ELECTRICAL DEVICES AND

MACHINES
By SSENYONGA kizito
 D.C. generators
D.C. generators are classified according to the method of their field excitation. These
groupings are:
i. Separately excited generators, where the field winding is connected to a source
of supply other than the armature of its own machine.
ii. Self-excited generators, where the field winding receives its supply from the
armature of its own machine, and which are sub-divided into
a. Shunt
b. series
c. compound wound generators.
 Types of d.c. generator
and their characteristics
a. Separately excited generator

When a load is connected across the armature terminals,

a load current 𝐼𝑎 will flow. The terminal voltage V will fall
from its open-circuit e.m.f. E due to a volt drop caused by
current flowing through the armature resistance, shown
as 𝑅𝑎 , i.e.
𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
Or 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐸. 𝑀. 𝐹 𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎

Problem 1: Determine the terminal voltage of a generator which develops an e.m.f. of 200 V and has an
armature current of 30 A on load. Assume the armature resistance is 0.30𝞨
𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 200 − 30 ∗ 0.3 = 200 − 9 = 191𝑉

Problem 2: A generator is connected to a 60𝞨 load and a current of 8 A flows. If the armature resistance is 1𝞨,
determine (a) the terminal voltage and (b) the generated e.m.f
Terminal Voltage V= 480V
EMF E=488V
 D.C. generators
Problem : A separately excited generator develops a no-load e.m.f. of 150V at an armature
speed of 20rev/s and a flux per pole of 0.10Wb.
Determine the generated e.m.f. when the speed increases to 24rev/s and the pole flux is decreased to 0.07Wb
𝐸 = 126𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

b. Shunt-wound generator In a shunt-wound generator the field winding is connected

in parallel with the armature. The field winding has a
relatively high resistance and therefore the current carried is
only a fraction of the armature current.
𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐸. 𝑀. 𝐹 𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑓 + 𝐼
From Kirchoff’s law

Where:
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉
𝐼𝑓 = 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑓
𝐼 = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
 D.C. generators
Example. A shunt generator supplies a 20 kW load at 200 V through cables of resistance, R =100m𝞨. If the field
winding resistance, Rf =50𝞨 and the armature resistance, Ra =40m𝞨, determine
a. the terminal voltage
b. the e.m.f. generated in the armature.
 D.C. generators
The shunt-wound generator is the type most used in practice, but the load current must be limited to a
value that is well below the maximum value. This then avoids excessive variation of the terminal voltage.
Typical applications are with battery charging and motor car generators

C. Series-wound generator
In the series-wound generator the field winding is connected in
series with the armature. In a series-wound generator, the field
winding is in series with the armature and it is not possible to have
a value of field current when the terminals are open circuited, thus it
is not possible to obtain an open-circuit
characteristic.
Series-wound generators are rarely used in practice, but can be used
as a ‘booster’ on d.c. transmission lines.
 D.C. generators
d. Compound-wound generator
In the compound-wound generator two methods of
connection are used, both having a mixture of shunt
and series windings, designed to combine the
advantages of each.

Example : A short-shunt compound generator supplies

80A at 200V. If the field resistance, 𝑅𝑓 = 40𝞨, the series
resistance, 𝑅𝑆𝑒 = 0.02𝞨 and the armature resistance,
𝑅𝑎 = 0.04𝞨, determine the e.m.f. generated.
 D.C. generators
Trial Questions
1. Determine the terminal voltage of a generator which develops an e.m.f. of 240 V and has an armature current of
50 A on load. Assume the armature resistance is 40m𝞨. Ans 238V

2. A shunt generator supplies a 50 kW load at 400V through cables of resistance 0.2𝞨. If the field winding
resistance is 50𝞨 and the armature resistance is 0.05𝞨, determine
a) the terminal voltage Ans 425V
b) the e.m.f. generated in the armature. Ans 431.68V

3. A short-shunt compound generator supplies 50A at 300V. If the field resistance is 30𝞨, the series resistance 0.03
𝞨 and the armature resistance 0.05𝞨, determine the e.m.f. generated Ans 304.5V

4. A d.c. generator has a generated e.m.f. of 210V when running at 700rev/min and the flux per pole is 120mWb.
Determine the generated e.m.f.
a) at 1050rev/min, assuming the flux remains constant, Ans 315V
b) if the flux is reduced by one-sixth at constant speed and Ans 175V
c) at a speed of 1155rev/min and a flux of 132mWb. Ans 381.2v
 D.C. Machine Losses
The principal losses of machines are:
• Copper loss, due to 𝐼 2 𝑅 heat losses in the armature and field windings.

• Iron (or core) loss, due to hysteresis and eddy current losses in the armature. This loss can be reduced by
constructing the armature of silicon steel laminations having a high resistivity and low hysteresis loss. At constant
speed, the iron loss is assumed constant.

• Friction and windage losses, due to bearing and brush contact friction and losses due to air resistance against
moving parts (called windage). At constant speed, these losses are assumed to be constant.

• Brush contact loss between the brushes and commutator. This loss is approximately proportional
to the load current

• The total losses of a machine can be quite significant and operating efficiencies of between 80% and 90% are
common.
 Efficiency of a d.c. generator
The efficiency of an electrical machine is the ratio of the output power to the input power and is usually expressed
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
as a percentage. e𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝞰 = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ∗ 100
If the total resistance of the armature circuit (including brush contact resistance) is Ra, then the total loss in
the armature circuit is 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂
If the terminal voltage is V and the current in the shunt circuit is 𝐼𝑓 , then the loss in the shunt circuit is 𝑰𝒇 𝑽
If the sum of the iron, friction and windage losses is C then the total losses is given by:
𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑰𝒇 𝑽 + 𝒄
𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑰𝒇 𝑽 are infact copper losses
If the output current is I, then the output power is VI
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝐼 + 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑰𝒇 𝑽 + 𝒄
Therefore
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝐼
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑦 = = 𝟐
∗ 100
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝐼 + 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑰𝒇 𝑽 + 𝒄

The efficiency of a generator is a maximum when the load is such that:

𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂 = 𝑰𝒇 𝑽 + 𝒄
i.e. when the variable loss =the constant loss
 Efficiency of a d.c. generator
Problem. A 10 kW shunt generator having an armature circuit resistance of 0.75𝞨 and a field resistance of 125𝞨
generates a terminal voltage of 250V at full load. Determine the efficiency of the generator at full load, assuming the
iron, friction and windage losses amount to 600W

Problem: A 15 kW shunt generator having an armature circuit resistance of 0.4𝞨 and a field resistance of 100𝞨
generates a terminal voltage of 240V at full load. Determine the efficiency of the generator at full load, assuming
the iron, friction and windage losses amount to 1 kW Ans 82.14%
 D.C Motors
The construction of a d.c. motor is the same as a d.c. generator. The only difference is that in a
generator the generated e.m.f. is greater than the terminal voltage, whereas in a motor the
generated e.m.f. is less than the terminal voltage. D.c. motors are often used in power stations to
drive emergency stand-by pump systems which come into operation to protect essential equipment
and plant should the normal a.c. supplies or pumps fail.

Back e.m.f

When a d.c. motor rotates, an e.m.f. is induced in the armature conductors. By Lenz’s law this induced
e.m.f. E opposes the supply voltage V and is called a back e.m.f., and the supply voltage V is given by:

𝑽 = 𝑬 + 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂 or 𝐄 = 𝑽 − 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂

Problem: The armature of a d.c. machine has a resistance of 0.25𝞨 and is connected to a 300V supply.
Calculate the e.m.f. generated when it is running:
(a) as a generator giving 100A,
(b) as a motor taking 80A.
 D.C Motors
Solutions:
a. As a generator the generated E.M.F
E = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝐸 = 300 + (100)(0.25)
𝐸 = 325𝑉

b. As a motor the generated E.M.F or the back e.m.f

E = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝐸 = 300 − (80)(0.25)
𝐸 = 280𝑉

Problem: Determine the generated e.m.f. of a d.c.machine if the armature resistance is 0.1 𝞨 and it
(a) Is running as a motor connected o a 230V supply, the armature current being 60 A, and
(b) is running as a generator with a terminal voltage of 230 V, the armature current being 80A.
 Types of d.c. motors
a. Shunt-wound motor
In the shunt-wound motor the field winding is in parallel with the armature across the supply,
In a shunt-wound generator the field winding is connected in
parallel with the armature. The field winding has a relatively
high resistance and therefore the current carried is only a
fraction of the armature current.
𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑉 = 𝐸 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐸. 𝑀. 𝐹 𝐸 = 𝑉 ∓
+𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑓 + 𝐼
From Kirchoff’s law

Where:
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉
𝐼𝑓 = 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑅𝑓
𝐼 = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
 Types of d.c. motors
b. Series-wound motor
In the series-wound motor the field winding is in series with the armature across the supply

Supply Voltage 𝑉 = 𝐸 + 𝐼 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑓
Generated E.M.F 𝐸 = 𝑉 − 𝐼 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑓
 Types of d.c. motors
C. Compound-wound motor
There are two types of compound-wound motor:
i. Cumulative compound, in which the series winding is so connected that the field due to it assists that due to
the shunt winding.
ii. Differential compound, in which the series winding is so connected that the field due to it opposes that due
to the shunt winding.
 Torque of a D.C. machine
for a d.c. motor, the supply voltage V is given by
𝑽 = 𝑬 + 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂
Multiplying each term by current 𝑰𝒂 gives:
𝑽𝑰𝒂 = 𝑬𝑰𝒂 + 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂

The term 𝑽𝑰𝒂 is the total electrical power supplied to the armature, the term 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂 is the loss due to
armature resistance and the term 𝑬𝑰𝒂 is the mechanical power developed by the armature.
If T is the torque, in newton metres, then the mechanical power developed is given by Tω watts (see Science
for Engineering, 4th edition, Taylor & Francis).
Hence 𝑇𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑛𝑇 = 𝐸𝐼𝑎 , from which
𝐸𝐼𝑎
𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒, 𝑇 = 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠
2𝜋𝑛
2𝑝𝞥𝑛𝑍
The e.m.f. E generated is given by 𝐸 = 𝐶
2𝑝𝞥𝑛𝑍
Hence 2𝜋𝑛𝑇 = 𝐸𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑎
𝐶
2𝑝𝞥𝑛𝑍
𝐼𝑎
𝐶
𝑇=
2𝜋𝑛
 Torque of a D.C. machine
I.e
2𝑝𝞥𝑛𝑍𝐼𝑎
𝑇= 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝜋𝐶
Hence torque
𝑇 ∝ 𝞥𝐼𝑎

Problem: An 8-pole d.c. motor has a wave-wound armature with 900 conductors. The useful flux per pole is
25mWb. Determine the torque exerted when a current of 30A flows in each armature conductor.
p=4, c=2 for a wave winding, =25×10-3 Wb, Z =900, 𝐼𝑎 =30A
2𝑝𝞥𝑛𝑍𝐼𝑎
𝑇=
𝜋𝐶
−3
4 ∗ 25 ∗ 10 ∗ 900 ∗ 30
𝑇= = 𝟒𝟐𝟗. 𝟕𝐍𝐦
2𝜋

Problem: Determine the torque developed by a 350V d.c. motor having an armature resistance of 0.5𝞨 and
running at 15rev/s. The armature current is 60A.
V =350V, Ra =0.5𝞨, n=15rev/s, 𝐼𝑎 = 60𝐴
Back e.m.f. 𝑉 = 𝐸 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 350 − 60 ∗ 0.5 = 320𝑉
𝐸𝐼𝑎 320 ∗ 60
𝑇= = = 𝟐𝟎𝟑. 𝟕𝑵𝒎
2𝜋𝑛 2𝜋 ∗ 15
 Torque of a D.C. machine
Problem: A 6-pole lap-wound motor is connected to a 250V d.c. supply. The armature has 500 conductors and a
resistance of 1𝞨. The flux per pole is 20mWb. Calculate
a. the speed and
b. The torque developed when the armature current is 40A

V =250V, Z =500, 𝑅𝑎 = 1𝞨 , 𝞥=20×10-3 Wb, 𝐼𝑎 = 40𝐴, c=2p for a lap winding

Back e.m.f. 𝑉 = 𝐸 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 250 − 40 ∗ 1 = 210𝑉
2𝑝𝞥𝑛𝑍
𝐸=
𝐶
2𝑝 ∗ 20 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 𝑛 ∗ 500
210 =
2𝑝
210
a. 𝑛 = 20∗10−3 ∗500 = 𝟐𝟏𝒓𝒆𝒗/𝒔
𝐸𝐼
𝑎 210∗40
b. 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒, 𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑛 = 2𝜋∗21
= 𝟔𝟑. 𝟔𝟔𝑵𝒎
 Torque of a D.C. machine
Problem: The shaft torque of a diesel motor driving a 100V d.c. shunt-wound generator is 25Nm. The armature
current of the generator is 16 A at this value of torque. If the shunt field regulator is adjusted so that the flux is
reduced by 15%, the torque increases to 35Nm. Determine the armature current at this new value of torque.

From equation 𝑇 ∝ 𝞥𝐼𝑎 , the shaft torque T of a generator is proportional to 𝐼𝑎 , where is the flux and 𝐼𝑎 is the
armature current. Thus, 𝑇 = 𝑘. 𝞥𝐼𝑎 , where k is a constant.
The torque at flux 1 and armature current 𝐼𝑎1 is 𝑇1 = 𝑘𝞥1 𝐼𝑎1 .
Similarly 𝑇2 = 𝑘𝞥2 𝐼𝑎2
𝑇 𝑘.𝞥 𝐼
By division 𝑇1 = 𝑘.𝞥1𝐼𝑎1
2 2 𝑎2
25 𝞥1 16
=
35 0.85. 𝞥2 𝐼𝑎2
13 ∗ 35
𝐼𝑎2 = = 26.35𝐴
0.85 ∗ 25
That is, the armature current at the new value of torque is 26.35 A
 Torque of a D.C. machine
Trial Problem: A 100V d.c. generator supplies a current of 15A when running at 1500rev/min. If the torque on the
shaft driving the generator is 12N. determine
(a) the efficiency of the generator and
(b) the power loss in the generator.

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
the efficiency of a 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ∗ 100
The output power is the electrical output, i.e. VI watts. The input power to a generator is the mechanical power
in the shaft driving the generator, i.e. Tω or T(2πn) watts, where T is the torque in Nm and n is speed of rotation
in rev/s. Hence,for a generator
𝑉𝐼 100 ∗ 15 ∗ 100
efficiency , 𝞰 = ∗ 100 = = 𝟕𝟗. 𝟔%
𝑇 2𝜋𝑛 1500
12 ∗ 2𝜋 ∗ 60
The input power=output power+losses
𝑇 2𝜋𝑛 = 𝑉𝐼 + 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑇 2𝜋𝑛 − 𝑉𝐼
1500
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 12 ∗ 2𝜋 ∗ − 100 ∗ 15 = 𝟑𝟖𝟓𝑾
60
 The efficiency of a d.c. motor
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
The efficiency of a d.c. machine is given by efficiency of a 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝞰 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ∗ 100

Also, the Total losses = 𝑉𝐼 + 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑰𝒇 𝑽 + 𝒄 (for a shunt motor) where C is the sum of the iron, friction and
windage losses.
For a motor, the input power=V𝐼 and the Output power=V𝐼 − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
Output power= V𝑰 − 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂 − 𝑰𝒇 𝑽 − 𝒄
V𝑰−𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂 −𝑰𝒇𝑽−𝒄
Hence Efficiency 𝞰 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝑰
The efficiency of a motor is a maximum when the load is such that:
𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂 = 𝑰𝒇 𝑽 + 𝒄
 The efficiency of a d.c. motor
Problem: A 320V shunt motor takes a total current of 80A and runs at 1000rev/min. If the iron, friction and
windage losses amount to 1.5 kW, the shunt field resistance is 40𝞨 and the armature resistance is 0.2𝞨,
determine the overall efficiency of the motor.

𝑉 320
Field Current= = = 8𝐴
𝑓 40
Armature current 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼 + 𝐼𝑓 = 80 − 8 = 72𝐴
C =iron, friction and windage losses=1500W
V𝑰 − 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂 − 𝑰𝒇 𝑽 − 𝒄
Efficiency 𝞰 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝑰
320∗80 − 𝟕𝟐𝟐 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟐 − 𝟖 ∗ 𝟑𝟐𝟎 − 1500
Efficiency 𝞰 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟑𝟐𝟎 ∗ 𝟖𝟎
Efficiency 𝞰 = 𝟖𝟎. 𝟏%
 The efficiency of a d.c. motor
Problem: A 250V series motor draws a current of 40A. The armature resistance is 0.15𝞨 and the field resistance is
0.05𝞨. Determine the maximum efficiency of the motor.

However, for a series motor, 𝐼𝑓 = 0 and the 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂 loss

needs to be 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑎
V𝐼 − 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑎 − 𝑐
Efficiency 𝞰 = ∗ 100
𝑉𝐼
Fpr maximum efficiency 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑐
V𝐼−2.𝐼2 𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑎
Hence 𝞰 = ∗ 100
𝑉𝐼
250∗40 − 2 ∗ 402 0.05 + 0.15
𝞰= ∗ 100
250∗40
𝞰 = 𝟗𝟑. 𝟔%

1. Trial Problem 1: A 200V d.c. motor develops a shaft torque of 15Nm at 1200rev/min. If the efficiency is
80%, determine the current supplied to the motor. Ans 11.8A
2. Trial Problem 2: A d.c. series motor drives a load at 30rev/s and takes a current of 10 A when the supply
voltage is 400V. If the total resistance of the motor is 2𝞨 and the iron, friction and windage losses amount to
300W, determine the efficiency of the motor Ans 87.5%
 Course Work
1. Define a transformer
2. Describe the construction of a transformer and its working principle
3. Describe the different ways of classification/types/categories of transformers
4. Derivation of the expression for the induced E.M.F in transformers
5. Explain the term Impedance Matching in transformers and derive an expression relating a purely resistive
input resistance r and purely resistive load impedance R in a transformer for maximum transfer of power
6. Derive an expression for efficiency in a transformer and state the condition for maximum efficiency in a
transformer.

Guide lines for the course work

• Work in groups of 05 (Five) only
• The group will present to the lecturer at a communicated date
• Absentees during the presentations shall not be rewarded course work marks
• During presentation the group shall present a write up (hand written)
• Course work is examinable in the final examination