a comprehensive and in-depth investigation of the pertinent election-related
sections of the constitution. Broadcast media was crucial in ensuring that Nigerians
participated in the election process and that the results were credible and acceptable to the
majority of the country. It showed that the broadcast media owners and editors shared
information, advanced mutual understanding, enhanced cooperation and harmonised their
commitment on ethical issues relating to election reporting from their various organisations
in an effort to increase the effectiveness of broadcast media in promoting balanced, conflict
265
sensitive reporting, a well-informed audience, and accountability of public representatives

and institutions. It recommended that to increase public awareness and interest in
participatory elections, a number of efforts to inform voters of their civic obligations and
rights will be run.
James (2016) conducted research on the impact of mass media on voting behaviour
in Nigeria's rural areas. The agenda-setting theory and the two-step flow of information
theory guided the study. Survey was used as research design while questionnaire was the
instrument of data collection. The findings showed that democracy needs widespread
knowledge. As a consequence, the media's functions as disseminators of knowledge,
educators and entertainers become crucial. Ofor (2012) carried out a study to find out the
roles and limitations of the media in the attainment of Nigerian democracy through media
campaigns. The study was anchored on the Elites theory and the research design was the
survey while the research instrument was the questionnaire. Findings from the study
showed that the Nigerian press was pivotal in bringing democracy in Nigeria through media
campaigns and that just like in the colonial days, mass media campaigns remain an
important agent of revolutionary change. Based on the findings, the researcher
recommended that there should be press freedom to allow the media sustain the democracy
they brought through media campaigns. These studies align with the current study in terms
of research design and instrument while they differ majorly on scope as this study was
carried out in Delta State.
Methodology
The population of this study is Asaba, Warri and Ozoro which have a total population of
1, 322, 603 (149,603, 987,000, 186,000 respectively). Using Taro Yamane 1976 sample
size calculation technique, a sample size of 400 was arrived at. The researchers used
purposive sampling to select Asaba, Warri and Ozoro from each of the senatorial zones.
This was based on the fact that the three towns were considered to be places to get reliable
information because of their cosmopolitan nature; while simple random sampling
technique was used to select the 400 respondents from the three towns.
Data Presentation
Table 1: Level of exposure of Deltans to Media Campaigns of Gov. Okowa’s Vice

Presidential Nomination
Very high 160 42.1
High 141 37.1
Neutral 11 2.8
Low 41 10.1
Very low 27 7.1
Total 380 100
Table 1 showed that the level of exposure of Deltans to media campaigns of Gov. Okowa’s
vice presidential nomination was high. This may not be unconnected with the fact that the
campaigns were massive and were carried out using different mass media channels.
266
Table 2: Media Channels through which Deltans were exposed to Media Campaigns
on Gov Okowas 2023 Vice-Presidential Bid
Television 60 15.7
Radio 63 16.5
Newspaper 18 4.7
Magazines 5 1.3
Outdoor media 60 15.7
Social media 174 45.7
Total 380 100
Table 3 showed that social media platforms were the media platforms through which
Deltans were majorly exposed to Gov Okowa’s vice presidential media campaigns.
Table 3: Attitude of Deltans to Media Campaigns on Gov. Okowa’s 2023 Vice-

Presidential Nomination
I now support the PDP’s 71 18.7
presidential aspiration
I no longer support PDP’s 88 23.2
presidential aspiration
I am now more politically active 59 15.5
due to Okowas media campaigns
My confidence and trust in 103 27.1
Okowa’s leadership of Delta State
has dwindled
The campaign has not forced any 59 15.5
attitude in me
Total 380 100
Table 3 showed that many Deltans’ confidence and trust in Okowa’s leadership of Delta
State has dwindled as a result of his media campaigns for the 2023 vice presidential bid.
The findings showed that the nomination of Gov Okowa as PDP 2023 presidential vice
president was highly covered in the mass media, especially the broadcast and new media.
This was a result of the media’s social responsibility role. The findings also showed that
social media were the major news platforms through which Deltans were exposed to
campaigns on Okowa’s nomination.
Furthermore, it was found that media campaigns on Okowa’s nomination
influenced the attitude of Deltans in various ways. For instance, some of the campaigns
made many Deltans see the need to support Okowa and the People’s Democratic Party in
the 2023 presidential election. It also made many Deltans consider Okowa to be not just
powerful in Delta, but also powerful and perhaps relevant nationally. Furthermore,
267
campaigns on the nomination of Okowa have also made many Deltans lose confidence and
trust in the governor. This is because some feel Okowa used the resources meant for
Deltans in his vice presidential campaign bid. As such, these set of people have a negative
attitude to the nomination of the vice president.
Asemah & Nwaoboli (2022); Alawode & Adesanya (2016) and Nwaoboli’s (2021)
study support this study when they observed that mass media campaigns influence people’s
attitude to issues campaigned about. Also, this study is supported by Ani, Nyekwere &
Nwanguma (2017) which says that in the electioneering, the mass media are a veritable
tool for winning potential supporters. The findings further agree with the social judgement
theory that states that the way issues are presented on the media could bring about change
in perspective of such issues and lead to either a positive or negative social judgement of
the issue.

Elections are no longer won only on the basis of desires and ambition. They are won by
tactics which often involve media campaign strategies. Election candidates often use
several tactics to get votes. But in the end, only the well thought-out ideas really succeed
in winning elections. Given that a lot of influencing factors affect voters' selection of
candidates, it is essential that campaign plans take these active elements into account. Thus,
it is concluded that the attitude of media campaigns on the nomination of Gov. Okowa as
PDP vice presidential candidate is both positive and negative.
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270
CHAPTER TWENTY FIVE

AUCHI RESIDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF BROADCAST MEDIA
COVERAGE OF THE 2020 LEKKI TOLL GATE KILLINGS
Loveth Anorue; Peter O. Awofadeju, PhD & Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD
Introduction
That the media have a great contribution to play in any sort of agitation is not in doubt. In
Nigeria, it is apparent that the media have not relented in playing their role as part of its
social reportorial obligations. The mass media occupies critical position in the
dissemination of information in a country. It has become a powerful medium for
transmitting data from any part of the country to another, and it has also come to be relied
upon by inquisitive readers for information on various aspects of natural life. As observed
by Ochonogor (2008), the media in Nigeria have been credited with playing crucial roles
in the development of the polity. The pre-independence press were particularly
acknowledged to have contributed significantly to raising the political sentiment and
consciousness of the Nigerian people, and were in the vanguard of the struggles and
activities that led to success in achieving independence from British Colonial Masters on
October1, 1960.
October 8, 2020 most Nigerians took to the street in major cities protesting that the
Federal Government should End SARS (Special Anti- Robbery Squad). End SARS is a
mass protest movement against police brutality in Nigeria that is decentralised. The
catchphrase urges for the dissolution of the unique Anti-Robbery Squad, a notorious
Nigerian Police unit with a long history of abuses (Falana, 2021).
The Special Anti-Nigeria's SARS (Robbery Squad) had enjoyed impunity for the
continued use of torture and other cruel methods to execute, punish and obtain information
from suspects. SARS victims have been featured in the news more frequently in recent
years. Sparkling every time, there is a lot of outrage on social media and occasionally
protests (Punch, 2021). As explained by Falana (2021), Abubakar Malami SAN, the
Attorney-General of the Federation and Minister of Justice, said that the attackers of the
demonstrators were hoodlums donning military fatigues. The Minister of Information has
publicly denied any protester's killing no fewer than five times.
The main issue here remains, how objective and effective were the broadcast media
in covering the 2020 Lekki toll gate killing? However, in any given society, the mass media
are saddled with the responsibility of keeping the peace and smooth operation. UNESCO
(1980), cited in Iwokwagh (2006) refers to this as the function of integration. By this
function, great expectations of the mass media are to manage situations and all sort of
agitations, build bridges of understanding, and reduce uncertainty in the society. Onus is
on the media to ensure dissemination of quality information, as this will form the basis for
attainment of mutual understanding. The onus is also on the media to ensure dissemination
of quality information, as this will form the basis for attainment of mutual understanding.
As observed by Ashong & Uduoduo (2008):
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Most media often aim at the stories that would make more sales rather than
stories that could bring about solutions to conflicts... as a result, they
consciously or unconsciously glorify criminal activities and endanger any
attempt at protest or conflict. Media deliberate efforts at setting agenda for
conflict resolution... implies downplaying issues that are capable of
threatening peace (p.314).
In journalism, the responsibility a journalist has is to capture or reflect social reality
by disseminating accurate, fair, truthful and objective information. As observed by Duyile
(1996), the journalist cannot be separated from the social political and economic
environment in which the media operate. However, the environmental culture affects the
media, while the media culture reflects the environment. The media are not expected to be
dramatis personae or part of the event, as the society assigned the role to give intelligible,
nonfictional account of happenings around them. The pursuits of truth in bringing to bare
on subjects of media enquiry onus directly fall on them. Going by the above, the question
is to what extent has the broadcast media been able to perform its social responsibility
functions and obligations in their coverage of the 2020 Killings at the Lekki Tollgate and
what sort of perception does the public have with regard to broadcast media coverage of
the 2020 Lekki toll gate killings? Providing answers to these questions and more is the
focus of this study.

The main objectives of this study were to:
1. Determine the extent of exposure to broadcast media coverage of the 2020 Lekki
Tollgate killing.
2. Determine the broadcast media channels through which the respondents were
exposed to the Lekki tollgate killing.
3. Determine the level of effectiveness of the media coverage of Lekki Tollgate
killings.
4. Determine whether the broadcast media channels were objective in the coverage of
Lekki Tollgate killings.
Literature Review
Perception is “a process of interpretation of a present stimulus on the basis of prior
experience” (Aman, n.d). In the perceptual process, we pay our attention to a particular
stimulus and interpret it. Smith (2002) says that the “question of whether humans can ever
directly see the physical world”—defined as having “an existence that is not in any way
dependent upon its perception.”
The hashtag #EndSARS was said to have started since 2018 as a movement on
social media. The protest started as a peaceful protest across the country by young
protesters demanding accountability and to put a stop to brutal policing operatives of the
Special Anti-Robbery Squad Unit of the Nigerian Police Force (SARS). The protest,
however, degenerated the country's socioeconomic and political underpinnings for several
272
weeks, turning into “full blown civil disturbance” (Ibezim-Ohaeri & Ibeh, 2021).
According to a report by the British Broadcasting Service Online, the killing of a young
man in Delta State by operatives sparked unrest in several regions of the nation and calls
for the government to dissolve the Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS). The Unit was
accused of extortion, brutality and other illegal activities, harassment and even extra
judicial killings. The protesters mainly youths, received global sympathy and support with
world leaders such as the United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres and the
United States Secretary of State, Mike Pompeo tweeting in support.
Other political leaders and celebrities participated in the demonstration using the
hashtag (Uwazuruike, 2020). The hashtag #EndSARS was created to demand the
disbandment of the Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS) of the Nigerian Police Force
which is notorious for its brutality and breaches of human rights. The hashtag was initially
employed in 2018 to draw attention to claims of abuse and exploitation by SARS agents
(Oloyede & Elega, 2019). The government announced structural reforms to SARS, yet the
alleged exploitation and human rights breaches persisted. On social media in October 2020,
there were claims of SARS agents shooting a youngster without cause in the streets of
Delta State.
It transformed into a call for Nigeria's transformation at a time when the entire globe
was battling the COVID-19 pandemic (Ekoh & George, 2021). Protesters lining the streets
of Lagos and Abuja in just a few days demanded an end to SARS. The Nigerian
government quickly declared the disbandment of SARS after feeling pressured by the
media attention the protests had brought about. This move, however, was not sufficient to
appease the protesters in light of similar pronouncements made previously by
the government. On Oct. 20, 2020, at the Lekki Toll Gate in Lagos, the Nigerian army
started firing on a crowd of demonstrators.
This was the culmination of weeks of protests by Nigerians, young and old, against
police brutality by a Special Unit of the Nigerian Police, known as
the #EndSARS movement. The protest which packed the Lekki Toll Gate full with
protesters on that fateful night was against police brutality and true to its baleful reputation,
the Police deployed bloodthirsty brutes to crush the protest. SARS, or the Special Anti-
Robbery Squad, was originally created in 1992 to combat robberies and other serious
crimes, but in present times they have been criticized as being a corrupt unit that carries out
extrajudicial killings.
According to Falana (2021), youth mistrusted the government because it had
dismissed numerous administrative panels' conclusions that, in the recent past, had
established a compelling case for police changes. Obieze (2021) claims that state actors
brutally and fatally dispersed a protest that brought together the voices of many Nigerians
at home and abroad against police brutality on the evening of October 20, 2020, while
protesters sat calmly at the Lekki Toll Gate waving the Nigerian flag and singing the
Nigerian National Anthem.
Lippmann (1922, p.29) observes that we interact with a second-hand reality
produced by other people when we connect to the world outside of our family, community
273
and place of employment. It has been known as the news media's agenda-setting role that
it has the power to determine which issues, people, and topics are thought to be the most
significant of the day, especially (broadcast media). Lippmann argued that the news media
shape our perception of the outside world (Valenzuela, & McCombs, 2019). The study
from Chapel Hill challenged the prevalent view of the time about limited media effects. As
Joseph Klapper (1960, p.8) cited in Valenzuela & McCombs (2019) had concluded eight
years before the McCombs and Shaw study that “mass communication ordinarily does not
serve as a necessary and sufficient cause of audience effects, but rather functions among
and through a nexus of mediating functions and influences.” Differences in responses to
the media agenda is based on people's psychology (McCombs & Stroud, 2014). Leading
among psychological concepts regulating agenda-setting effects is need for orientation.
Introduced by McCombs & Weaver (1973), need for orientation refers to the idea that we
have an innate curiosity about ‘the world around us’ and a desire to become familiar with
that world.
The news media give us this orientation on a wide range of public issues, such as
assessing a new presidential candidate or assessing various public policy outcomes. As a
result, the more our need for orientation, the more we depend on informational sources, the
media, and agenda-setting influences. A person's requirement for orientation in terms of
public affairs is defined by two components: relevance and uncertainty (Chernov,
Valenzuela, & McCombs, 2011; Valenzuela & Chernov, 2016). The influence of the
broadcast agenda of attributes on the public is the second level of agenda setting.
The predilection of journalists for negative news, for instance, limits the scope and
variety of the media agenda (Soroka & McAdams, 2015). Research conducted in the US
has shown that it is shaped, among other factors, by the nature of the political system, the
issues involved, a leader’s rhetorical ability, and real-world events that may draw attention
to or away from issues (Valenzuela & Arriagada, 2011).
Protest actions are communicative acts staged to signal situations of injustice. Not
the act itself, but the reaction of others to the act is what brings about political leverage
(Lipsky 1968, cited in Wouters, 2013). The capacity of protesters to access mass
communication tools is crucial since the strength of protest is heavily dependent on
diffusion and amplification. Media attention may increase the public's awareness of an
issue, awaken previously mute spectator publics, and put pressure on political leaders to
take action (Gamson 2004). According to Koopmans (2004), politicians only respond to
social movements if and how the media portrays them. But it's easier said than done to get
the media's attention. News is much more the product of an excluding process than an
inclusionary one. Each day, numerous occurrences take place, yet only a small number are
captured in pixels or printed. However, television news is at least as pertinent a research
media as newspapers when it comes to protest reporting. For the general population,
television continues to be the most important source of knowledge regarding political
affairs and society (Curran, Iyengar, Lund, & Salovaara-Moring, 2009).
The Television is incredibly well-suited to convey the ferocious spirit of protest
because it combines words with images (Small, 1994, cited in Wouters, 2013). The
274
emotional arousal that follows the visual cues of televised rallies may be more persuasive
to viewers than newspaper articles in getting them to take a side (Graber, 2001). Moreover,
because of these visual conditions, other selection mechanisms may be at work in television
news when compared to newspapers. The For instance, a more significant news item could
be the opportunity to obtain compelling video footage value for television (Harcup &
O'Neill, 2001). In sum, television news has a far greater reach and a much wider range of
possible influence than newspapers. Focusing on the selection processes of television news
coverage is important if one is more interested in the potential effects of protest than in the
methodological issue of data-source bias (Walgrave & Vliegenthart, 2012). In any protest
or crisis situation, according to Asemah (2009), the role of the media is so crucial.
Information is regarded as a critical factor in escalating or reducing the tension. If
information is disseminated carefully about protests or crises to the populace, it may
portend negative consequences for the nation in question. This is because the media based
on their reports in times of crisis, can set the whole nation on fire.
This is where the social responsibility of the journalist needs to be tested. In this
regards, Sankore (2001) notes that any crisis that pits one country against another or one
segment of society against another vividly defines the nature of a media establishment. The
need for more news information and analysis in a time of crisis makes the media's
responsibilities clearer than ever, increasing its ability to affect public opinion and
influence discussion. They (media) can either quell or escalate such events or issues base
on the way they frame and report such events or issues. In this regard, it is apparent that
the mass media can be an agent of positive and negative change (Kur, Agudosy &
Orhewere, 2015). As observed by Egbon (2011), the media has influence and can work for
or against a political system. A country’s economy can be improved or halted by media
reports. Additionally, the media can facilitate social quality and change or seek alternatives
to the status quo.
However, the reluctance of Nigeria’s traditional media to cover the EndSARS
protests according to Olasoji (2020) grown in tandem with the protests. According to
Jakobsen (2011), trigger events—such as “an exodus of migrants or a massacre”—that are
also sufficiently spectacular and photogenic are what typically cause the international
media to pay attention. Once international media does show interest in a conflict it is
unfortunately usually when the critical preventive moment has passed. The international
media may be able to persuade governments to use military force, though, as evidenced by
a number of cases. On closer inspection, it became apparent that Western governments'
policy choices tended to be made prior to external media pressure in the incidents
(Robinson 2002).
The study is anchored on sources credibility theory. Carl Hovland and Walter Weiss first
proposed the theory in 1951. Later in 1953. The hypothesis was improved upon by Hovland
(C), Janis (I), and Kelley (H). According to them, communication persuasiveness can be
influenced by the perceived trustworthiness of the source, according to a well-established
theory known as source credibility theory. The perceived reliability of a source has been
275
found to have a significant impact on the credibility of all forms of communication,

independent of the medium. Credibility of the Lekki Tollgate killing message depends
critically on the message's origins. Information and ideas can be accepted or rejected
dependent on who is saying them. The source's role in the success of communication has
been referred to as ethos, prestige, charisma, image, or most frequently, source credibility
(Berlo, Lernert & Mertz, 1969).
Using this notion, the communicator's favourable characteristics can influence the
receiver's willingness to accept a message. Credibility of the source is bolstered by the
trustworthiness and skill of the source, according to this notion. Expertise, according to
Hovalnd & Weiss (1951), is the extent to which a communicator is viewed as a source of
valid assertions (Roozen, 2008). Because the originator's perceived credibility is a factor
in how the message is received, this idea holds. This means that the audience's attitude
when they see the source determines how the source is perceived by the audience. As a
result, people are likely to be swayed by a credible source (Asemah, Nwammuo & Kwam-
Uwaoma, 2017).
People’s trust in broadcast media messages depends on the source from which they
come. According to the source-credibility hypothesis, people are likely to modify their
minds if the source is credible. Changing one's mentality is one thing, but proving the
validity of a message's source is another. The more effective a message is, the more likely
it is to be transmitted through the proper channel. A poor response will occur if the
improper channel is used. There are three models of source credibility: the factor model,
the functional model and the constructivist model (Anaeto and Anaeto, 2010).
Credibility is influenced by a speaker's competency, extraversion, poise, character
and sociability, among other factors. Seven values are used to assess competency.
Qualitative attributes include: competence and expertise; reliability; trustworthiness;
openness; values; and a sense of timelessness. Despite the idea's simplicity, a critical
examination of the source credibility theory reveals that it is substantial. Falsifiability is
high since many researchers have developed ways to invalidate it. It is on this basis that
this theory is related to this study
Methodology
The survey research design was adopted. A survey as noted by Asemah, Gujbawu,
Ekhareafo & Okpanachi (2022) is an empirical study that uses questionnaire to discover
descriptive characteristics of a phenomenon. It is on this basis that the researchers used
survey research design. The population of study is the total number of residents in Auchi.
According to National Population Commission, the projected population of Auchi as at
2016 was sixty two thousand nine hundred and seven (62,907). A sample size of 400 was
drawn from the population using the Taro Yamane formula. The researchers adopted the
purposive and simple random sampling. Purposive sampling technique was used to
selected civil servants and staff of the all the tertiary institutions in Auchi, while simple
random sampling was used to select 400 respondents.

Out of the 400 copies of questionnaire distributed, 390 copies retrieved (97.5 percent).
Thus, the presentation and analysis was based on the 390 copies.
276
Table 1: Extent of Exposure to Broadcast Media Coverage of 2020 Lekki Tollgate

Killing
Very high 90 23.1
High 200 51.2
Can’t tell 35 8.9
Low 45 11.5
Very Low 30 7.6
Total 390 100
The data in the above table indicate that majority of the respondents were exposed to the
coverage. This is based on the fact that 83.3% answered to that effect.
Table 2: Broadcast Channels of accessing the 2020 Lekki Tollgate Killing

Television 250 64.1
Radio 100 25.5
internet 40 10.3
Total 390 100
The data in the above table show that the respondents mainly accessed the coverage
through television as 64.1% answered in that direction.
Table 3: Perception on the Effectiveness of Coverage of the Tollgate killing of 2020

Very effective 100 25.6
effective 240 61.5
can’t 10 2.6
less effective 25 6.4
Not effective 15 3.8
Total 390 100
The data indicate that the broadcast coverage of the 2020 Lekki tollgate killings was
effective.
Table 4 Satisfaction with the Coverage

Agree 230 58.9
Undecided 10 2.5
Disagree 40 10.2
Total 390 100
277
The data show that the respondents were satisfied with the broadcast media as a total of
80.4% answered in that direction.
Table 5: Broadcast Media were objective in the Coverage of the Lekki Tollgate
killings
Agree 235 60.2
Undecided 05 1.2
Disagree 45 11.5
Total 390 100
The data show that the broadcast media were objective in the coverage of the tollgate
killing.
Table 6: Perception on the level of Objectivity

Very high 100 25.6
High 260 66.6
Can’t tell 05 1.2
Low 15 3.8
Very Low 10 2.5
Total 390 100
As seen in the above table, the level of objectivity was high.
It was discovered that the respondents were well exposed to broadcast media coverage of
the 2020 EndSARS protest. This implies that the respondents have knowledge of the Lekki
tollgate killings. This is in line with Asemah (2009) who notes that “nothing defines the
character of a media establishment more sharply than any crisis that pitches nation against
nation or one section of the society against another. In times of crisis, the responsibility of
the media is manifest tenfold by the society’s demand for more news information and
analysis and, therefore, its increase capacity to influence debate and shape public opinion.
It was discovered that 64.1% of the respondents got information about 2020 Lekki
Tollgate killings through television, 25.6% of the respondents got information about 2020
Lekki Tollgate killings through radio while 10.3% of the respondents got information about
2020 Lekki Tollgate killings through the internet. This shows that most of the respondents
got access to 2020 Lekki Tollgate killings through television. This is not unconnected to
the fact that television is more assessable by the respondents. According to Curran, Iyengar,
Lund & Salovaara-Moring (2009), “regarding protest coverage, television news is at least
as relevant a medium to study as newspapers. Television is still the most important source
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of information about political affairs and society for the citizen public. The fact that
television adds pictures to words makes it extremely well-suited to communicate the
vibrant atmosphere of protest as well (Small, 1994, cited in Wouters, 2013). Not only do
the visual stimuli of televised protests increase audience recall, the subsequent emotional
arousal might be more effective than newspaper articles in pressuring viewers to choose
sides (Graber, 2001).
On the perception of the effectiveness of broadcast media coverage of Lekki
tollgate killing, the data indicate that the broadcast coverage of the 2020 Lekki Tollgate
killings was effective. The respondents were also satisfied with the broadcast media
coverage of the tollgate killing. According to Wolfsfeld (1997), conflict over the media is
an important dimension of any conflict. One way to view it is like a particular arena in
which actors compete to control or influence the media in various ways in order to secure
or gain political influence. It is a continuous dynamic competition that involves being able
to communicate to the audience (or prevent from communicating) in an attempt to promote
their version of the story. The findings further showed that the broadcast media were
objective in the coverage of the Lekki Tollgate killings and that the level of objectivity was
high. This is in line with the findings of Egbunike (2015) that old and new media frame in
#OccupyNigeria Protest.
Conclusion
Based on the findings, the researchers conclude that the broadcast media were objective in
the coverage of the EndSARS tollgate killing of 2020. Based on the conclusion, the
researchers recommend that media owners should ensure that they give media workers and
journalists the leeway for them to fully perform their social responsibility functions.
Journalists should endeavour to be objective and truthful in the performance of their social
obligations even in the face of corruptive influences and intimidations; media owners
should make sure that they positively influence broadcast media contents and news editors
and broadcast media content producers should make sure that media owners do not
negatively influence and control their broadcast station.
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CHAPTER TWENTY SIX

BENIN RESIDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF BROADCAST MEDIA
COVERAGE OF THE 2020 ENDSARS PROTEST IN NIGERIA
Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD & Emeke Precious Nwaoboli
Introduction
The media generally play a very crucial role in every society. Generally, the media include
newspapers, television, radio, magazine, social media, internet, film and indigenous
communication channels. These media help to create awareness about the things and events
that take place in the society. The mass media inform, educate, entertain, socialise and help
to create awareness about goods and services. Thus, it can be said the media play a very
prominent role in national growth and development. The media exert a powerful influence
on its audience, their actions and inactions; also exerts same on the perception of the world
around them. This explains why Asemah (2011, p. 36) notes that the media, whether
electronic or print are always available to reflect and regulate interests in our society.
Being the fourth estate in the realm, the media are expected to perform their
responsibility as the watchdog. This is realised by exercising its function of Surveillance.
According to Yaroson & Asemah (2008), surveillance is the collection and distribution of
information concerning events in the environment both within a particular society and
outside it. The journalist surveys the environment so as to know what is taking place so
that he can gather news items and in turn, report to the public.
The implication of Yaroson & Asemah’s assertion lies in the fact that without the
broadcast media, it would be almost impossible if not impossible to transmit information
to reach millions; hence, Asemah (2011, p. 12) says that it is the duty of the journalist to
constantly monitor the environment so as to be able to gather news items or events that
have transpired in the society. In the same vein, Okunna (1999), cited in Asemah (2011)
says that the information function of the media is all embracing and indispensible for the
meaningful existence of members of the public. It is the role of the media to ensure that the
information disseminated is authenticated, objective and fair representation of divergent
views to allow the audience or large receivers make well informed decisions.
A major feature of the year 2020, asides the coronavirus is the huge conflict that
occurred in various countries. Starting with the Black Lives Matter (BLM) protest which
arose as a result of the death of George Floyd; a black American man killed by a white
police officer. The death of Floyd ignited a mass protest cutting across countries and
continents as people of different race and nationality came out to express their outrage and
displeasure. Toward the later part of the year in October, the #EndSARS protest started in
Nigeria. This protest became one of the greatest highlights of 2020, as it resulted in a huge
conflict between the government of Nigeria and the youths.
The Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS) was created in 1992 by former Police
Commissioner Simeon Danladi Midenda. The unit created in Lagos State was a faceless
police unit that performs undercover operations against armed robbers. There was a need
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for the unit as notorious armed robbers such as Shina Rambo were in control of the state.
Within two years of its inception, the unit spread across the 36 states in the country.
The #EndSARS campaign started in 2017 with the publication of a petition by
SegunAwosanya. It was a call for the federal government of Nigeria to scrap the Special
Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS). However, the #EndSARS protest officially started on the
10th of October 2020. Mass demonstrations occurred across the country as aggrieved
Nigerians shared various video footages, pictures and stories on social media as evidence
of the extortive and inhumane activities of the unit. The unit has ever since become
infamous for extortion, oppression, harassment, rape, stealing and killing. The protest
which started in Nigeria, led to show of patriotism as Nigerians in other countries
participated by peacefully protesting in their country of residence. The peaceful protest
suddenly led to an uproar that claimed the lives and properties of many in Nigeria.
Therefore, the study is an examination of how Benin residents perceive the coverage of the
protest by broadcast media in Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria

From the above background, it is obvious that one of the major highlight of the year 2020
after the corona virus and black lives matter protest is the uproar in the country as a result
of the EndSARS protest leading to crisis, a state of unrest and insecurity. Various studies
in different countries have found out that developing countries need the media for evolution
of psychological personality. Learner’s study of the Middle East, Pool’s study of media,
Rogers’s diffusion of innovation etc. bear clear and eloquent testimony to the important
role of the mass media to national development.
The media, especially in Nigeria have often been accused of being controlled and
loyal to specific people especially the politicians. Most times these accusations are borne
out of misconception and misinformation. The broadcast media have become a steady
source of information for residents in Benin City however the perception of these residents
towards the coverage of the media particularly on the EndSARS protest is the major bane
to this study. This study is not new as the perception of the audience or residence of a
particular state or city on the media coverage and reportage of events has been a matter of
concern and various studies has been carried out by many researchers. Ogono & Asemah
(2021) conducted research on print media coverage of COVID-19 vaccine development in
Nigeria, while Fatukasi & Ajayi (2021) examined the utilisation of Adaba Radio FM for
the sensitisation against the spread of coronavirus in Ondo State, Nigeria. None of these
studies sought to determine the audience perception of the media coverage on protests in
the country particularly the EndSARS, the media through which Benin residents assessed
the EndSARS protest and the level of exposure to the broadcast media message on the
EndSARS protest.
The audience and residents of Benin City depend heavily on the media for news.
This allows them create ideologies and make informed decisions based on the information
relayed by the media. In the light of the above, this study seeks to ascertain the perception
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of the residents of Benin City towards the media coverage of the 2020 EndSARS protest
in Nigeria.
Research Questions
The following research questions were designed to guide the study:
1. What is the Level of exposure of Benin residents to the 2020 EndSARS protest?
2. What are the broadcast media channels through which Benin residents accessed the
2020 EndSARS protest?
3. How did Benin residents perceive the broadcast media coverage of the 2020
EndSARS protest?
4. To what extent did the broadcast media coverage of the 2020 EndSARS protest
influence the participation of Benin residents in the protest?
Review of Related Literature and Theoretical Framework

Media can have a negative or positive effect in youth mobilisation mainly because youth
is strongly influenced by media messages. Just like the hypodermic needle theory, media
messages when released to the audience, must have an effect on them. The media can be
seen as one that controls the mind. Old media, according to McCombs (2014) impact public
perceptions of major events by defining the agenda and shaping public perceptions of
reality.
According to Crabtree et al (2015), different television channels' framing and
agenda-setting powers have been linked to the possibility that an individual feels solidarity
with or even joins a demonstration. Tamar et al (2020) looked at Nigeria’s #EndSARS
movement and its implication on online protests in Africa’s most populous country. The
findings showed that the comments analysed in the work provided overwhelming evidence
that police abuse was high in Nigeria. The findings also showed that Nigeria’s political
environment has shown the capacity to prevent the success of social movement. Afeez et
al (2021) in their study examined the impact of media on police brutality awareness in
Nigeria. Their findings showed that social media played a critical role in informing the
general people and pressuring the government to act quickly on the issue. It showed that it
was the involvement of social media in the campaign that made the awareness to spread at
the speed of light and made the Nigerian police to take responsibility for their actions,
which might not have been so. Nigeria's EndSARS Movement and Media Suppression
were investigated by Ivie (2020) notes that traditional media did not do enough work.
According to Ivie, because of the limits on covering the issue, fears of security agents and
individual disruptors inhibited live TV transmissions.
Soladoye & Ojo (2020) conducted research on the impact of social media on police
brutality awareness in Nigeria. The researchers conducted a survey through Google forms
and the link was shared with mostly Nigeria youth who were the main respondents of the
study. The findings obtained from the analysis of data revealed that the use of social media
made the international bodies aware of the brutality, torture and abuse of Nigerians by her
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Police Force. The findings also brought to light the fact that social media was the power
engine that ignited physical protest all around the country.
The study is anchored on selective perception and framing media theories. Paul
Lazarsfeld (1948) established one of the earliest and best-known selective perception
experiments under the Columbia School's Bureau of Applied Social Research. The notion
of selective perception, often known as selective exposure, holds that an audience's
interpretation of media is influenced by their own personal beliefs. McCarthy & Dolfsma
(2014) argued that the media can influence public perception by deciding which events to
cover, how much and how often to cover a topic, and what language to use while describing
an event. Okunna & Omenugha (2012) assert that how people understand or interpret mass
media messages is important in deciding their responses to the messages and the influence
of the messages.
Media framing theory was first posited by Gregory Bateson in 1972. Psychological
frames, he defined, are the spatial and temporal boundaries of a set of interactive signals.
This theory is suitable for the study because in examining the perception of Benin residents
on the media coverage of 2020 EndSARS protest, it will be important to know if the media
covered and framed the EndSARS protest in any way that led to a change in the perception
of individuals about the protest.
Methodology
The research method used was determined by the nature of the research problem and the
objective of the study. The research design adopted for this work is survey research
method. Asemah, Gujbawu, Ekhareafo & Okpanachi (2017) state that the survey research
method is suitable for examining peoples perception and opinion towards issues. The
population for this study consists of youth residents in Benin City. According to the Nigeria
Metro Area Population Historical Data, Benin City as at 2006 census is 1,156,000.
Considering the fact that 2006 is too far a time, the researcher did a population projection
of 14 years using an annual growth rate of 2.85%. Therefore, a sample size of 384
respondents were drawn from the population in different areas of Benin using the multi-
stage sampling technique.
Asemah et al (2017) note that when a population is so complex, a researcher will
need more than one sampling technique to select his sample and thus, he will resort to
sampling in stages. The first stage of the process involved the delineation of Benin into its
local government areas and Purposive sampling technique was used to select two LGA. At
stage two, simple random sampling technique was used to select two major areas each from
the select LGAs. Simple random sampling technique was alsobe used in stage three to
select ten streets from the areas. In the fourth stage, systematic sampling technique was
used to select the households. A total of twenty household will be selected from each street.
At the last stage, convenient sampling technique was used to select two youth each from
the select twenty household, making it a total of forty youth for each street. Copies of
questionnaire containing close-ended questions and well-structured multiple choice
questions were distributed to respondents. Responses were presented in tables displaying
frequencies and percentages and reports from both empirical sources and secondary
sources assisted in further discussion of findings.
285

Table 1: Respondents’ Level of Exposure to the 2020 EndSARS Protest
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Very High 64 18.3 18.3 18.3
High 123 35.1 35.1 53.4
Moderate 112 32.0 32.0 85.4
Valid
Low 36 10.3 10.3 95.7
Very Low 15 4.3 4.3 100.0
Total 350 100.0 100.0
This represents respondents’ level of exposure to the 2020 EndSARS protest. It shows
that respondents that participated in the research had High level of exposure to the 2020
EndSARS protest at 35.1%.
Table 2: Broadcast Media Channels of Access
Valid
Edo Broadcasting 43 12.3 12.3 12.3
service (EBS)
Nigerian Television
38 10.9 10.9 23.1
Authority (NTA)
Independent
45 12.9 12.9 36.0
Television (ITV)
Silverbird
27 7.7 7.7 43.7
Television
Channels
62 17.7 17.7 61.4
Television
Edo Broadcasting
10 2.9 2.9 64.3
Service Radio
Speed FM 15 4.3 4.3 68.6
Bronze FM 7 2.0 2.0 70.6
KU FM 6 1.7 1.7 72.3
Independent Radio 23 6.6 6.6 78.9
Others 74 21.1 21.1 100.0
Total 350 100.0 100.0
The table above indicates the broadcast media station which was used by respondents to
access the 2020 EndSARS protest. It shows that more respondents representing 74
(21.1%) used other broadcast media stations which were not categorised above to access
the 2020 EndSARS protest.
286
Table 3: Respondents’ Perception of the 2020 EndSARS Protest

Very
42 12.0 12.0 12.0
Good
Good 141 40.3 40.3 52.3
Valid Fair 93 26.6 26.6 78.9
Bad 50 14.3 14.3 93.1
Very Bad 24 6.9 6.9 100.0
Total 350 100.0 100.0
This shows respondents’ perception of the 2020 EndSARS protest. It reveals that
respondents that participated in the research which represent 141 (40.3%) had a Good
perception of the 2020 EndSARS protest.
Table 4: Extent to which the Exposure influenced Respondents’ Participation in the

Protest
Very High 26 7.4 7.4 7.4
High 90 25.7 25.7 33.1
Moderate 134 38.3 38.3 71.4
Valid
Low 75 21.4 21.4 92.9
Very Low 25 7.1 7.1 100.0
Total 350 100.0 100.0
Table above shows the extent at which exposure to the broadcast media coverage of the
2020 EndSARS protest influenced respondents’ participation in the protest. It reveals that
exposure to the broadcast media coverage of the 2020 EndSARS protest moderately
influenced 134 (38.3%) respondents to participate in the protest.
The findings showed that Benin residents were highly exposed (35.1) to the 2020
EndSARS protest through broadcast media stations as it covers the category of
respondents’ knowledge of the 2020 EndSARS protest which was at 100%. This finding
can be likened to Paul Lazarsfeld’s (1948) selective perception theory also known as
selective exposure theory which is anchored on the belief that the audiences are not passive
as the all-powerful media theory proposed. The audience has the inanimate ability to select
what media message to expose themselves to by weighing different media messages based
on preference, importance or significance. If they consume media messages that does not
reflect their ideas, the audience will view and construe the medium’s content in a frame
that support their original ideas.
The findings showed that Benin residents rely on other television channels or
stations at 21.1% for more information, especially on cases relating to crisis like the
EndSARS. The result also implies that Benin residents used other broadcast stations
287
probably based on their preference, quality in coverage of events by the broadcast station,
content, authenticity, etc. This is in line Osaiga, Agbonifoh & Okere (2018) who note that
viewers can access information from a particular station because there is a significant
difference in the level of satisfaction derived by them in respect to the quality of services
rendered by different stations on the basis of respondents’ perception, preference, quality
of services of the stations, etc. The findings are in line with this study.
The findings further showed that Benin residents perceived the coverage to be a
good (40.3%). The findings showed that Benin residents saw the EndSARS protest as a
needed protest on combating the excesses of the SARS unit. This result corroborrates the
findings of Tamar, Metin, Ahmed & Muhammed (2020) on Nigeria’s EndSARS movement
and its implication on online protest in Africa’s most populous country. The findings were
divided into themes: human right abuse, injustice, activism and corruption and it showed
that police abuse, injustice and corruption is high in Nigeria which makes protest
movements to be seen as a crucial effort in curbing such activities. The findings are in line
with that of this study, indicating that Benin residents saw the excesses of the SARS unit
and thus perceived the EndSARS protest as a good one in a bid to end the unit.
It is also in line with the findings of Anouk, Bert & Jacquelien (2015) on how
demonstrators evaluate police-demonstrator interactions and why. The study accessed how
demonstrators perceive protest movements and the atmosphere. Their findings showed that
the perception of protest movements and the atmosphere by demonstrators is influenced by
individual characteristics (e.g. age) and demonstration characteristic’s (e.g. police
repression). This could explain why some respondents that participated in this research
perceived the protest to be very bad, bad, fair, good and very good. This is probably as a
result of differences in their age or the effect which the protest had on them. In determining
the extent to which the coverage of the 2020 EndSARS protest influenced Benin residents
to participate in the protest, the extent was proven to be moderate at 38.3%. This indicates
that there was a weak positive participation in the 2020 EndSARS protest by Benin
residents because of the broadcast coverage of the protest. The results of this study also
conform to the argument by McCarthy & Dolfsma (2014) that the media have the power
to influence participation and perception of the public and also, shape public opinion by
choosing what event to report on, how much and how frequent to report on a subject. It is
also in line with Djerf-Pierre & Shehata (2017) and King et al (2017) who observed that
old media will continue to influence public opinion during crises.

From the findings of the study, it has been established that Benin residents opined that the
broadcast media were moderately effective in the coverage of the 2020 EndSARS protest
and were satisfied with the coverage, thereby having a positive perception towards the
coverage of the protest by the broadcast media. Also, Benin residents were influenced to
join the protest as a result of the broadcast media coverage of the 2020 EndSARS protest.
Based on the findings and conclusion, the researchers recommend that media practitioners
and academics should devote time to educate the people on the importance of broadcast
288
media as they are credible channels of public communication in Nigeria and that broadcast
media journalists should always retain credibility, timeliness and proximity of news so as
to always have the trust of their audience.
References
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289
CHAPTER TWENTY SEVEN

MASS MEDIA, INSECURITY AND THE WESTERN NIGERIA
SECURITY NETWORK (AMOTEKUN)
Titiloye Oyeyinka Ojo, PhD
Introduction
The mass media play the role of surveillance which strongly involve dissemination of
information, provision of opinion about issues and serve as the watchdog of the nation
(Adeniyi & Bello, 2006). The extent to which the media objectively carried out its
responsibility depends on its freedom, access to public information and to publish events
of public significance without any restriction. Section 22 of the Nigerian Constitution states
that the press, radio, television and other mass media agencies shall at all times be free to
uphold the fundamental objectives of the Constitution, and the responsibility via
accountability of government to the people.
The mass media function as watchdog capable of blowing the whistle to call
attention to serious national issues. This implies a clear recognition of the fact that the
media play an important role on issues of national security. The Nigerian mass media have
been credited with playing crucial roles in the development of the polity (Ake, 2001). The
issue of insecurity has in spite of many efforts at reducing it, seems soaring up in the
Nigeria society. Undoubtedly, the issue of insecurity has assumed horrifying proportion as
violence ignited by insecurity thrives even more. This ugly situation has metamorphosed
into a social problem. Aderinto (2002) asserts that a social problem exists when a
significant number of people in society perceive an undesirable difference between social
ideals and realities and believe that this difference can be eliminated by collective or social
actions. This concept is usually associated with some sort of disorder, breakdown of
societal moral values and norms which affect human relationships (Paulley, 2014).
Therefore, security of lives and property is an exclusive function of government
which permeates all strata of society (Iloh & Nwokedi, 2019). In recent times, the recurring
events of social crimes, such as kidnapping, cultism, armed robbery, banditry, thuggery
and other violent acts culminated the advent of different security groups specifically in
Southwest Nigeria.
Notable among them are the Oodua Peoples’ Congress (OPC), Soludero group of
hunters, Agbekoya groups and vigilante groups respectively. Irrespective of the foregoing,
there are still incessant and prevalence of armed robbery, herdsmen attacks, kidnapping,
farmland invasions, political thuggery, cultism, ritualism and other criminalities in
Southwest Nigeria which urgently called for security attention. Based on the above
mentioned, Western Nigeria Security Network (WNSN) with a code name Amotekun.
“Amotekun” literarily means Leopard in Yoruba Language was launched on Thursday 9th
January, 2020. The symbol of leopard means toughness, ruggedness, strength, fearlessness
and patience. This outfit is a South-western security group established to foil criminality
in the region which consists of Ogun, Ondo, Oyo, Osun, Lagos and Ekiti states. The
290
security umpire is created to complement other constitutionally established security

apparatus including Nigeria Police Force (NPF).

1. Investigate the level of performance of Western Nigeria Security Network in
Southwest region.
2. Determine the select security outfit legal framework in terms of operations in the
region.
3. Confirm the level of mass media campaigns against insecurity in Nigeria.
4. Ascertain the challenges confronted by the para-military outfit in the course of
combating crimes in the region.
The Spate of Insecurity in Nigeria

In recent times, insecurity has become a strong reality in Nigerian diverse societies. This
reality has come in different forms; such as kidnapping, banditry, ritualism, armed robbery,
suicide attacks, assassination and several other criminal activities (Lake, 2000). The tense
situation of Nigeria’s space has reached a worrisome state which calls for effective
measures in addressing the scourge. The geopolitical zones structuring of the country
comprises six different zones; namely: Northwest (Sokoto, Kebbi, Zamfara, Katsina,
Kaduna, Kano and Jigawa state), Northeast (Bornu, Bauchi, Gombe, Yobe, Adamawa and
Taraba states), North central (Niger, Kwara, Kogi, Nasarawa, Plateau and Benue state),
Southwest (Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Lagos, Ondo and Ekiti states), Southeast (Enugu, Anambra,
Imo, Abia and Ebonyi states) and South-South (Delta, Edo, Bayelsa, Akwa-Ibom, Rivers
and Cross River states) respectively (Jimoh, 2020).
However, the demarcation and separation of geopolitical zones that ought to
facilitate equity, especially in the distribution of resources, allows all-inclusive governance
by not leaving out any positions and also encourage high sense of togetherness have remain
a resultant effects of insecurity in Nigeria because of leadership self-centredness or self-
governance.
Onifade, Imhonopi & Urim (2013) describe insecurity as a situation where human
and national security of a state is compromised by internal and external forces or interests
exacerbated by the former’s weak or poor economic, military or human resource
development conditions. Boland (2005) defines insecurity as the state of fear or anxiety
stemming from a concrete or alleged lack of protection. In other words, the concept is the
opposite of security that usually attracts want of safety, state of doubt, instability, lack of
protection and danger. Egwu (2001) points out that the descriptors have to do with harm,
loss of property, life and livelihood.
In addition, Nigeria as a multi-ethnic/religious society is polarised and
characterised with different conflicts revolving around hatred, tribal bigotry,
discrimination, power imbalance in resource distribution. These have led to disorderliness,
killing and high rated violence among the ethno-religious entities in the nation (Adagba,
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Ugwu & Eme, 2012). The proliferation of weapons in the hands of criminals and novice
who use them to perpetrate criminal acts also escalate insecurity in Nigeria (Ajayi, 2011).
According to Arinze (2010), the issue of criminal impunity is a fundamental factor that is
capable of engendering crimes. The scholar observed that the inability of Nigerian criminal
justice system to effectively sanctioned crimes is responsible for the prevalence of
insecurity in the country.
The scholar connected the nation’s insecurity to high unemployment rate and
macro-economic factors capable of negatively creating an atmosphere of livelihood for
crises which resulted in poverty. Looking at the prevalence of insecurity in Nigeria, it has
manifested in various forms and dimensions over the years. For instance, Africa Growth
Initiative (2014) contends that Nigeria’s failed institutions are the driving force behind the
acts of violence by Boko Haram and other armed groups.
Virtually all the entire six geopolitical zones have been ravaged. Market places,
churches, schools, motor parks, office complexes became insecure and thousand killed in
all the flash points (Ekanem, Dada & Ejue, 2012). Government has several laudable steps,
including advocacy for intervention to address insecurity, ranging from force-for-force, to
carrot and stick via tribal stakeholders’ intervention approaches, rather than relied solely
on military strength (Ujomu, 2001). Moreover, government sought for security cooperation
with the neighbouring countries such as Chad, Cameroon, Niger and Benin Republic
(Global Conflict Tracker, 2020). In addition, strategies as amnesty, arms-for-cash
programmes, reintegration of criminal gangs back into the society for those that are willing
to lay down their arms, organising skill trainings for the repentant ones and use of
integrative mutual response involving religious leaders, traditional leaders, security
agencies, ethnic communities, ethnic associations and farmers’ Associations (WANEP,
2020).
Finally, the use of community watch groups, introduction of Joint Task Force
involving the military, police force and civilians to complement intelligence gathering to
secure various incessantly attacked communities, including the Declaration of state of
emergency in some precarious areas (African Growth Initiative, 2014).
Mass Media and the Campaigns against Insecurity in Nigeria

Mass media and development are symbiotically related and inseparable in the process of
national cohesion, growth, security and development. As educators, the media should
enlighten the public on issues that are capable of facilitating unity, integration and moral
rectitude for a positive change. No matter the lapses that could be spotted in the mass
media, they equally act as mouth piece of both the government and the public, providing
platform for public enlightenment and discourse, analysis and educate people on normal
ways of life and interpretation of government developmental initiatives (Igben, 2006). The
mass media constitute one of the most important institutions of socialisation, the major
cultural industry responsible for the distribution of ideas in the Nigerian society (Pate,
2011). However, the surveillance functions of the media are at the core of mobilisation
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against various acts of insecurity. The mass media relate news of happenings in the society
through explanation and interpretation of implications of such events.
Nwolise (2010) confirms that the media can also plead for national security when
carrying out a moral crusade against corruption, election rigging or looting of national
treasury. This is because national security in terms of economic resources and the state
power are key to national development (Solomon & Linus, 2019). In the case of recent
security challenges, the mass media played important role in resolving crises through
adequate coverage to warn people on impending dangers (Adamu & Ibrahim, 2014).
According to Nwosu (2004), the mass media are considered to be very important in conflict
management because they are information merchants, conducts or carriers of various
shades and colours of information.
In times of conflict or insecurity, information is regarded as a critical factor in
escalating or reducing tension (Pate, 2002). According to the scholar, in the time of
insecurity, it is often argued that using the instrument of mass communication in time of
crises, especially in complex and fragile societies like Nigeria is rampant. According to
Akpan, Erun & Olofu-Adeoye (2013), the media must present itself as the mirror-image of
their immediate environment, particularly, at this point when insecurity, especially violent
conflicts and crimes are prevalent. They must develop the capacity to help reducing
violence and should learn to develop a thorough understanding of violence and identify
efforts capable of resolving the problems in the society.
The media can also educate the public about the threats, teach them necessary
attention to preserve and provide social security (Faraji, 2006). Media can foster human
security and it is evident that they can both prevent and resolve conflict through the
automatic functions of responsibly disseminating information, furthering awareness and
knowledge, promoting participatory and transparent governance and addressing perceived
grievances (Jan, 2011). It is evident that the mass media are veritable tools of tackling
insecurity or resolving ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria. This laudable objective could
be achieved through the information, education, agenda-setting, advocacy, mobilisation
and sensitisation functions of the mass media (Yahaya, 2019). Daramola, cited in
Nwabueze & Ebese (2013) states that the news media shape culture, influence politics, play
important role in business and affect the daily lives of millions of people, including
people’s attitude, conducts and fundamental moral values. Though, the media in Nigeria
have been faced with challenges; these challenges have not prevented them from impacting
on the nation in diverse ways. Moemeka (1988), cited in Oloyede (2005) contends that the
mass media are big microphones in all societies, irrespective of socio-political ideology.
Effects of Nigeria’s Insecurity on Socio-economic Development

Security, peace, stability and good governance have been regarded as prerequisites for the
achievement of any meaningful socio-economic development of any nation (Nwamegbo
& Odigbo, 2013). Though, security of any nation determined her socio-economic
development, security bottle necks, remain a major setback to achieving this lofty objective
of socio-economic upliftment, especially in Nigeria. According to Ekene (2015), insecurity
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does not only pose threats to the generality of people, but also discourages local businesses,
scares away foreign investment and portray the image of Nigeria in bad light. Nigeria has
continued to witness poor image from within and outside the country due to kind kinds of
insecurity actions such as kidnapping, banditry, armed robbery, insurgency, cybercrime,
cultism, ritualism, thuggery amongst others (Nkewede, 2015). Many illegal armed groups,
ethnic militia groups, religious fundamentalist and fanatics are evidence of the problem of
insecurity in Nigeria.
These situations have heralded bombing, arson, corruption, murder and several
criminalities that have encrusted the nation. The foregoing no doubt, have negative effect
on the country politically, religiously, morally, psychologically and culturally (Adetunbi
& Adedigba, 2021). According to Udoh (2015), in modern history, internal strife has
burdened Africa’s most populous nation which is Nigeria. Ethnic tensions, religious
differences, unemployment and numerous social and political grievances are the melting
pots for violence and insecurity in the country. Foreign expatriates and investors are
discouraged from coming to do business, educational institutions are not spared, they
become the point of attacks from the terrorists.
Nigeria has continued to experience set-backs in its socio-economic development
caused by the resurgence of various kinds of security threat such as kidnapping,
cybercrime, banditry, armed robbery, Boko Haram insurgency, cultism, ritualism amongst
others. Despite the government efforts to bring the despicable situation to a halt, the
insecurity situations in Nigeria remains the country major challenge to good governance
and socio-economic development (Olufemi, 2015). Insecurity has made Nigeria to be
ranked low among comity of nations in Africa, especially in the area of unemployment.
The National Bureau of statistics (NBS) put Nigeria’s unemployment rate at 23.1% of
which youth unemployment is 55.4% (NBS, 2019). The predominant insecurity threats
have its bulk on citizens, property, public and government establishment via installations.
Udoudo & Diriyai (2012) succinctly state that most crimes grow to insecurity which has
been categorised into one form of terrorism or the other. According to the scholars, inter-
religious crises were classified as religion-related terrorism, socio-economic driver crises
is classified as socio-economic terrorism, political motivated acts of violence is seen as
political terrorism; the one that is based on hatred is classified as hate driver terrorism while
ethnic crises were categorised as ethnicity terrorism.
Security of property and lives is an exclusive function of responsible government
across different strata of society. The situation called for formation of local security
networks across the nation. In support of this request for local security network, Ikuteyijo
(2008) argues that the inability of the police to douse crime waves has encouraged local
members of the nation’s communities to turn from the formal way of enforcing law to
different self-help drives to secure their lives and properties.
Formation of Western Nigerian Security Network (WNSN) Codenamed “Amotekun”

Nigeria is seemingly under distress and enmeshed in the rapid upsurge of torrential spate
of armed violence and criminalities such as kidnapping, banditry, ritualism, armed robbery,
294
political thuggery, cultism, rape incessant killing emanated from Boko Haram insurgency
and Herdsmen/Farmers’ clashes. The issues of criminal impunity have been analysed as
one of the most crucial factors causing crimes in Nigeria (Arinze, 2010). The horrific
situation called for the involvement of informal security outlets since the scourge cut across
different geo-political zones in the country. In the Southwest zone, the process of localising
security architecture is essential to tackle the menace of insecurity that have been
threatening the unity of the nation.
Based on the foregoing, Amotekun became the regional security outfit saddled with
the responsibility to fight criminality in the zone which consists Oyo, Ondo, Ogun, Lagos,
Osun and Ekiti States. The group consist of security experts, Vigilante groups and socio-
cultural groups such as “Agbekoya,” Oodua Peoples’ Congress and other conventional
policing such as Nigeria Police Force and others. Commissioner of Police in each state of
the region, oversee the activities in each of the states. The security trust established to found
the agency is also overseeing by the commissioner of police (Ikuteyijo, 2008).
Amotekun is intended to function as a paramilitary force comprised of the “Hunters
and Agbekoya Farmers Association,” Oodua Peoples’ Congress (OPC) with the total
support of the Pan-Yoruba Socio-Political Group called “Afenifere” in Southwest, Nigeria.
Amotekun was established by Southwest governors and not the Federal Government of
Nigeria. Pro- Amotekun legal practitioners justified the constitutionality of Amotekun by
comparing it to the formation of Kano State Hisbal Corps through legal statute in Kano,
North-western, Nigeria. Kaduna and Ebonyi States “Neighbourhood Watch Groups.” The
establishment of Amotekun increased the calls by other ethnic socio-political groups for the
formation of their own security groups.
The outfit was setup to balance the inadequate manpower in the Nigeria Police
Force. It is saddled with the responsibility of monitoring the rural areas by checking and
collecting information about crimes. The initiative is likely to reduce criminality as well as
serving as employment opportunities. For youth from the region. In spite of the insecurity
situation, Amotekun faces antagonism from the Federal Government angle. On August 25,
2020, the Nigerian presidency issued a statement that the only authority that can determine
the operational structure of Amotekun was the Nigeria Police Force (NPF). At the instance
of the statement, the nation’s Attorney General issued a letter describing the formation of
the security outfit as illegal. This actions ignited reactions from the legal practitioners and
general public. These people justify the constitutionality of Amotekun by comparing it to
the establishment of Kano State Hisbal Corps (Hisbah) which was formed through legal
state. They, however, cited the operationaliSation of the Hisbal as precedent for Amotekun.
The establishment of this outfit expedite the agitations by other ethnic and socio-political
groups for the formation of their own security teams.
According to the agitators, the right to life is universal and no government can
legislate against it. Opinion leaders from the Southwest under the platform of Pan-Yoruba
Group, Afenifere berated the Federal Government under the leadership of President
Mohammadu Buhari on what they coined to be the politicisation of the nation’s security
matters. Therefore, encouraged South-west governors to be resolute on their decisions to
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secure lives and property of their citizens. They eventually warned governors against
giving religious colouration to the issue of Amotekun as they described the initiative as
welcome development (Jibrin & Musa, 2020).
The study was anchored on agenda-setting theory which appears to be the most relevant to
how the mass media could play meaningful role in combating insecurity in Nigeria.
Agenda-setting theory assumed that the mass media reflect the social reality and shape
society through filtered news. It says that the importance which the public ascribe to the
same issues tend to be proportionate to the amount of attention given to the same issues in
the media (Anaeto, Onabanjo & Osifeso, 2008). The theory assumes that the media set the
agenda for general discussion. Thus, what the agenda setting theory is saying according to
Asemah, Nwammuo & Nkwam-Uwaoma (2017), is that people tend to think about issues
raised by the media and forget those issues that bother them most.
Surprisingly, public see most of those things the media highlight as important
(McQuail, 2008, cited in Pate, 2012). The theory comes from a specific perspective because
it predicts that if people are exposed to the same media, they will place importance on the
same issues. Osadolor (2001) states that the most critical role of the media should be in
helping to prevent or attenuate the severity of conflicts. The surveillance and correlation
functions of the media are at the core of mobilisation against the acts of insecurity. The
media are to provide information to the society which can be used in opinion moulding and
attitude adoption. In other words, the media relate news of various happenings in the
society to the people as advocated by the agenda-setting theory. The theory also proposes
that through frequent, meaningful and responsible coverage of acts of criminalities, the
media tend to mobilise and sensitise public against such societal vices. The theory contends
that frequent discussions engendered by the mass media usually raise consciousness on the
need to combat the nation’s insecurity (Nwabueze &Ebeze, 2013).
Methodology
The researcher adopted focus group discussion and structured interview as research design.
According to Asemah, Gujbawu, Ekhareafo & Okpanachi (2012), focus group discussion
is an interview conducted with 6 to 12 people as a group simultaneously and a moderator
leads the discussion about a specific topic. Meanwhile, structured interview is an art of
questioning by one person and answering by another. The questions to be asked would
have already been structured for those to answer them. No matter the number of people,
you ask the same questions all-through (Johnson, 2012). This study is also descriptive in
nature which use the case study approach. Wilmer & Dominic (2006) describe a case study
as an empirical inquiry that uses multiple sources of evidence to investigate a contemporary
phenomenon within the context of real-life. This method helps the researcher to utilise
different sources which include library materials, journals, dairies, newspapers, magazines,
textbooks, internet materials, historical documents and other desk study.
296
This study covers three states in Southwest zone of Nigeria; namely: Oyo, Ogun
and Osun states. A total of 20 participants were selected from each state, using simple
random sampling technique which gives room for every unit of a population equal chance
of being chosen or included in a sample (Tejumaiye, 2012). Sixty (60) participants were
selected from the three states which serves as the universe population of the study. From
each 20 participants, 12 were randomly selected from each of the state which resulted to
36 participants as the sample size for the study. The select discussants were elites such as
secondary school teachers, business persons, politicians, medical practitioners and retired
security officers. For the structured interview, interviewees such as serving security
officers, scholars from the Peace and Conflict Department, University of Ibadan, media
practitioners, government officials, legal practitioners, opinion leaders and political
gladiators.
The discussion of both the focus group discussion and structured interviews were
tailored towards the achievement of the research questions via the objectives raised in the
study. Data collected were transcribed, analysed and organised into discussive themes
relevant to the research questions of the study.
Qualitative Data Presentation and Analysis

The themes raised from both the focus group discussion and structured interviews that were
relevant to the research questions raised in the study were discussed under this section.
Research Question One: What is the Level of Performance of the Western Nigeria
Security Network in the Region?
Findings arising from the focus group discussion and structured interviews showed that the
participants unanimously agreed that Amotekun has done creditably well in reducing the
ever increasing incidents of violent attacks on farmers, travellers and other peace-loving
citizens in the geo-political zone. They asserted that despite the minimal operational and
administrative oversights, the outfit undertook arrests and prosecution of suspected
criminals. Amotekun is also seen as complementing the Nigeria Police Force in undertaking
more robust routine patrols in every nook and cranny of the region which means that the
initiative serves as intelligence for conventional security. According to them, the security
outfit serves as eyes in most of the rural areas via gathering information about crimes and
suspicious activities for interpretation and proper actions. Adewale & Lamidi (2020)
agreed with the foregoing facts when they said that the mentioned actions of the para-
military force tremendously reduced intentions for criminality.
Research Question two: What is the Security Outfit Legal Framework in Terms of
Operations in the Region?
Findings from the discussion revealed that the institutionalisation of Amotekun would
uphold the legitimacy of its mandate by supporting the maintenance of law and order in
communities via the directives from the Nigeria Police Force. According to the discussants,
Amotekun is a tribe-based armed group; therefore, non-ethnic residents or migrants will not
297
qualify as a recruit, otherwise creating a polarisation potential between the Amotekun Corps
and non-ethnic residents in the Southwest zone. They affirmed that the outfit is not going
to operate outside the Constitution, but it will be a more structured and effective force that
would be result-oriented. They enunciated that the Nigerian Constitution envisages both
the federal government and the federating units headed by state governors as the Chief
Security Officers of their various states that have the prerogative of fine-tuning alternative
ways of protecting lives and property in their domain without breaching the constitution.
Jibrin & Musa (2020); Abado- Joel (2020) confirmed the discussants’ ideas of legal nature
of Amotekun formation by saying that the putting together of the outfit is in consonance
with the Constitution’s directives of the nation, allowing the federating units’ Chief
Security Officers the opportunity to come up with alternative forms of protecting lives and
property of their citizens.
Research Question Three: What is your Assessment of the Level of Media Coverage
on Amotekun?
The participants generally agreed that the role of the mass media in reducing criminalities
in Nigerian society is simply irreplaceable in terms of dissemination of useful crime
information and the reportage of series of criminalities in Nigerian society. According to
them, the mass media are crucial in nation building and provision of vital linkages between
the government and the governed. Adache (2010); Nwolise (2010) note that a principal
player in the arena of national security, they serve as watch dog capable of blowing the
whistle to call attention to serious national issues. Anyanwu (2004) agrees that they can
both generate and peacefully settle conflicts through objective and balanced reportage,
adequate and non-sensational reportage as well as surveillance reportage. However, the
surveillance responsibility of the media must be meaningfully discharge to inform people
of an impending danger. Thus, through objective reportage, those perpetuating various
crimes in the society would have their parochial mindset changed so that the peace loving
people can become security conscious. Theoretically, agenda-setting theory corroborates
with this fact when it assumes that the media through frequent coverage of issues determine
what the dominant discussion would be; thus, the media may not tell what to think about.
Pate (2012) affirms that by frequently reporting certain issues, the media move those issues
from press agenda to public spheres.
Research Question Four: What are the Challenges confronted by the Para-military
Outfit in their Efforts to combat Crimes?
The discussants unanimously agreed that the initial challenge was the non-recognition of
Amotekun by the Inspector General of Police, the Federal Attorney General and the
Presidency due to different opposing statements issued and provoked reactions against the
initiative. These opponents considered the outfit as a social movement due to its collective
cultural identity. Funding was another constraint raised by the participants. Adequate
funding in the area of acquiring sophisticated weapons capable enough to combat
insecurity in the Southwest zone of Nigeria. In addition, the discussants identified
298
operational legal and administrative framework as another formidable shortcoming of the

initiative. They affirmed that operations by state governments have led to tensions on the
convergence of the legal, operational and administrative jurisdictions between the Nigerian
Police Force and State governments. Osabiyi (2015) concurs with the discussants opinions
when the scholar states that the initiative was criticised from the northern extraction,
particularly the Northern Youth Council of Nigeria (NYCN). Imobighe (2018) contends
that the legality issue is a major controversy that unsettled the Amotekun initiative which
was declared as illegal by the Attorney General of the Federation.

The findings revealed that the role of the mass media is effective in helping to prevent,
expose, attenuate the severity of conflicts and checking insecurity in Nigerian society. The
correlation role is to interpret and explain the implications of happenings and acts that
breed insecurity on individuals and environment at large. The findings showed that
Amotekun was established by the Southwest zone’s governors to combat insecurity rearing
its gory head in the region, though with identified set of challenges such as bureaucracy,
legal, funding, operations and administrative factors respectively. Thus, the following
1. Southwest region governors should be cooperative in terms of providing essential
operational logistics capable enough to combat crimes in their various states.
2. There should be a strong collaboration between the initiative and the Nigeria’s mass
media.
3. Mass media should be more proactive and effective in disseminating information
to prevent crime and social anomalies in Nigerian society.
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Ujomu, P.O. (2001). National security social order and the quest for human dignity in
Nigeria; Some ethical considerations. Nordic Journal of African Studies, 10(2),
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CHAPTER TWENTY EIGHT

NSIBIDI AS VISUAL COMMUNICATION AID TO MEDIA ART
DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
Holyns Hogan; Eme Ohain; Elizabeth Egbe & James Effiom
Introduction
Development in all its forms is often needed to improve society’s content and character
across the world. As basic human necessity that is non-discriminatory, but open to all
mankind in spite of origin, location, race, trade, gender, culture or religion, development,
like life, is naturally vital to man in all ages. Of course, development as “growth” or
“increase” in size, status or nature of what is “planted” or “invented” by man, nature or
society, etymologically relates to culture, conceived as “to cultivate” or “grow something”
to suit man’s utopian desires or insatiability in life. Accordingly, it contextually follows
that Nigeria’s deliberate reinvention, preservation and projection of her Nsibidi heritage in
media arts is a development culture and natural medium for her social, economic, religious
or ethnographic benefits in arts and science.
Obviously, the media are very strategic development, globalisation/localisation
agents for arts designed to market, sustain or transmit society’s heritage and civilisation
history in print and electronic forms as films. This clearly aligns with and justifies applied
“development media theory” and “dialectical method” as it logically underpins how the
media can be gainfully explored, utilised or harnessed to favour developments in
developing economies as Nigeria, from an indigenous African perspective, devoid of
Eurocentric slants or sentiments. Africa, like her global counterparts, prides in the fact that
her Nsibidi origin preexist the English Alphabets’ advent in the 1400s, after the invention
of the modern printing press in Europe by Johan Gutenberg.
Undoubtedly, media arts in print and electronic forms (graphics, movies and
pictures) form parts of the most visible channels of humans’ verbal and nonverbal
communication of which Nsibidi is a major indigenous player, despite being insufficiently
popularised in scholarship. Yet, it equally seems obvious that the original beauty and
essence of Nsibidi can never be ignored for its visual communication benefits to media
illustrative art developments in Nigerian films, costume dramas and TV series/ads that
clearly employ it as pictographs/cyphers in their scenic or cinematic backgrounds as
adorners or hidden information codes. This in modern media sense, points technically and
broadly at the graphic images, imageries or sign-writings used by visual communication
experts to design subliminal TV ads, attend illusions or sublimity in films.
Of key contextual interest is that Nigeria, despite several related efforts, frequently
appears indocile to the genuine instructions, yearnings and/or entreaties of scholars to
consciously revamp, reinvigorate and epitomise her hitherto lost linguistic/symbolic
communication heritage as “Africa’s giant.” This includes, but not limited to the rebirthing
of the ancient indigenous sign writing, nonverbal/visual communication arts/fashion that
once glorified and globalised African ancestors as great inventors in arts, craft and culture.
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Indeed, if nothing is properly done now to save the situation, the country’s unborn
generations might never have the privilege to appreciate some of her earliest civilisations
that inventively contributed to her ancient developments in arts, customs and tradition.
Certainly, Nigeria is richly endowed with artifacts, monoliths and ancient symbols
(e.g. totems, insignia, tribal marks and pictographs) used for visual communication and
veneration purposes by her concerned citizens. Amongst Nigeria’s ancient pictographs /
illustrative arts that appeal to the audience through the eye is Nsibidi. It is an indigenous
sign writing /non-verbal communication system that uses “specialised institutional art
symbols” and action as pantomime, gestures, tattoos, tribal marks or encrypted stone arts
to instruct, inform, adorn, identify, define or appease society through its “visually-
compelling” and “aesthetically-imposing” pictographic nature (Hogan, 2019).
Traditionally, Nsibidi writing is common amongst Ekpe and other secret societies
in Nigeria South, South-East and South-western Cameroun. It is critically distinct from
ordinary creative art designs, specialised writing, pictures or artworks used by
stenographers, printers or fine artist to report in short hand, decorate ceramic, steel/stone
arts, fashion or architecture products as some people misconceive. Historically, Nsibidi is
believed to age over two millennia, with over one thousand signs, of which about half the
number survived since 2000 B.C., in monoliths, tribal marks, tattoos, Ukara Ekpe as well
as ancient temples and shrines’ decorations. Thus, Nsibidi is as old as humans’ civilisation
history (https://www.endangeredalphabets.net/alphabets/nsibidi; Hogan, 2019, p.14).
Also, Nigeria, prior to its invention in 1914, had her original indigenous writing
systems/visual communication symbols that dates as old as ancient Assyrian, Greek,
Chinese and Roman types from 7 BC till date.
Conceptual Clarification of Media Arts

This is the generic name for every art that is expertly designed, invented or produced for
presentation as music, drama, dance, film, cartoons or fiction on radio, television, internet
and books, including newspaper, magazines and as [electronic] billboard graphics. It
broadly comprises actions, pictures, sound, graphic illustrations or spectacles that
inventively and pedagogically add to the aesthetic, intellectual, ornamental or monumental
gaiety, essence or merits of what is produced to have visual impacts and meanings as art
for either print or electronic media (Hogan, 2012). As arts created for the media (radio, TV,
film, internet, print) all such products of humans’ pedagogic, inventive or imaginative
intents as fictions, usually contain specially designed, structured or encrypted graphic
information that overtly or covertly conceal, reveal or convey the motifs behind their
physical looks and meanings. These special language codes, in strategic media (marketing
and advertising) communication, is expertly seen as promotional aids, illustrative
captivators/ audience’ patronage persuader. It technically covers the use of myths, colours,
signs, pictures or film technology to achieve sublimation, identification, mimetic, priming
or modelling effects in modern block busters, marketing and advertising videos (Hogan,
2019; Branston & Stafford, 2017; Dominick, 2011).
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Understanding Visual Communication

This is the technical name that media communication experts use to infer or distinguish
“eye-based arts” as pictures, symbols, graphs, movies, from “ear-based arts” as music,
monologue or dialogue. Asemah (2011) says is any information that is transmitted through
the power of the visuals to appeal to the sense of sight, but with the intention of creating a
meaning. Visual communication concerns mainly with art inventions that physically
appeals to the humans’ intellect and emotions through the eye. It uses mostly promotional
and instructional materials (photos, film, graphic arts or action) to encrypt, advertise or
conceal its motif/ideological depth in print and electronic media products. Typical
examples include, but not limited to cartoons, esoteric book cover designs, legends and
pictographs that seek to increase products’ essence, patronage and fame in an open- “niche
market” or “brand competitions.”
Overview of Nsibidi
Despite its indistinct origin, scholars generally admit Nsibidi is one of Africa’s most
ancient (sophisticated) “sign writing system” associated mainly with the activities of secret
societies in Southern Nigeria and Western Cameroon regions, particularly the Ekpe
[con]fraternity. Talbot (1912, p.305) defined Nsibidi as “a kind of primitive secret writing”
that was “cut or painted on split palm stems.” Aye (1991, p.96) corroborates that “Nsibidi
infers secret writings of the Ekpe fraternity; marks made on utensils or cuts on the body of
a person.” Macgregor (1909, p.210) sees Nsibidi “as ordinary writing in which every detail
is most graphically described.” According to Jefferey (1910, pp189-193), Nsibidi was the
name of a club that organised the writing and perpetrated it. Miller (2009) portrays Nsibidi
and Ekpe as esoteric kin” (www.upress.state.ms.us). Aye (1991) asserts that
“metaphysically, Nsibidi is Ekpe masquerade itself.” Hogan (2002, p.14) and Okpokam
(2000, p.37) agree that Nsibidi antedates Ekpe origin and practice and is deep-rooted in
extra-mundane pictographic expressions that appease even the gods during Ekpe displays.
Macgregor acknowledged that pioneer researchers on Nsibidi “were aware that there was
an elaborate system of acted signs by which people held communication, but they had not
discovered this language of signs had been reduced to writing.” This affirms Nsibidi as a
cryptic, esoteric or mystical art/writing system limited in meanings to only initiates in
visual communication modes.
Put differently, “Nsibidi is an innately obscure, esoteric or mystical practice whose
original motifs and meanings often covertly evade on-lookers consciousness when treated
as mere pantomimic, illustrative or ideographic art invented to please and instruct the mind
through the medium of the eye in theatre, textile, ads, movies and media works” (Hogan,
2002). Maxwell (1904), cited in Hogan (2019a) contradicts Macgregor (1909) and Talbot’s
(1911) idea that Nsibidi originated from “observed baboon signs in Uyanga.” “Igbo Uli
arts inventions” and now Ikom “Nkarasi monoliths’ pictographs,” when he reported that
“the very first 24 original Nsibidi signs were obtained from a certain female Henshaw
Town Chief in Calabar.”
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Development Media Theory

Development media theory was intended to recognise the fact that societies undergoing a
transition from underdevelopment and colonialism, to independence and better material
conditions often lack the infrastructure, the money, the traditions, the professional skills
and even the audiences needed to sustain media institutions comparable to those of the First
World or Second World, in which the four theories could take root (Virtual University of
Pakistan, 2012, cited in Asemah, Nwammuo & Nkwam-Uwaoma, 2017). Propounded by
Denis McQuail (2010), development media theory emphasises Third World development
through positive, transformative or progressive development communication practices.
The theory advocates and favours international media use of positive and objective news
reportages, documentary and features to project and protect developments in
underdeveloped countries/ meet the basic survival needs of “third world economies” in
health, education, politics, science, ICT, media and existence against Western slurs or
negative media portrayals (Hogan, 2019b; Dominick, 2011). The theory is relevant because
it supports the motif of this discourse and justifies the need to positively develop, advertise
and globalise Nsibidi as Africa’s ancient visual communication language, fashion and arts
symbol.
Versions of Nsibidi Origins/Historical Developments

An overview of the different versions of Nsibidi origins is necessary to further provide
knowledge on its historical developments and existing ownership claims. This would
critically allay fear of subjectivity, encourage further academic research, debates and/or
general acceptance of the paper by exploring perceived/obvious issues that negate Nsibidi
development in Nigeria.
The Oriental Version

This version traces Nsibidi origin to ancient Mesopotamian/Egypt or Pharaonic
civilisation. It infers that the link between Nigeria’s Nsibidi to Egypt’s Hieroglyphs had
long been unearthed by their pictographic similitude and esoteric exclusivity to mainly
elites, oligarchs, aristocrats, pundits and thinkers in power, government or secret societies
that used ciphers and illustrative arts to conceal, reveal or express reality and abstract;
particularly on deistic, artistic, epicurean, mystical or ritualistic themes/motifs in the arts,
sciences and humanities ( Hogan, 2002, p. 9; Okpokam, 2002, p. 22).
The fact is that Egypt (“Africa’s ancient civilisations cradle”) had long before the
English alphabets advent in the 1400s, invented and globalised [her] hieroglyphs as a
popular pictographic means of visual communication. Evidently, Egypt is (one of) Africa’s
pioneer promoter(s) of indigenous pictographs on the global stage. Also, since Egypt
invented paper from papyrus and the hieroglyphs to help utilise its essence at the time, it is
thinkable that the hieroglyphs had some level of significant influence on the initial origins
and developments of pictographs in Africa.
Furthermore, if true that most ancient classical philosophers, thinkers and writers,
particularly Greeks/Mesopotamians like Socrates (469-399 B.C), Plato (428-347B.C),
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Aristotle (384-322 B.C) and Pythagoras of Samos (582-500 B.C) had their basic
philosophical learnings and inventions through cognition inspired by the pedagogic
influence of mysticism, esotericism and aestheticism imbibed from the intuition, evocation,
sacredness and consciousness exuded by hieroglyphs in Egypt’s “ancient mystical order
temples” of which Rosicrucianism is a lead 17th century exemplifier of “the theological
doctrine that venerates the rose and the cross as symbols of Christ resurrection and
redemption and claims various occult powers” (WordWeb Dictionary), it follows that
Egypt’s pictographs contributed significantly to the world’s origins and developments of
learning by “sign-language” (Ozumba, 2004, p.62; Edet, 2001, pp.38-39; Hogan, 2002,
p.5).
Similarly, the Assyrians, Greeks, Babylonians, Hindus, Arabs and Chinese had
their respective ancient pictographs / “alphabets. Ancient Chinese invented “relief
printing” and “ideogram” to preserve their writing heritage since 170 AD. The Romans
and Greeks invented alphabets in the 16th Century. Also, the English alphabets, though
criticised for silencing the African writing system by Western Civilisation and imperialism
and being fashioned after Roman and Greek letters, has significantly contributed to modern
literature developments in the world. Bear in mind that all the afore-referred human writing
arts inventions are in visual and printed media; hence, asserts the subject, theme or motif
of this academic discourse.
The Efik Version

Aye (2005) admits that “some visual similitudes” exist between hieroglyphs and Nsibidi.
He posits that Nsibidi, when rightly explored from the Efik perspective, covers the people’s
history, origin and oriental beliefs (www.efikeburutu.ng.net). Defending Efik origins,
migrations, settlements and link to black Jews/Hebrew ancestry against claims that “Efik
is Ibibio,” Aye asserts that it was “pointed out in Old Calabar Through the Centuries
(1967) that the origin of the Efik people points to the Orient”(Aye, 2005, p.11). According
to Aye (2005, p. 24), Efik language and names have a close affinity with those of the
Orientals with particular references to Pharaonic Egyptian, Hebrew and Shilluk, which as
equally observed by Rev Goldie, were not only restricted in similarity to the Semitic
languages of the Near East, but also similar to the Syro Arabic and the Hebrew languages.
Implicitly, since Nsibidi physically resembles some Egyptian, Hebrew or Arabic
pictographs, it follows also that Nsibidi is globally similar in form and purpose to
hieroglyphs.
Though the Hebrew-oriental origin of Efik is often challenged by interested
Afrocentric writers that rather see Efik as purely Africans of Southern Nigeria, with no
natural link to the Western or Eastern world, Aye (2005) infers “causative reciprocal
learning effects” as the major reason that Efik and its neighbors share Nsibidi in Ekpe when
he noted that “Efik and her neighbours borrowed and shared certain cultural attributes as it
is with the Ekpe society.” The reason, perhaps, that such identified shared Ekpe attribute
as Nsibidi is now highly contentious and albeit divisive against its original uniting intent is
not far- fetched. Achebe (1983, p. 5) infers tribalism as the root cause of why the
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systemically shared knowledge experienced amongst Nigerian ancestors soured overtime.

In Achebe’s words, “nothing in Nigeria’s political history captures her problem of nation
[dis]integration more graphically than the chequered (sic) fortune of the word tribe in her
vocabulary.” Achebe expatiates that “tribe has been accepted at one time as a friend,
rejected as an enemy at another and finally smuggled in through at the back-door as an
accomplice.”
Further, the Efik claim that Nsibidi as “Idem Udo” (2nd male born cult) infers its
origin as transcendental and shrouded in mystery. That is because “Idem” is the singular
of “Ndem” (ancient Efik deity/marine spirits, equally seen as homonym for masquerade/
secret cults). Nsibidi is also an Efik ancient cult with restricted membership, charged with
the execution of criminals. “Its origin antedates the Egbo or Ekpe society” (Kalu, 1978,
p.81). H.R.H Etubom Eso Archibong, the Clan head and longest reigning Iyamba Ekpe in
Obutong, Calabar Municipality asserted it-orally, when he said that “Nsibidi idem udo edi
idem eset emi mme átè ekedade edip enyun enim ibet obio ke eset.” That is, Nsibidi is an
ancient cult used by patriarchal ancestors to preserve and exhibit state laws.
Lastly, another Efik version that is perhaps the most etymologically, ethnographical
and/or esoterically convincing is that which points Nsibidi roots and meanings to the
corruption of three Efik words. It precisely came from an oral literature by H. H. late
Etinyin Abasi Idomo-Abasi, a 95 year old Ekpe Chieftain and head of Idomo-Abasi Royal
House in Calabar Municipality, a story confirmed by late Etubom Ukorebi Ukorebi Asuquo
of the Obong of Calabar’s Executive Council and former Acting Rector of the defunct
Polytechnic, Calabar, now UNICROSS Calabar Campus.
The version posits that Nsibidi evolved from the corruption of the marriage of three
Efik words: Sibidit/sibirit (Efik mispronunciation of English- Spirit), sibe (“to cut”) and
Udi (trouble eg. mbabak udi- “I fear trouble”). Highlight is that “Nsibidi originally involves
secrets that are hidden and manifested physically or spiritually from the soul of man’s
poetic, esoteric, inventive or imaginative thoughts that are pantomimed or “cut” as
esoterica in material or non-material objects of culture, by a solo [un]masked player to
inform, challenge, query / caution fellow initiates. However, Macgregor’s thought that
“cut,” as used by Rev. Goldie’s Efik Dictionary to define Nsibidi from the Efik verb-sibi
(rightly spelt sibe-cut), rather implied “slice” (yiok), was wrong. This also means that even
early Missionaries’ recognition of Nsibidi as cuts made on the body, pianos, calabashes
and stems as love and Ekpe signs asserted its correct use and origin in Efik-Calabar.
Put differently, Nsibidi implies a spiritual force whose physical/spiritual essence,
expression or motif suggests either good or evil to concerned parties. This version agrees
with the meaning of Nsibidi as a cult or coded practice associated with Efik ancient secret
societies for chiefs as implied above. It aligns with Efik ancient monarchs’ invocation of
Nsibidi to decapitate “capital offenders.” Further, it is claimed that since the “Ukara” in
Ukara Ekpe (Ekpe’s Nsibidi wrapper) is Efik word for “government or people in power,”
Ekpe Efik and Nsibidi are Efik’s
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The Igbo Version

The Igbo claim of Nsibidi (Nsigidi, Nsibiri/Nchibiri) is found in Wikipedia and related
websites (https://www.endangeredalphabets.net/alphabets/nsibidi). The claim sees Nsibidi
as ancient Igbo’s original writing invention and contribution to Nigeria’s earliest
civilisation in commerce, industry, arts and fashion. To the Igbos, Nsibidi is a prehistoric
heritage bequeathed by Igbo ancestors to all Igbo generations to use and preserve their
natural, national and traditional secrets, values, writing and decorative arts from strangers
or non-initiates. The Igbos equally believe that the reason why [their] Nsibidi is yet to fully
develop is because the Western world destroyed its essence to promote their alphabets from
the “dark age.” Also, that the Igbos, more than any concerned nation, still preserve their
Nsibidi in Ukara “Ekpe-Igbo”
(https://africa.si.edu/exhibits/inscribing/eduimages/ukaraLG.jp).
Again, Achebe (1983, p.7) infers tribe and its aftermath effects as a bane against
Igbos/Nigeria’s ancient civilisations growths when he emphasised that even though
prejudice against outsiders or strangers is an attitude found everywhere, “no modern state
can lend its support to such prejudice without undermining its own progress and
civilisation” as captured in his Things Fall Apart and the Nigerian experience from [her]
independence in October 1, 1960 till date.
Meanwhile, Macgregor’s (1909, p.210) initial support of the Igbo origin of Nsibidi
had long been scholarly refuted. Also, his thought that “primitive Africa had no writing
system as Europe/the West,” though rebutted, reportedly inspired Wido Zogo, a Liberian-
American Firestone Company worker to invent a writing style “similar to the “Vai” and
“Mende” except for the greater use of Western alphabets. It equally inspired the Ibibios’ to
invent “Oberi Okaime” writing system in 1930s” (Kalu, 1976, p. 76). Precisely, Kalu
(1976) informs that the origin of the Igbo version of Nsibidi in scholarship “traces to MDW.
Jeffrey’s hypothesis that shared Palmer’s Hamitic hypothesis and assumed from a different
ideological perspective that since Nri and Aro culture must be non-Igbo influences on a
more backward people, it (Nsibidi) must be Igbo’s.”
More so, Macgregor, as reported, obtained most of his information from two
Abiriba students (Onuoha Kalu and Ezikpe Agu) at Hope Waddell Training Institution in
1907 and published that with the Nsibidi signs he collected from Calabar in the Journal of
the Royal Anthropological Institute in 1908/9. Similarly, in “a study on native modes of
thoughts, an ethnographic hobby” in 1904, T. D. Maxwell, reportedly collected twenty-
four Nsibidi signs from a female Henshaw Town chief and refused to publish them, locally,
despite persuasions by Efik chiefs (Kalu, 1978, pp.77- 79).
Note and compare the respective dates and status of sources recorded in Macgregor
and Maxwell’s reports on Nsibidi and how such empirically affected their respective works.
Evidently, the former (McGreggor) came on a later date and had supposedly inexperienced
adolescents as sources, while the latter (Maxwell) had a chief as source and his work
predated Macgregor’s. Implicitly, the Igbo students from whom Macgregor obtained his
refuted information sharpened their Nsibidi knowledge through exposure to the Nsibidi
displayed during Ekpe Festivals in Old Calabar. This, again, aligns with the impliedly
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utilised “integration theory” than the “conspiracy theory” adopted by McGreggor, Talbot
et al against Efik version of Nsibidi origin.
Lastly, there is also the belief that Igbo ancestors derived their ideogram/Nsibidi
inspiration from the natural decorative marks on the bodies of “Uli python” and “black
Leopard” to design their first Ukara Ekpe wrappers, Ekpe sign language and other
pictographic works. This, also, has been scholarly discarded as myth because the Igbos
reportedly/arguably got their Ekpe and Nsibidi ideas from the Efik and Ekoi peoples of
now Cross River State. As argued, the fact that Nsibidi’s similitude exist in decorative arts,
does not mean every decorative or illustrative artwork is Nsibidi. Certainly, some Ankara
and other encrypted materials carry attractive ideograms like Nsibidi, yet, are not Nsibidi
in reality. Meaning also that Nsibidi is often easily misjudged by some artists, onlookers
or novices to be original, symbolic or meaningful wherever it appears as art, sign language
or ordinary pantomime by fun lovers.
The Ejagham Version

The Ejagham origin of Nsibidi traces to two distinct views. Firstly, is the inference from
Macgregor’s “it came from Sibidi, to mean to play” or “mimic the actions or signs
made/written by the baboons” (Idiok) that often imposed their uninvited presence around
the fire set by Ugwuakuma hunters that then settled at Uyanga in Cross River State.
Secondly, from P. A, Talbot’s 1912 conclusion that Nsibidi, originated as a corruption of
Ekoi’s Nchibibbidy (derived from the verb Nchibi or “to turn”), to mean “agility of mind
and, therefore, cunning or double meaning” (Kalu, 1978, p.77).
Further, Agbo (2019) states that long before the Europeans and what is today
known as the western civilisation came to West Africa, the Ekoi (Ejagham) people in
present-day Nigeria had developed a unique form of ideographic writing called Nsibidi.
Although there is no generally accepted date, scholars say it has been in use in Ekoi for as
long as 400 BC. Nsibidi was used to decorate the skin, calabashes, sculptures and clothing
items, as well as to communicate messages on houses (Dayrell, 1911, pp.521-540; cited in
Agbo, 2019; http://www.m.guardian.ng>life>alook; http://doi.org/10.2307/2843186;
https://www.jstor.org/stable/2843186).
Nsibidi as Visual Aid to Media Arts Development in Nigeria

Evidently, Nsibidi is visually endowed, venerated, embellished and deep rooted in
esotericism and aestheticism. It advertises, preserves or manifest its ancientness as
pictograph or esoterica in different forms. Accordingly, Nsibidi can aid Nigerian media art
developments in several ways, particularly as the benefits attained through its expert
collection, evaluation, packaging, application or exhibition to boost the aesthetic,
ideological, cultural, esoteric and pictographic needs of TV series, epic movies and print
productions in Nigeria.
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a. Cultural Aid/Benefits: Culture had long been the basic source for humans’
integrative, cognitive, promotional, pedagogic and inventive awareness in life. As
a systemic, natural or psycho-physical elevator of man’s aptitude and cosmic
relevance as a rational, creative and communicative being, culture explains and
asserts how man, nature and society symbiotically relate. Culture tells how man as
hominid views existence and vice versa. It relates the inner to the outer world by
subjecting the duo to an osmotic perception, inspiration, cognition or evocation by
the events, phenomena, dynamism or changes in their environments. Simply put,
culture exposes society’s soul and sensorium to realities and abstracts that relate
the seen and the unseen worlds.
The above, instructs that culture is ideologically deep, transversal and transcends
the physical to the metaphysical realms, leading often to acculturation, assimilation,
integration or generally shared behavior of people in society. This contextually include but
is not limited to society’s arts, beliefs, heritage, fashion, trade, language and invention as
pictograph, esotericism, mysticism or aestheticism in theory and practice. These basic
elements of culture, in turn aid growth in all human endeavors as the media,
communication, technology, textile and movie industries, including traditional institution
as the Ekpe society.
Evidently, culture increases society’s acculturation experience through its material
and non-material forms. Thus, since the media are integral part of society that subsist as
specialised institutional preservers, epitomisers or transmitters of culture, it follows that
culture [richly] exists in media arts that use esoterica as Nsibidi to upgrade, update,
develop, exhibit or deepen society’s perspective, perception or awareness about life.
Particularly, the use of art-symbols to imitate, re-create, advertise or preserve reality by
“on screen-theatre”, dramatic literature and graphics in print as seen in Ankara and Ukara
pictographs use as costume, drapes or interior decors in indigenous movies are highly
invocative and perceptual by nature.
Indeed, Nsibidi as a cultural invention helps media scenographers, content
developers, cinematographers and advertisers achieve aestheticism through the use of
attractive symbolic writings, drawing, painting or encrypted decors to appease and/or
instruct target audience-visually and non-verbally. In so doing, it aids media art producers
to determine, evaluate or perceive the degree of ideological or pictographic influence that
culture exerts or wields through visual communication with symbols that appeal to the
human soul through the eye. Nsibidi themes as love, religion, politics, omen and education
are usually universal because they sometime shroud in art mysteries and aesthetic
grandeurs that are invitingly inspiring to culturally behold by human psyche and emotion
through the eye as “window to the soul.”
Nsibidi covertly uses cosmic, ethnographic or anthropological encryptions (cryptic
lines, shapes and forms) to depict society’s tradition, customs, beliefs and world views in
reality and abstracts that are universally obscure to on-lookers, even though its themes are
usually universal, nature-based, culturally-endowed and visually-compelling in arts. Its
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frequent use of culture-related “objects of existence” as man, nature and society depicts
universality and indigeneity as acceptable lifestyle and is often exemplified by Ekpe
pictographs in textile, fashion and institutional interior and exterior decors. Such lines,
shapes and forms displayed as integral traits of Nsibidi are equally rhythmic, graceful,
centrifugal or centripetal in exuding “obscurantism” with [its] curvy, twisted, entangled or
crossed pictographic heritage trajectory.
Similarly, Nsibidi as cultural element in films can help conceal or advertise certain
disturbing yet important histrionic messages that can help actors euphemise, hype or
internalise their roles-subliminally, by intuition, evocation or cognition. Nsibidi can
equally help the audience, to understand, in tandem with props and/or costumes, the nature,
setting or age of watched movie, while still adding suspense value to its content.
Mystical/Esoteric Aid or Benefits

Foremost, esotericism simply infers the use of obscure words/allegory to restrict published
contents’ meaning(s) or secrets to classified audience, thinkers or initiates. Emphatic is
what is mentally perceived beyond the surface or literal implication of literature. It is
originally a classical literary term devised to aid creative writers conceal “ideological
truth(s)”/realities in speech symbols, in order to evade easy public notice/criticism. Better
still, esotericism implies the deeper, secret or covert meanings of symbolism in specialised
writings in arts, humanities and sciences (Hogan, 2022, p.5). Fowler (1986, p. 5),
acknowledged by Hogan & Ohain (2019, p. 237), informs that allegory as key literary
esotericism device is “a major symbolic mode which flourishes in satire, underground
literature and science fiction.” Source adds that allegory is “often defined as an ‘extended
metaphor’ in which characters, actions and scenery are systematically symbolic, referring
to spiritual, political and psychological confrontations.” Similarly, Peck & Coyle (1986,
p.126) posit allegory as a work which has meaning behind the surface meaning.
As hitherto reiterated, Nsibidi is figuratively a two-edged sword. It favours both
good and evil, mundane and extra-mundane realms, roots-deep into tradition, customs and
religion in theory and practice. Its mundane and extra-mundane essence mostly subsist by
its overt and covert nature. Thus, Nsibidi as ornaments on the walls and bodies of
veneration/venerated objects in occults’ temples, shrines, lodges or palaces (e.g. encrypted
idols, murals, insignia, ciphers and curtains) in some Nigerian costume/epic movies (eg.
Isantim, Igele, Mutanda Oyom Namondo) have psychosomatic audience effects that can
help strengthen or weaken society’s interest in certain religion, occult, secret, secular or
pagans arts, tradition or fashion. Implicitly, since Nsibidi has other meanings that lay
beyond its surface appearance or literal interpretation as affirmed by the provided meaning
of esotericism and allegory, it follows that Nsibidi helps to tell the story beneath the story
in media art as Nollywood films, using symbols, imageries or obscure pictures to suggest
the figurative deepness of voices that can only be heard by the inner mind of those who
specialise in or understand concerned language. It may be signs of love, omen, hope,
caution or worship.
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Designing holy books, cartoons and signage with Nsibidi can esoterically or
mystically evoke, inspire or elevate believers’ consciousness and sacredness to the highest
level of spiritual manifestations of total loyalty, fanaticism and commitments to the
veneration of choice totems. Raphael M. Lewis, a renowned Egyptian Rosicrucian frater,
philosopher and scholar, captured it vividly when he asserted that “the sacredness of a
place, including its arts, murals and totems, does not only depend on its beliefs, customs or
tradition, but equally on the highest level of consciousness it evokes in a believer.”
Similarly. Wole Soyinka, a Nigerian iconoclastic writer, erudite scholar and Nobel
Laureate corroborated that “any artwork that opens out the horizon of the human mind and
intellect is a medium and force for change” (cited in Hogan & Ohain, 2019). Little wonder
Hogan (2002, p.9) described Nsibidi as “a physically manifested spiritual force of religion
that uses “ornamental monuments” and “monumental ornaments” to encrypt esotericism,
aestheticism and mysticism in the spirit-man of deep thinkers, believers or initiates.”
Social Aid/Benefits
Socially, Nsibidi fashion designs (particularly as often seen on ukara/Ekpe chieftain
wrapper, Ndem priestesses and acolytes’ makeups) add significantly to the overall
aesthetic, textural, cultural, psychosomatic and scenic effects of indigenous costumes and
pictographic effects in Nigerian films. Nsibidi encourages socialisation by prompting
curiosity that leads to enquiries, interactivity and connectivity amongst members of the
same ethnic stock or religious belief(s), who, through developed interests as initiates or
non-initiates wish to know more about its form, tradition and motifs beyond the physical
realm.
This reality is often [un]consciously experienced when audience identify with
Nsibidi pictographs, environments, behavior or general culture of models used mainly in
epic movies, TV adverts, fashion magazines, books, internet and electronic bill board ads
in Nigeria. The experience, as Hogan (2021) says simply classify as “media-modelling,
identification, mimetic, priming or subliminal effect.” Hogan’s view aligns with
Tolstoyism and Freudanism theories to corroborate the fact that Nsibidi professionally aid
moral philosophers, film critics and psychoanalysts to expertly review actors psychology,
content and character based on their environment, role, belief, depicted culture, background
knowledge, experience, motif or spectacles achieved through film aesthetic, movement,
costume, makeup.
Artistic/Visual-Aesthetic Aid/Benefits
Contextually, aesthetics comprises the exuded beauty or perceived artistic, moral or
philosophical merits and/or demerits of media art product as film, book design or graphic
illustrations in instructional TV or advertising videos. It technically includes the spectacles
created or imagined of the different “turns” and “twist” that a cinematographer or media
art producer uses to improve quality in picture, sound, lighting, camera angle, close-ups,
cuts, composition and continuity in produced movies. This suggests that art(istic) is just
one of those meaningful words used expertly to define or describe the goodness,
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tastefulness or dexterity with which elegance through the rightful application of Nsibidi
adds to the production value.
According to Eyefoki (2006, p.94), visual art is understood both as the process and
product of man’s creativity whose end result is visually expressed and experienced as work
of art. Often, the initial talent to create is normally justified in the ability to cope with skill
acquisition. This, in relation to how Nsibidi aid visual communication development in
media art infers that the proper selection, adaptation, publication or dramatisation of
Nsibidi in TV series, epic /ethnographic films, books and/or journals can be of immense
intrinsic and extrinsic psychosocial, moral, philosophical or psychosomatic benefits to
addicted audience.
Economic Aid/Benefits
The fact that classified audience mostly patronise films that directly exemplify or capture
their interest, culture, values and wellbeing with illustrative arts as pictures, dress and
writing codes asserts that effective use of Nsibidi in media arts can increase patronage and
their general acceptability in open markets. For instance, ever since it was globally known
that aside being pirates insignia, the “Skull-in-Crossed Bones” broadly represents secret
societies, the level of its production as brands on crested T-Shirts, wrist bands, berets,
cartoons, muffler, handkerchief and bags have significantly increased worldwide. Even
non-initiates patronise dedicated occults websites that use ciphers/ pictographs (Nsibidi) as
instructional language/visual communication art.
Accordingly, there is always a “pay-viewership” /subscribers increase in the regular
download of such media illustrative arts adorned with Nsibidi. In so doing, creativity is
charged to invent, increase and improve latest products quality, spark competition amongst
producers and maximise-profits through charged ads rates and patented media art products
sales.
Conclusion
Evidently, this discourse has justified its subject and motif as treated. The paper has
knowledgeably explored and accentuated Nsibidi pictographs as part of Nigeria’s ancient
civilisations, inventions and heritage. Its unique ideas are well supported by relevant logic
and reviewed literatures selected to establish how Nsibidi aids or improves aestheticism,
esotericism, cognition, evocation or visual communication in Nigerian media arts
productions. The discourse, therefore, provides sound ideological and dialectical basis to
conclude that Nsibidi can aid visual communication and media arts development in Nigeria
if properly selected, adapted and applied to suit clearly defined themes, meanings or
purposes in indigenous epics, TV series or advertisements. In this way, the paper has
contributed significantly to knowledge by providing original fresh academic insights to the
study of Nsibidi, visual communication and media art in Nigeria.
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WordWeb Dictionary.
Oral Interview
An interview with H.R.H Etubom Eso Archibong, the Clan Head and Iyamba (Highest
Ekpe Chief) of Efe Asibong Ekondo (an ancient Ekpe Lodge) in Obutong, Calabar
Municipality, Cross River State, at his residence from 3-4pm on Wednesday, June
23, 2021on the Origin, Meaning and Relationship of Nsibidi and Ekpe. Age about
80 years and over 30 years as Ekpe Chieftain.
An Interview with H.H. late Etinyin Abasi Efiong Idomo-Abasi, head of Idomo-Abasi
Royal House of Iboku Clan, in Calabar South at his home in Calabar South, Cross
River State, Nigeria, in 2008. Aged 95 years and over 50 years as Ekpe
initiate/chief.
An Interview with late Chief Dr. Enyamzie Okpokam, former head at the department of
Theatre Arts, University of Calabar, Nigeria, at his Office in September, 2002.
Aged over 70 years.
HRH Late Etubom Ukorebi Ukorebi Asuquo, former Acting Rector of the defunct
Polytechnic, Calabar and member of the Obong of Calabar Executive Council, at
his Office in 1997. Aged over 70 years.
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CHAPTER TWENTY NINE

A THEORETICAL DISCOURSE ON PSYCHO-COGNITIVE
CORRELATE OF ADDICTED FILM EXPOSURE AND SOCIAL
CHANGE IN NIGERIA
Holyns Hogan, Elizabeth Egbe, James Effiom & Eme Ohain
Introduction
Naturally, films exhibit humans’ culture, creativity, technology and arts ensembles in
[non]fiction as realism, formalism, classicism or romanticism movies. Normally, film
simulation, propagation/cognition sublimate human and society to indulge in deeds they
normally will not do. Usually, “sublimated film cognition”/pedagogy inexorably evades
humans’ conscious mind’s scrutiny to subconsciously revolutionise addicts. Hogan &
Ohain (2022) broaden the perspective when they socratically submitted that:
If psyche, as the Greeks say is soul/ mind; and the mind is the seat of
intellect that regulates human cognition, affection and conation by its
osmotic link to the humans’ sensory organs identified by Lock and Darwin
as “eye, nose, ear, tongue and skin,” it follows that since the ear, as Edde Iji
says, has eye; and the mind as J. P. Clarke says, has ear, arts and nature
instruct each other in society. Also, if film as visual art draws life from the
society that it exemplifies by its content and character, it follows that since
art, as Greeks Xenophanes, Hesiod, Plato and Aristotle agree, instructs and
appeases humans as imitated reality that carries society’s culture, ethos,
heritage, values, worldviews, religion, traditions, morals and customs in its
poetic soul; then film has psycho-cognitive ability to change human and
society by sublimation, modelling and priming effects over time (p.225).
Definitively, film is a “technologised replica” of man’s systemic link to nature and
society. It has cognitive, psychological, moral, social, religious and anthropological
benefits. It is the product of man’s mental processes that re-presents and globalises society.
It educates, appeases and changes the world by its distinct motifs and angles as visual
storyteller. In effect, films evolve by human’s imagination and background experience to
re-live life as imitated reality (Hogan, 2022). This makes film “a slice of life” and correlates
it with addicts’ social change in society. Nnamele & Nnalue (2020, p.152) corroborate that
“film, movie or video used as a general term to describe series of images presented rapidly
through screen for audience pleasure has come under different scrutiny, modifications and
interpretations” of their psycho-cognitive impacts on society.
As a “motion picture,” “broad screen theatre,” or “flick,” by sobriquet, film is also
an electronic story teller/ “techno-aesthetic copier of reality.” It is a celluloid imitation of
society’s culture and “psycho-cognitive” experience. It merges technology, psychology,
reality and creativity to change, edutain and preserve society’s arts, history, heritage and
experience through animation. Implicitly, film, language, aesthetic, lighting, camera
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movements, editing and other requisite elements enjoy osmotic relationship as society’s
educators and “celluloid ensemble.”
Thus, if film, as empirically stated, opens-wide the human psyche, revolutionises
society, replicates cultures, moralises generations and rebirths society as motion pictures
that exemplify humanity in realism, formalism and classicism, it logically follows that film
has innate ability to effect social change in society. Certainly, Nigeria’s multiculturalism
asserts her adequate endowment with nature’s bounties, heritage and identities that can be
properly explored, harnessed or synergised to project and preserve her values, ethos,
worldview, history, feats and personality through indigenous films that mainly exhibit local
contents with positive national image portrayals on the global stage. Indeed, it is those
symptoms experienced by addicts as psycho-cognitive effects that Sigmund Freud inferred
as “primitive science” outcomes in his psycho-analysis theory.
Film symptoms are simply symbolic, inferred or perceived physical evidences of
psycho-emotional/socio-cognitive outcome of audience addicted exposure to film world.
It is the causative change in the audience’s mentality. Note that purely Nigerian films
inundate with sublimed contents (embellished local sights and sounds) that can inspire
physical and spiritual rebirths. Also, that Nigerian film form, elegance and tradition can
trigger deep mental processes that lead to retentive memories and personality
transformation by imagery, ideology or propaganda.
Nwachukwu, in Abrahamson (2008, p.3) avows that “Nigerian cinema ideology
has interlocking of the continent’s cultural heritage, tremendous fund of imagery, ritual-
spiritual language, music, dance, metaphors, proverbs, mythic components and poetic
resonances of oral traditions.” Agba (2012, p.127) ossifies that “what we refer to as
Nollywood films are adaptations of the folklores, the myths and the roles of the
supernatural in the lives of people” who collectively make society and broadly define
Nigeria’s demography and inform homogenisation by globalisation and acculturation that
favour Marshal McLuhan’s “the world is a global village” theory.
Arguably, McLuhan’s theory triggered Denis McQuail’s (2010) to advocate
systemic equity and positivism in the Western media portrayals of Africa’s development
initiatives/needs as Nigerian films in global space. Thus, despite criticisms, Nollywood as
official name for Nigerian films is well globalised as key marketer and driver of
Nigerianity. Iji (2016), however, decries excess Americanisation, Europeanisation,
Chinanisation and Indianisation of brands officially invented to “Nigerianise the world”
with purely local contents. To Iji, Nigerianity should rather “globalise the locals” and
“localise the global” than yield to total Westernisation or Asianisation of original African
development initiatives by hegemony or imperialism that favours the West to the detriment
of its African origin.
The above shows that Nigerian films mainly subsist to address the country’s
psychosocial, historical, anthropologic, political, religious, social and cognitive needs.
Some effectively use propaganda, illusions or figuration to distort truth with latest film
production technology and methodology.
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Objectives of the Paper

The objectives of the paper were to:
1. Theoretically correlate addicted film exposure and social change in Nigeria.
2. Highlight psycho-cognitive elements of social change in Nigerian films.
Conceptual Clarifications/Definitions
Psycho-Cognitive
This term is a corrupt reversed-order of “cognitive psychology” defined as a branch of
psychology concerned with the study of mental processes (Encarta Dictionary, 2008). It
infers observed psychosocial impacts of film cognition on addicts. It equally suggests
empirically observed correlate of mind, soul and body actions, coordinated by the daily
cognitive, nonverbal, subliminal or intrapersonal communicative activities of the human
sensory organs in relation to the aural or visual changes/realities experienced in their
physical world/natural environment(s). The idea is supported by Plato, René Descartes,
Sigmund Freud and Leo Tolstoy, who equally believed that philosophy, psychology,
linguistics, artificial intelligence and anthropology combine to explain films cognitive
impacts on audience.
Social Change
Observed film addicts’ behaviour change experienced through frequent exposure to film
culture, language, philosophy and environment. In effect, it is the effect of intense film
addiction on cineastes that alter their mentality, cognition, reasoning, perception,
socialisation and general lifestyle in society.
Cineaste(s)
A name used broadly to infer an addicted film goer, lover, critic, scholar and/or
cinematographer. It specifically infers the producer, director, actor or fan who suffers
psycho-cognitive effect (s) of addiction to [choice] movie culture, genre, theory, ideology
or criticism that practically alters society’s “social dynamics,” relationships, ethos,
behaviour pattern, perception or mentality. Note that aside the fact that cinephilia and
cinephobia are terms equally coined and respectively used by experts to mean the “love”
and “fear” of film realism, formalism or classicism by society.
Technopoly, Technophile, Technophobia and Techno-aesthetics

All these are new coined words that help film scholars, critics and analysts to lexically
address film issues with latest terminologies that restrict “film secrets” to
specialists/cineastes.
Technopoly
This is derived from the corruption of marriage between “technology” and
“monopoly/poly” to mean the overwhelming presence and impacts of latest/ multiple new
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technologies in the world that clearly affect humans’ reasoning, perception and
perspectives in life. Examples include the most recently launched “James Web Space
Satellite,” artificial intelligence and CCTV camera that practically made life easier and
more meaningful than it ever was in the past.
Technophile
It is lexically defined by Encarta Dictionary (2008) as a lover of new technology and
computerisation as applied in modern filmmaking; for example, the love for drone,
algorithmic video editing and 4D movie camera/android phones video technologies.
Technophobia
It is simply the fear of new technologies, particularly by old filmmakers, illiterate or in-
exposed/inexperienced people who may ignorantly fear or see new technology as a
challenge to old traditions, oppose of analogue age, exploitation means or strategies to keep
those who cannot afford/lack requisite knowledge or skills to use them out of work by
replacing them with machines, robots or artificial intelligence.
Techno-aestheti
It infers technology-embellished beauties in film, media and theatre arts. It contextually
includes the use of illusions / special effects to adorn and heighten movies suspense.
Critical Survey of Nigerian Films History/ Trajectory

The Colonial/Pre-Independence Era
Nigeria’s film history dates back to the British colonial era (late 1950s-1960) with Hubert
Ogunde and others as its founding fathers. It started as public film show after the European
missionaries’ “crusade cinema” used to propagate Christianity. Then Christian films aided
Western religious education growth. They were used as visual learning aids to support
“Sunday School Teachings.” Christian films demonised original African religion, heritage
and history. They religiously and imperialistically superimposed “white God mentality” on
brainwashed Africans (Okpokam, 2002).
Contrarily, Uka (2009, p.11) says Christianity propagates AGAPE as an alternative
prove of divine love and grace for mankind. It encourages reciprocity, mutuality, respect
and solidarity in just human relationship. Hence, Christian spirituality (sic) should not be
seen as a tool for racial discrimination, denigration, oppression or dissuasion of any nation
from attaining transformational globalisation rights. Though pacifying, Uka’s view appears
challenged when Achebe in Ayi (2015, p.55) opines that Christianity perpetually
demonised original traditional African religion with propaganda and slurs that unjustly
denigrated and relegated African spiritism.
Writing on the early history of Nigerian film industry, Agba (2012, p.125)
acknowledges pioneer Nigerian films as “cinema theatre” that thematically emphasised
culture and history and to some extent morality and politics to the exclusion of
contemporary issues as featured in current Nollywood films. Mainly because it was the
only way to preserve heritage in then Nigerian films. Besides, every filmmaker wanted his
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tribe to be visibly globalised and respected for its values, religion and history. Technically,
the pre-independence era of Nigerian films was the age of going celluloid with
cumbersome, energy and time consuming analogue means that restricted practice,
patronage and access to few privileged people.
Nwosu (2006, p. 3) asserts colonial era as the period when the press [cinema] and
politics of Black Africa were predominantly controlled by foreign colonialists. The pre-
independence era was the period of rising political awareness among Black Africans, a
period of nationalist movements and consequent growth of indigenous black Africans
press, including films, owned and controlled by Africans or foreigners sympathetic to the
Black African cause. Implicitly, since press can be used to broadly infer media where films
belong, and politics has to do with power struggles, supremacy quest, scarce resources
allocation and governance practices in a polity (Chris, 2018; Onor, 2005; Onwe, 2004), it
is logical that “press” and “politics” are used as synecdoche, defined by Encarta Dictionary
(2008) as “a figure of speech in which the part of something is used to mean the whole.”
Sooner, Nigeria’s pioneer films graduated from hired halls to established theatres
where they projected Nigerianity as “windows to the wall.” Their motif, perhaps, was not
just to re-enact or criticise Nigeria’s colonial ordeals, but used African films to oppose
Western movies idolisation of the whites over blacks. The inspiration came with the black
film culture movement that started with black Americans and fast spread across the world.
Thus, pioneer Nigerian films changed the narrative by the use of local contents to project
Africa as a naturally endowed continent. They collectively promoted Africa’s beautiful
sights and sound. They debunked the Europeans’ white God mentality and establish God’s
universality and human equality in spite of gender or race.
For instance, Nigeria’s pioneer films by Ogunde were mainly indigenous epics and
operas. They synoptically and thematically advertised, idealised and globalised Nigerianity
with techno-aesthetic blend of local creativity, ingenuity, expertise and experience in their
plots, diction, characters, spectacles and music that impacted positively on target
audiences’ psyche. Eyengho (2005) and Ugor (2000, p. 228) affirmed that Ogunde’s films
were purely indigenous, inventive, pedagogic and revolutionary by nature. They reflected
their age and rooted-deep in Yoruba culture, tradition, customs, myths, worldviews,
literature, values and heritage. They idealised legends as superhuman, identified nature and
religion as society’s faith nurturers; idolised Yoruba gods as universal; perfect and just
providers of basic human needs in life (Hogan, 2022, p. 84).
Similarly, pioneering Igbo films “igbonised the world” with Igbo culture. They
reflected in their plots, structures, spectacles, ideology, content, character, symbols and
environments what it actually meant to be Igbo in a plural Nigeria. The films captured
[ancient] Igbo’s systemic beliefs, vicissitudes, ordeals and morals as innate realities
immortalised by heritage as integral part of Igbo history, religion and culture. They, like
their Yoruba equals, projected their Chi (God) and Orji (Kola nut) breaking tradition as
true symbols of faith, love, peace and unity in Igbo universe.
The Independence Era

The independence era is critically observed as a period which greeted Nigeria’s budding
film history with mixed feelings of joy and uncertainty in the wake of a new government
that still bore allegiance to the British Sovereign that approved Nigeria’s political freedom
320
on October 1, 1960, despite being officially established in 1914. Inflamed by colonialism

aftermath, tribalism, regionalism and marginalisation fears /tensions between the three
ethnic groups and the so called minority tribes, the era altered the country’s social dynamics
to suit its film culture by making it difficult to accept strangers as heroes, models or idols
in purely local or tribal films.
The era featured religion, politics, nepotism, ethnic rifts, vendetta, military junta,
Nigerian civil and post-civil war effects as major film subjects. It changed Nigerian films
narratives to suit their immediate society’s psychosocial, psychocognitive, anthropological
and environmental needs. Bear in mind that the period equally characterised with the need
to urgently reconstruct, reunite and reposition Nigeria’s polity to favour unity in diversity
against drifts created by her multiculturalism. However, it registered great increase,
revolutions and techno-artistic feats in media arts as TV documentaries, soap operas and
home video productions by private and public media stations. Typical examples were
Things Fall Apart, Baba Salah, Iya Tope, Willy Wiliy, Cock Crows at Dawn, Papa Ajasco,
Samanja, Village Headmaster and the New Masquerade produced and aired as National
TV series by the Nigerian Television Authority (NTA).
Agba (2012) avows that despite being established as Nigerian Film Corporation
(NFC), through decree 61 of 1979 and later the mother of Nollywood films, NFC had its
earliest productions in the l960s. Some of the films had serious or mixed- themes, others
were simply satires/comedies on issues that needed urgent attention in the nation’s national
development interest. Asemah (2022, p.78) alludes to the foundation of media art/TV films
in Africa when he noted that October 31st 1959, marked the threshold of television
broadcasting in Nigeria.
According to Asemah (2022), it was in that year that the Western Nigerian
Television (WNTV) was established in Ibadan under the leadership of late Chief Obafemi
Awolowo. It was the first television in Africa. The idea of establishing a television station
was borne out of political dissatisfaction among others. NTA originated as a modification
of Nigerian Television Services (NTS, later NTV). Also, it registered its first broadcast in
April, 1962 at Lagos, then Nigeria’s capital. This again affirms 1950s as the dawn of
Nigeria’s media and film arts.
The Post-Independence/Present Era

Since the official advent of Nollywood in 2000, as the general name for all Nigerian films
produced worldwide, after being first conceived in the 1990s, Nigerian films, classified by
Hogan (2022, p. 85) as “Nollywood epics” and “Nollywood urban” have significantly
increased in fame, volume, distribution, patronage and merits. The industry has hugely
expanded in scope, ideological depth and audience’ impacts due to improved contents,
funding, applied methods and outcomes. Scholars equally view it as technophile and
Technopoly gains recorded by the strong love for new technologies that monopolise
Nollywood realism, formalism and classism arts by cineastes.
History names Living in Bondage (1992) as Nollywood’s official debut (Hogan,
2022, p. 86; Mgbemere, 2016, p 42). However, Okome (2000; p. 105) argues that the film,
though first in the order of its equals, clearly lacked anthropological and environmental
merits to be purely local when compared to its Yoruba and Hausa contemporaries. In
Okome’s view, it suggested a mixed-culture for a film recorded as Nigeria’s premier in
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history to switch-code language and locale between Igbo and English/Lagos, thereby losing
its original nature and culture as Igbo-oriented film (Hogan, 2022). Other Nollywood best
sellers in history are Rattle Snake (1994), Nneka: The Pretty Serpent (1995), Violated
(1996), Domitila (1997), Glamour Girls (1998) Rituals (1999), Igele (1999), End Time
(2000), Blood Money (2001), Ukwa (2002), Osofia in London (2003), The Prize (2003) ,
Desperate Millionaire (2003), Oracle (2003) among others (Agba, 2012, pp. 145-146).

Empirically, psychologists, philosophers, media scientists, naturalists and anthropologists
(Freud, Tolstoy & McLuhan) ascertain humans’ systemic link to nature and society through
their distinct studies. They collectively admitted that the trio (man, nature and society)
enjoy osmotic relationship and informs each other’s existence, functionality and efficiency.
Darwin & Locke, cited in Hogan (2022) note that man as a tripartite is the product of nature
and society; thus, he is often guided by his five sense organs so cognitively from his
physical/spiritual environments.
Therefore, if man, nature and society relate and man, from the society copies and
replicates reality or nature in films, it follows that film and life inform each other
symbiotically. Also, if films sublime life as an ensemble of sights and sound and their motif
is often to instruct and appease humans with contents from the society of their origin,
culture and age, it contextually follows in logic that addicted films exposures have psycho-
cognitive effects on society. An empirical study conducted by Hogan (2021) to determine
the effect of television violence on the youth in Calabar South Local Government Area of
Cross River State, Nigeria affirmed this truth. The researcher specifically used Albert
Bandura’s cognitive/causative-reciprocal learning theory, survey research design, in-depth
oral interviews, observation and Pearson Product Moment Correlation Analysis (PPMCA)
to conclude that “prolonged exposure/addiction to television violence as action movies,
war films, pornography and subliminal advertisements shot with[out] illusions or special
scenic effects correlated youth aggressiveness studied area.” According to the study, since
violent TV films are among the most easily accessed audio-visual arts that have long
mental retention, cognitive and subliminal effects, their frequent human exposures to
violent crime scenes that grossly negate society’s moral values could over time lead to
errant or irreverent behaviour.
A similar study by Ayi (2022) on the psychosocial effect of action movies on select
audience in Lagos asserted that addiction led to violent behaviour by addicts. The study
related to current films on Niger-Delta Militancy, End SARS protest, Boko Haram
terrorism, religious extremism and anarchy that leave many Nigerians hopeless, panicky
and cognitive dissonant. For instance, the current psycho-cognitive change in Nigerians
social behaviour caused by the viral internet videos of allegedly rigged “Nigeria’s 2023
presidential election,” increased fuel pump price and currency change mayhems evidently
justifies this paper’s subject and motif. Also, prior to the election, most political campaign
videos shared on the internet filled with propaganda, hate speeches, innuendos, sentiments
and falsities that created malice and general distrust in Nigeria’s political processes as
being marred with uncertainty and fraud than driven by best practices. Instead of focusing
on national security, economic and social welfare needs, referred campaign videos
322
advertised their selfish demands, threatened revolutions, division, war or bloodshed. In the
end, the nation appeared shocked and saddened by outcomes.
Leo-Marshment (2001, p.1), cited in Odigbo (2012) and acknowledge by Odionye
(2016, p.4) agrees that contrary to its often being used negatively to demonise opponents,
a good political party’s campaign focuses on public interest. Source said that “a sales-
oriented political party focuses only on selling its ideas, arguments of viewpoints and
interest in voters. But market-oriented political party designs its behaviour to provide voter
satisfaction, with particular consideration to voters’ viewpoints and wishes” (Odionye,
2016). Certainly, every Film is about human interactions, communication and culture.
Films inextricably based on human emotions and realities that connect them to their
audience, piques their interest and influences them (Jogezal, 2020; Ayi, 2022). Roger
Ebert, a prominent film analyst avers that film is “a visual story telling device with an
ability to place a viewer in a context of being psychologically present through the use of
visual composition and editing.” Ebert’s view infers that films use psychology, contexts,
technology and motion pictures to effect social cognition on society. Gordon B. Moskowitz
defines social cognition as "the mental processes involved in perceiving, attending to,
remembering, thinking about and making sense of the people in our social world." Also,
the fact that reality concerns mundane life replication in film and empirically suggests truth
as resident in material objects that could be scientifically observed, studied, tested and
accepted in arts, justifies film as an integral part of human nature and society.
Psycho-Cognitive Elements of Social Change in Nigerian Films

Culture
Culture generally refers to accepted lifestyle. It is guided by approved norms, morals, set
rules, systemic beliefs, customs and ethos. Culture can be observed, perceived, preserved
or bequeathed physically or psychically in material or non-material forms. These include
language, fashion, occupation, architecture and relics exhibited in Nigerian films.
Therefore, if culture as a cult has rituals in its form and order in society and film is a product
of culture, environment and human techno-artistic invention, then “film culture” can effect
social change in addicted society. This it perfectly does subliminally, semiotically and
cognitively through the use of local proverbs, artefacts, idols, fashion or signs in Nigerian
epics (Hogan, 2022).
Aesthetic
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste, with
the creation and appreciation of beauty (Asemah, Edegoh & Ogwo, 2013). It is the ethical,
artistic and philosophical brainbox for all embellished visual elements of order, form,
beauty and elegance in films. Aesthetic comprises audience’ psycho-emotional effects,
pleasure or edutainment by film spectacles. It deals with the mental satisfaction derived
from film theatrics, framing, lighting and scene effects. Aesthetic has cultural,
psychological and philosophical impacts that could be positive or negative. Positive
aesthetic effect manifests as aesthephile, while its negative effect is aesthephobia.
Examples are as seen in epic, fantasy and horror films scenes. Shakespeare inferred this
when he wrote “beauty is [only] in the beholder’s eye.” Thus, since aesthetic broadly
323
covers beauty and ugliness, what is beautiful, decent or aesthetically ideal to one viewer’s
eye, may frighten, upset or create phobia in another person’s eye. This, however, depends
on individual’s perception and/or perspective about beauty.
For instance, pornography, horror and war films upset or insult ideal audience’s
sensibility or psyche with indecency, phobia or traumatic visual-aesthetic elements. Yet,
please addicted audience who through frequent exposure model their natural lifestyle after
the attitude portrayed by actors in such films. Some movies specify their target audience,
forewarn against disturbing images or encourage parental advice for viewers below
recommended viewers’ age. Also, since framing partly defines film aesthetic in terms of
camera composition and cuts during production and post-production stages, it is easy to
relate what Udoh (2014, pp.65-66) says that “all photographs are pictures, but it is not all
pictures that are photographs.” According to Udoh, “a picture is something drawn or
painted manually; a photograph is a picture produced with a camera;” hence, motion
picture, like photographs can tell a thousand stories from different camera, filmmaker and
audience’ angles.
Sëmeion/Symbol
This is the original Greek word for “sign/symbols” used to construct, instruct, conceal,
obscure or distort meanings in films, linguistics, theatre, media or communication arts. It
is the etymological mother of semiotics/semiology, defined by Encarta Dictionary (2008)
as “the study of signs/symptoms of diseases.” It contextually infers all scenic elements
(aesthetics, colours, language, symbols and cues) used by filmmakers to objectify reality,
intensify meanings, heighten tensions, create suspense, adorn or restrict film
communication to classified audience. Sëmeion aids film critics, scholars or analyst to
determine how cultural symbols in Nigerian film affect their cinematic outcomes.
For instance, the use of native pictographs (e.g. Nsibidi) to adorn Nigerian epics
setting may be differently interpreted, perceived or accepted by audience as fashion,
religious, political or occult symbols. Also, indigenous film costumes, make-ups, tribal
marks, scene decors or props can help audience understand their origins, age, setting,
motifs, history, religion and culture in relation to their actors attitude, living condition and
belief system. Most Nigerian films traditionally use red and black to depict evil scenes.
They mostly adorn shrines with skulls, totems, juju pots and other fearsome artefacts or
spectacles that may please or scare different audiences, according to their distinct beliefs.
Similarly, other viewers may understand red, purple, blue and pink as depicting royalty,
courage and femininity in films. While others still, may see white, green and yellow as
sacredness, progress and wealth.
Typical examples of Nigerian films in which symbols play vital verbal and
nonverbal roles in the making and enhancement of their symptomatic, etiological,
mythological, anthropological, syntactic and psycho-cognitive [audience] impacts include
Afolayan’s Anikulapó (2022), Xtly Bazzy’s Afiabóm (2022), Ukachi’s Ikhamma (2010)
and Uzodimma’s The Maiden (2008) where apparition, idols, totems, colours, insignias,
makeups, costumes, scene designs/scenic effects and proverbs are evidently used to
chronologically and effectively synergise plots-actions, characterisation, spectacles,
diction and motifs in mentioned films.
324
For instance, it is recalled from Ikhama’s opening and progressive scenes that the
Udara (African star apple fruit), kept in the small white pot, adorned with red and black
reeds and placed on fresh cactus, in an Nsibidi [pictograph]-adorned ancient shrine altar,
symbolised the people’s history, experience, setbacks, future hopes, love, unity and
progress as sworn to the gods by the ancestors. Also, that the Kola nut, palm wine, native
dry gin, proverbs, parables, metaphors, incantations etc., used during state ceremonial
events, for libation and evocation purposes in The Maiden symbolised Igbo tradition,
worldview, beliefs, heritage and customs in reality. Hence, they directly or indirectly
affected their target audiences’ psyche by sublimated impression, perception, perspective
or painted mental, physical or cultural pictures of most acceptable typical African life.
Further, the audience empathy and/or sympathy generated by the gods’ theophanic
wars/ retribution against ferocious King Mbamba’s atrocities/dastard murder of innocent
souls in his tyrannous reign are obvious psycho-cognitive effects that affected the people’s
behaviour, thought pattern or mental processes long after exposure. Indeed, it is the psycho-
cognitive effects suffered by Nigerians due to addicted exposure to Isakaba, a Nollywood
“occult/Militants film” that used fierce symbols and extreme violent actions to execute
jungle justice, imply Nigeria as a lawless society, inspire increase in violent behaviour,
cultism, fear and vindictiveness spirits in Nigeria that led to its ban by Nigerian Films and
Videos Censors Board.
Ferdinard de Saussure, a 19th Century French Linguist views semiotic as a projected
new science devoted to study the life of signs/symbols within society. Semiotics, otherwise
called serology is equally the study of how symbols or signs (words, colour, gesture, music,
fashion, décor and syntax) used in arts, literature, film, theatre, linguistics or media
communication make meanings away from their physical looks in realism, fantasy,
romanticism, formalism or classicism as Nigerian epics. Fowler (1978, p.188), cited in
Hogan & Effiom (2022, p. 4) acknowledges Kant’s conception of [literary] symbols as “the
attributes of an object which serves the rational idea as a substitute for logical presentation,
but with the proper function of animating the mind by opening out for it a prospect into a
field of kindred representations stretching beyond it kent” or what it actually represents.”
Fowler (1978, p. 5), cited in Hogan & Ohain (2019, p.237) informs that allegory as
a key literary esotericism device is “a major symbolic mode which flourishes in satire,
underground literature and science fiction as extended metaphor in which characters,
actions and scenery are systematically symbolic, referring to spiritual, political and
psychological confrontations.” Similarly, Peck & Coyle (2000, pp.126-128) corroborate
that allegory is a work which has meaning behind the surface meaning and makes people
aware of the ideal religious order behind the text, but which holds our attention by the
disorderly trials and tribulations the hero in a film, theatre or literature experiences that
indicate the gap between the ideal pattern and the nature of life in his imperfect world
suited to a mode that attempts to deal with universal facts and forces. Careful against the
misuse of symbolism and allegory as synonyms, Peck & Coyle (2000) stated that:
Allegory differs from symbolism in that in allegory there is a fixed
meaning behind the surface meaning, while in symbolism, the meaning
behind the surface meaning is elusive and cannot be translated into other
terms. In allegory, “we can confidently state what the precise meaning is
325
that lies behind the surface because we are meant to see through the text
to its underlying significance source (p.127).
This explains how different viewers react physically, emotionally, psychologically
or spiritually to the effects of cognition, empathy, sympathy and “primitive science” as
Freud defines “myth” in Harris & Platzner (2001). Livingstone (2000) defines cognition as
“awareness; one of the three aspects of mind, the others being affection (feeling or
emotion), and conation (willing or desiring). They work as a whole, but anyone may
dominate any mental process. Peck & Cole (1986, p. 131) say “empathy means ‘feeling
into,’ becoming totally absorbed in and physically participating in an object of movie or
theatre. While sympathy means ‘feeling with’ the emotions and state of mind of, for
example, a character in Nigerian film”.
Polysemy
This 20th Century word derived from modern Latin polysemia and Greek polusēmos. It
infers “having multiple meanings” as language, sign or art. It, in media and film studies,
suggests that contents often have/convey several hidden elements of culture, politics,
morals, motifs, themes and contexts in their distinctly perceived, analysed or decoded
messages. Hogan & Effiom (2022, p.5) assert that polysemy is “a phrase commonly used
in media studies, cultural structuralism and semiology to suggest that language [innately]
contains cultural symbols, texts, ideology or literary aesthetic elements that have multiple
audience’ mental effects” beyond their original motifs, contexts or themes that last longer
as memory, perception, cognition or retention. This again affirms how Nigerian films
visual aesthetic language and culture can effect social behaviour change in Nigerian
addicted viewers.
Conclusion
It is established that addicted film exposure has psycho-cognitive effects on Nigerian
addicts. Such effects that alter addicts’ perception, perspective, attitude or social behaviour
in society, usually occur by sublimation, modelling and empathy that naturally pattern
after the kinds exhibited by fans’ favourite idols or celebs in Nigerian films.
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INDEX
A
Advertisement: 21, 83, 84, 85, 86, 89, 90, 91, C
92, 93, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, Catharsis theory: 34
104, 105, 106, 108, 109, 111, 124, 158, Catholic: 136, 137, 138, 140, 141, 143, 144
164, 165, 217, 225, 232, 268, 270, 313, CD-ROM: 122, 123
322 Celebrity endorsement: 2, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88,
Aesthetics: 101, 110, 312, 314, 318, 323, 324 89, 90, 91, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107,
African traditional religion: 3, 24, 242, 243, 108, 109
244, 245, 246, 247 Channels: 1, 2, 17, 18, 19, 40, 73, 77, 79, 85,
Agenda setting theory: 34, 252, 296 99, 108, 120, 130, 132, 133, 135, 137,
Aggressive cues theory: 34 156, 177, 179, 181, 183, 188, 212, 224,
Agrarian society: 170 228, 261, 267, 272, 284, 286, 287, 289,
Agreement: 4, 13, 31, 109, 163, 176 302
Agriculture: 38, 170, 174, 175, 177, 182, 183, Chidinma Adaora Ojukwu: 150
185, 263 Chief Executive Officer: 150
AIT: 74, 192 Church: 129, 130, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140,
Aituje Aina:103 145, 146, 292
All Progressive Congress: 6 Citizen journalism: 2, 91, 186, 187, 188, 189,
Amotekun: 3, 290, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195
299 Climate change: 18, 170, 174, 175, 183, 184,
Anthem: 128,273 185, 236
Arable crops: 171,175 Cochran: 21, 44, 76, 142
Attitude change theory: 30, 42, 114 Code of ethics: 2, 194, 195
Audio: 1, 97, 138, 174, 186, 322 Commerce: 120, 136, 308
Audio-visual: 1, 97, 322 Communities: 2, 5, 40, 73, 74, 84, 94, 95,
120, 121, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133,
B 135, 148, 170, 171, 172, 175, 176, 179,
Basic amenities: 128 181, 182, 185, 202, 204, 242, 292, 294,
Behaviour theory: 31, 178, 182 297
Behavioural outcome: 32 Computer: 94, 113, 120, 121, 122, 123, 125,
Beliefs: 20, 40, 57, 59, 76, 87, 96, 126, 136, 138, 140, 141, 148, 158, 191,
131, 162, 227, 242, 244, 246, 221, 225, 227, 319
285, 306, 310, 312, 320, 323, Constitutional conferences: 128
324 Consumer packaged goods: 92, 93
Billboard: 83, 85, 124, 303 Conundrum: 3, 171, 197
Biodiversity: 170, 176 Conventional media: 2, 19, 80
British Broadcasting Corporation: 212 Corona virus: 16, 139, 270, 283
Broadcast media: 3, 51, 92, 119, 205, 208, Covid-19: 1, 2, 3 , 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23,
219, 265, 269, 271, 272, 274, 274, 277, 24, 25, 37, 38, 39, 41, 46, 48, 49, 50,
278, 279, 282, 283, 284, 286, 287, 288, 52, 53, 54, 55, 70, 71, 73, 74, 78, 79,
80, 137, 139, 140, 144, 145, 159, 160,
289
161, 162, 163, 164, 166, 249, 250, 251,
Bureau of Statistics: 44, 52, 60, 67, 294, 300,
301 252, 256, 257, 258, 273
Business: 11, 26, 27, 42, 73, 83, 90, 92, 96, Credibility theory: 7, 12, 28, 87, 90, 97, 98,
103, 105, 127, 146, 158, 172, 173, 199, 100, 107, 109, 269, 275, 276
206, 220, 239, 251, 253, 293, 294, 297 Crime management and resolution: 147
328
Critical theory: 35 Electronic technology: 119

Cultivation theory: 35, 59 Email publishing: 124
Culture: 4, 17, 25, 85, 96, 120, 121, 131, 147, Employment: 52, 86, 128, 129, 130, 148,
163, 170, 202, 210, 235, 242, 243, 244, 274, 295
245, 246, 272, 293, 302, 307, 310, 311, Empowerment programmes: 128
312, 313, 316, 317, 318, 324, 326 ENDSARS: 3, 10, 102, 110, 157, 167, 269,
272, 273, 275, 278, 279, 282, 283, 284,
D 285, 286, 287, 288
David Adeleke: 103 Energy: 9, 129, 170, 320
Decision making: 31, 105, 130, 176, 184, 260 Entertainment: 1. 56. 91, 233, 235, 239, 240
Democracy: 4, 6, 13, 151, 199, 203, 206, 207, Environmental degradation: 170, 171, 172,
209, 210, 211, 218, 219, 220, 221, 226, 174, 175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182,
230, 260, 261, 263, 266, 270, 280, 281, 183, 184
300 Extensible Mark-up Language: 124
Dependency theory: 34
Development: 3, 7, 17, 28, 119, 121, 123, F
124, 126, 128, 129, 130, 133, 134, 136, Facebook: 1, 2, 19, 22, 23, 99, 100, 112, 113,
161, 163, 172, 173, 174, 176, 181, 182, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 147, 148, 155,
189, 204, 205, 218, 226, 234, 235, 241, 156, 158, 159, 160, 163, 164, 165, 166,
187, 206, 208, 229, 230, 234, 236, 280
242, 243, 245, 246, 249, 251, 257, 262,
Fake news: 2, 3, 19, 186, 188, 189, 191, 192,
271, 283, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 296, 193, 195, 204, 216
302, 305, 309, 313, 317, 321 Fast Moving Consumer Goods: 2, 92, 93, 94,
Dialog: 12, 123, 133, 177, 233, 304 102
Diffusion of innovation theory: 34 Fear appeal theory: 30
Digital communication technologies: 119, Food crop farmers: 171, 175, 183,
136 Food scarcity: 170
Digital content: 124, 216
Digital information revolution: 119 G
Digital media: 136, 142, 144, 188, 191, 206, Gate keeping theory: 34
208, 215, 217 Gender violence: 2, 112, 113, 115, 116, 117,
Digital networks: 123 118, 135
Digital technology: 119, 120, 121, 191, 193, General elections: 3, 196, 217, 228, 230, 231,
194 327
Global environment: 170
E Global health: 17, 39, 52, 65, 71
Economy: 6, 33, 52, 92, 128, 140, 176, 181, Goods and services: 2, 83, 84, 85, 87, 89, 90,
249, 251, 275, 289, 300 103, 104, 105, 109, 128, 282
Education: 4, 9, 15, 28, 36, 50, 64, 66, 106,
126, 128, 138, 172, 177, 178, 182, 202, H
234, 235, 236, 237, 249, 254, 260, 280, Health belief model: 20, 21, 25, 41, 42, 59,
293, 294, 305, 310, 319 60, 63, 74, 75, 76
Electronic books: 119, 123 Health communication: 25, 37, 40, 49, 65, 68,
Electronic ink: 124 69, 73, 249, 254, 256, 258
Electronic journal: 119, 123 Hermeneutic approach: 7
Electronic publishing: 119, 121, 122, 123, Holy Eucharist: 137
124, 125, 126 Hospitals: 128, 244, 245
329
Hostage: 128 Media approach: 3, 80, 249

Hotel: 150 Media campaigns: 2. 3, 38, 40, 411, 48, 50,
House of Assembly: 16, 215 54, 68, 70, 72, 73, 74, 77, 78, 79, 89,
Hypertext Mark-up Language: 124 81, 217, 260, 261, 266, 267, 268, 291
Media effects theories: 33
I Mediocrity: 1, 12, 13
Independence: 3, 27, 305, 308, 320 Medium theory: 33, 35, 189, 212
Indigenous communication channel: 2, 128, Message identification: 29, 30, 31, 32
134 Michael Usifo Ataga: 150
Industry: 84, 92, 111, 119, 149, 157, 176, Micheal Collins Ajereh: 103
182, 188, 196, 249, 292, 308, 321 Ministry of Science and Technology: 44
Inflation: 170, 171 Mobile apps: 136
Information processing theory: 31 Modern market: 128
Information technology: 38, 119, 125, 126, Money bags: 1, 13
Morbidity: 37, 138
138, 173
Mortality rate: 37, 139
Insecurity: 3, 4, 18, 129, 151, 158, 283, 290,
Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger
291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 298, 299,
Delta: 128
300
Instagram: 2, 19, 23, 99, 100, 112, 113, 144, Multi-national oil companies: 128
148, 155, 156, 206, 211, 222, 226, 230 MUNCH IT: 103, 104, 105, 107, 109
Internet technologies: 136, 139 Murder: 2, 129, 148, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154,
Investigative journalism: 147, 149, 157 155, 156, 167, 232, 269, 294
J N
Nation building: 3, 241, 242, 298
John Ikechukwu Okpa: 103
National cake: 128
Natural disasters: 170
K New media: 2, 14, 19, 27, 119, 120, 121, 126,
Kidnapping: 128, 129, 133, 290, 291, 294 141, 159, 161, 162, 167, 181, 188, 190,
Knowledge gap theory: 34 191, 195, 211, 217, 220, 236, 230, 232,
234, 239, 267, 279
L Newspaper framing: 1, 52, 53, 54, 55, 62, 63,
Land: 136, 151, 170, 175, 185 64
Language: 9, 26, 64, 65, 82, 110, 124, 172,
184, 191, 199, 259, 261, 268, 285, 290, O
303, 304, 305, 306, 309, 310, 311, 313, Obidatti: 3, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227,
316, 317, 318, 322, 323, 324, 326 228, 229, 230, 231
Local farmers: 171 Obidents: 6, 7, 11
Ogoni bill of rights: 128
M Oil theft: 128
Mainstream conventional mass media: 2. 156 Okowa: 3, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266,
Manufacturers: 92, 103 267, 268
Market: 8, 11, 12, 84, 92, 103, 104, 106, 114, Online campaign: 3, 222, 223, 228, 229, 230,
115, 128, 130, 132, 139, 170, 250, 257, 231, 232
290 Osita Iheme: 103
Mass communication: 1, 32, 33, 36, 119, 120, Ownership: 3, 190, 197, 199, 200, 201, 202,
150, 186, 200, 207, 213, 253, 254, 274 203, 234, 305
330
P 208, 209, 210, 225, 226, 250, 262, 278,

Pandemic: 1, 16, 17, 18, 20, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 282, 283, 286, 20, 303, 314
42, 50, 52, 53, 56, 57, 59, 60, 62, 70, 72, Rational choice theory: 5, 7, 13, 235
79, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 144, 145, Reinforcement: 31, 35
159, 160, 163, 249, 250, 252, 253, 256, Religion: 1, 3, 11, 13, 28, 96, 162, 202, 212,
257, 273 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 302,
Pen profession: 1, 191, 193, 195 310, 311, 312, 316, 319, 320, 321, 324
People’s Democratic Party: 6, 267 Reproductive health: 50, 112
Perception theory: 20, 25, 287 Rhetorical style: 199
Peter Obi: 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, Rohypnol wraps: 150
15. 223
Physical abuse: 112, 114 S
Pipeline vandalism: 128, 129, 133 Sars-cov-2: 37, 39, 57, 66, 70, 139
Political participation: 4, 6, 7, 128, 205, 206, Schema theory: 33
213, 216, 219, 262 Scholarships: 128
Politicking: 1, 4, 5, 8, 9, 12 Secured future: 10
Politics: 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, Security: 3, 10, 12, 13, 71, 124, 125, 128,
17, 28, 129, 130, 173, 204, 212, 216, 134, 204, 242, 284, 290, 291, 292, 293,
219, 221, 224, 225, 231, 232, 260, 262,
24, 295, 296, 297, 298
263, 268, 281, 293, 305, 310, 319, 320,
Sense extension theory: 35
321, 326
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
Pollution: 170, 173, 174, 175, 177, 183, 185, Coronavirus 2: 16, 37, 39
247, 280 Sidney Onarido Esiri: 103
Polysemy: 326
Skill acquisition: 31, 313
Population: 8, 21, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44,
54, 57, 60, 70, 73, 76, 88, 92, 98, 107, Social change: 3, 26, 159, 171, 189, 191,
109, 137, 139, 142, 144, 152, 159, 163, 234, 239, 316, 317, 318, 323
170, 171, 176, 178, 192, 213, 214, 223, Social learning theory: 35
227, 229, 234, 236, 238, 255, 262, 266, Social media platforms: 2, 5, 6, 8, 17, 19, 24,
274, 276, 285, 297 25, 93, 99, 100, 111, 115, 116, 148,
Portable Document File: 124 151, 153, 154, 155, 156, 166, 222, 229,
Poverty: 128, 129, 174, 177, 184, 185, 292 230, 233, 236, 267
Presidential election: 3, 15, 171, 207, 208, Social presence theory: 141, 229
219, 222, 224, 230, 261, 264, 267, 268, Social responsibility theory: 199, 200
269, 281, 322 Social status: 1, 85, 105
Preventive measures: 1, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, Society: 1, 4, 19, 38, 40, 55, 56, 71, 73, 85,
20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 38, 41, 42, 86, 92, 96, 103, 104, 106, 112, 117,
72, 74, 76, 80, 81 120, 129, 130, 133, 136, 138, 152, 154,
Print-On-Demand: 123 155, 159, 160, 162, 170, 173, 178, 189,
Protection motivation theory: 30 191, 195, 198, 200, 211, 217, 226, 233,
Psycho-cognitive: 3, 316, 317, 318, 322, 235, 239, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246,
323, 324, 325, 326 247, 250, 253, 257, 260, 271, 272, 274,
275, 279, 282, 290, 291, 293, 294, 296,
R 298, 299, 302, 306, 307, 310, 311, 316,
Radio: 1, 12, 19, 26, 38, 40, 41, 54, 71, 74, 317, 318, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325
79, 82, 83, 94, 115, 116, 117, 126, 130, Socioeconomic: 112, 272
131, 138, 145, 156, 172, 190, 198, 205, Sports betting; 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 89, 90
331
Stakeholders: 4, 5, 17, 27, 41, 42, 119, 126, Validity: 32, 276
128, 147, 159, 176, 254, 260, 264, 292 Value:2, 3, 28, 30, 31, 32, 54, 57, 85, 86, 96,
State creation: 128 97, 101, 116, 121, 131, 132, 154, 157,
State Criminal Investigation and Intelligence 172, 182, 198, 202, 209, 211, 233, 236,
Department: 150 242, 243, 245, 246. 247, 251, 260, 265,
Status conferral theory: 33, 41 275, 276, 281, 290, 293, 300, 308, 311,
Stimulus-response theory: 34 313, 316, 317, 320, 322
Super TV: 150 Village square: 2, 17, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134
Symbol: 28, 132, 243, 246, 290, 302, 303, Violence Against Women: 112, 113, 115,
304, 305, 306, 309, 310, 311, 317, 320, 117, 118
324, 325, 326 Vivian Ebele Irube: 103
Voting behaviour: 3, 204, 205, 206, 215, 216,
T 218
Tabula rasa: 32
Technology: 2, 19, 38, 44, 119, 121, 124, W
125, 126, 131, 132, 136, 138, 139, 140, Water resources: 170
144, 145, 173, 186, 189, 190, 191, 195, Web publishing: 124
204, 205, 209, 211, 212, 234, 235, 246, Western Nigeria Security Network: 3,
249, 303, 310, 316, 317, 318, 319, 323
290, 291, 297
Telegram: 1, 23, 24, 25
Telephone: 1, 126 Whatsapp: 1, 2, 19, 23, 24, 25, 26, 82,
Television continental: 1, 37, 38, 45, 46, 47, 112, 113, 140, 142, 143, 144, 156,
48, 49 187, 208, 211, 226
Toll gate: 3, 271, 272, 273, 280 Wireless Application Protocol: 124
Traditional print: 119, 123 World Health Organisation: 16, 17, 37,
Twitter: 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 14, 19, 99, 100, 102, 39, 51, 52, 62, 69, 70, 72, 112, 118,
110, 112, 113, 144, 148, 230 146, 184, 250, 251
Typhoons: 170 Wuhan Hubei: 37
U Y
Uses and gratifications theory: 32, 97 Youth restiveness: 2, 128, 129, 130, 132,
134, 135
V Youtube: 2, 17, 19, 99, 100, 140, 142,
Vaccination: 2, 50, 53, 57, 62, 63, 64, 68, 69, 143, 144, 145, 148, 156, 160, 163,
102, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 164, 165, 166, 187, 206, 236, 239
166, 167, 168, 169, 254
332
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Communication, Media and Society

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Communication, Media and Society

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Communication, Media and Society

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Chapter Twenty One

Chapter Twenty Two

Chapter Twenty Three

Chapter Twenty Four

Chapter Twenty Five

Chapter Twenty Six

Chapter Twenty Seven

Chapter Twenty Eight

Chapter Twenty Nine

5. Isaac Imo-Ter Nyam, PhD teaches in the Department of Mass Communication,

6. Emmanuel Olurotimi Olubodede is a Lecturer in the Department of Mass

7. Olaide Zainab Cole is of the Department of Mass Communication, Glorious

8 Dr. Stella Chinyere Enyindah teaches in the Department of Cinematography and

9. Jamiu Mohammed Abubakar is a Postgraduate Student in the Department of Mass

11. Isah Abdulazeez is a Postgraduate student in the Department of Mass

12. Osamagbe Lesley Egharevba is a Postgraduate Student in the Department of Mass

13. Christian Nelson Davies is a postgraduate student in the Department of Mass

14. Blessing Osariemen Osagie is a Postgraduate Student in the Department of Mass

15. Victoria Ugbedeojo Ikani is a Postgraduate Student in the Department of Mass

17. Linda Dooshima Kuku is a Postgraduate Student in the Department of Mass

19. Lucky Ejobotodo Oyibo is a Postgraduate Student in the Department of Mass

20. Adenike Omotayo Okeya-Olayinka, PhD is a Lecturer in the Department of

22. Dr. Adeline O. Nkwam-Uwaoma lectures in the Department of Mass

23. Eloho Patience Oziwele teaches in the Department of Mass Communication,

24. Jude Orah is a Postgraduate Student in the Department of Mass

25. Emeke Precious Nwaoboli is a Postgraduate student in the Department of Mass

26. Olayemi Abiodun Ajibulu is a Postgraduate Student in the Department of Mass

27. Victor Oladele teaches in the Department of Mass Communication, Glorious

28. Dr. Ikaderinyo Ibambo Furomfate lectures in the Department of Mass

29. Dr. Nassir Abba-Aji is an Associate Professor in the Department of Mass

30. Adamkolo Mohammed Ibrahim is of the Department of Mass Communication,

32. Augustine Alaba Ayeni is a postgraduate student in the Department of Mass

34. Florence O. Chukwuebuni teaches in the Department of Mass Communication,

35. David S. Tam teaches in the Department of Mass Communication, Dennis

37. Dr. Gabriel Independence is a Lecturer in the Department of Religious Studies

38. Dr. Ifedayo Akinwalere teaches in the Department of Mass Communication,

40. Dr. Olujoke Funmilayo Asekere teaches in the Department of Mass

41. Kassim Jonathan Onwubuoya is a Postgraduate Student in the Department of

43. Dr. Agnes O. Ezeji is an Associate Professor in the Department of Mass

44. Loveth Anorue is of the Department of Mass Communication, Glorious Vision

46. Holyns B. Hogan lectures in the Department of Mass Communication,

47. Eme Ohain is a Radio-TV Broadcasting Lecturer in the Department of Mass

extent of citizen journalists' unawareness of the professional codes of ethics. Chapter

Social Media and the Meteoric Rise of Peter Obi Popularity

Social Media and OBIdents’ Mobilisation

political process; however, it cannot be ignored in political process due to its