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 A BOUT THE A UTHORS

Yunus A. Çengel is Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering at

the University of Nevada, Reno. He received his B.S. in mechanical engineer-
ing from Istanbul Technical University and his M.S. and Ph.D. in mechanical
engineering from North Carolina State University. His areas of interest are
renewable energy, energy efficiency, energy policies, heat transfer enhance-
ment, and engineering education. He served as the director of the Industrial
Assessment Center (IAC) at the University of Nevada, Reno, from 1996 to
2000. He has led teams of engineering students to numerous manufacturing
facilities in Northern Nevada and California to perform industrial assessments
and has prepared energy conservation, waste minimization, and productivity
enhancement reports for them. He has also served as an advisor for various
government organizations and corporations.
Dr. Çengel is also the author or coauthor of the widely adopted text-
books Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach (9th ed., 2019), Fluid
Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications (4th ed., 2018), Fundamentals
of Thermal-Fluid Sciences (5th ed., 2017), and Differential Equations for
Engineers and Scientists (1st ed., 2013), all published by McGraw-Hill. Some
of his textbooks have been translated into Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Thai,
Spanish, Portuguese, Turkish, Italian, Greek, French and Basq.
Dr. Çengel is the recipient of several outstanding teacher awards, and he
received the ASEE Meriam/Wiley Distinguished Author Award for excel-
lence in authorship in 1992 and again in 2000. Dr. Çengel is a registered
Professional Engineer in the State of Nevada, and he is a member of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and the American
Society for Engineering Education (ASEE).

Afshin J. Ghajar is Regents Professor and John Brammer Professor

in the School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at Oklahoma State
University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, and an Honorary Professor of Xi’an Jiaotong
University, Xi’an, China. He received his B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees, all in
mechanical engineering, from Oklahoma State University. His expertise is in
experimental heat transfer/fluid mechanics and the development of practical
engineering correlations. Dr. Ghajar has made significant contributions to the
field of thermal sciences through his experimental, empirical, and numerical
works in heat transfer and stratification in sensible heat storage systems, heat
transfer to non-Newtonian fluids, heat transfer in the transition region, and
non-boiling heat transfer in two-phase flow. His current research is in two-
phase flow heat transfer/pressure drop studies in pipes with different orienta-
tions, heat transfer/pressure drop in mini/micro tubes, and mixed convective
heat transfer/pressure drop in the transition region (plain and enhanced tubes).
Dr. Ghajar has been a Summer Research Fellow at Wright Patterson AFB
(Dayton, Ohio) and Dow Chemical Company (Freeport, Texas). He and his
co-workers have published over 200 reviewed research papers. He has deliv-
ered numerous keynote and invited lectures at major technical conferences
and institutions.
 viii
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

He has received several outstanding teaching, research, advising, and ser-

vice awards from the College of Engineering at Oklahoma State University.
His latest significant awards are the 75th Anniversary Medal of the ASME
Heat Transfer Division “in recognition of his service to the heat transfer
community and contributions to the field,” awarded in 2013. He received
the ASME ICNMM 2016 Outstanding Leadership Award, which recog-
nizes a person whose service within the ICNMM (International Conference
on Nanochannels, Microchannels, and Minichannels) is exemplary. He also
received the 2017 Donald Q. Kern Award “in recognition of his outstand-
ing leadership in the field of heat exchangers and two-phase flow, book and
archival publications, and service to the academic and industrial profession-
als.” Dr. Ghajar is a Fellow of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME), Heat Transfer Series Editor for CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, and
Editor-in-Chief of Heat Transfer Engineering, an international journal aimed
at practicing engineers and specialists in heat transfer published by Taylor
and Francis.
 B RIEF C ONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS 1
CHAPTER TWO
HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION 75
CHAPTER THREE
STEADY HEAT CONDUCTION 151
CHAPTER FOUR
TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION 249
CHAPTER FIVE
NUMERICAL METHODS IN HEAT CONDUCTION 315
CHAPTER SIX
FUNDAMENTALS OF CONVECTION 391
CHAPTER SEVEN
EXTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION 439
CHAPTER EIGHT
INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION 491
CHAPTER NINE
NATURAL CONVECTION 555
CHAPTER TEN
BOILING AND CONDENSATION 623
CHAPTER ELEVEN
HEAT EXCHANGERS 677
CHAPTER TWELVE
FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMAL RADIATION 747
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER 799
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
MASS TRANSFER 871
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
COOLING OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT (Online Chapter)
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
HEATING AND COOLING OF BUILDINGS (Online Chapter)
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
REFRIGERATION AND FREEZING OF FOODS (Online Chapter)
APPENDIX 1
PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS (SI UNITS) 945
APPENDIX 2
PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS (ENGLISH UNITS) 973
 C ONTENTS

Preface xix Topic of Special Interest: Thermal

Comfort 48
Summary 55
CHAPTER ONE References and Suggested Reading 56
Problems 56
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC
CONCEPTS 1
CHAPTER TWO
1–1 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 2
Application Areas of Heat Transfer 3 HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION 75
Historical Background 3

1–2 Engineering Heat Transfer 4 2–1 Introduction 76

Modeling in Engineering 5 Steady Versus Transient Heat Transfer
1–3 Heat and Other Forms of Energy 6
Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids, and Solids
Energy Transfer 9
1–4 The First Law of Thermodynamics 11
Energy Balance for Closed Systems (Fixed Mass) 12
Energy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems 12
Surface Energy Balance 13
1–5 Heat Transfer Mechanisms 16
1–6 Conduction 17
Thermal Conductivity 18
Thermal Diffusivity 22
1–7 Convection 25
1–8 Radiation 27
1–9 Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms 29
1–10 Aerogel—A Remarkable Superinsulating
Material 34
1–11 Prevention Through Design 36
1–12 Engineering Codes and Standards 39
1–13 Problem-Solving Technique 41
Step 1: Problem Statement 41
Step 2: Schematic 41
Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations 42
Step 4: Physical Laws 42
Step 5: Properties 42
Step 6: Calculations 42
Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion
1–14 Engineering Software Packages 43
Equation Solvers 44
1–15 Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Digits 45
77
Multidimensional Heat Transfer 78
Heat Generation 80
7
2–2 One-Dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation 81
Heat Conduction Equation in a Large
Plane Wall 81
Heat Conduction Equation in a Long Cylinder 83
Heat Conduction Equation in a Sphere 84
Combined One-Dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation 85
2–3 General Heat Conduction Equation 87
Rectangular Coordinates 87
Cylindrical Coordinates 89
Spherical Coordinates 89
2–4 Boundary and Initial Conditions 90
1 Specified Temperature Boundary Condition 92
2 Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition 92
Special Case: Insulated Boundary 93
Another Special Case: Thermal Symmetry 93
3 Convection Boundary Condition 94
4 Radiation Boundary Condition 96
5 Interface Boundary Conditions 97
6 Generalized Boundary Conditions 97
2–5 Solution of Steady One-Dimensional Heat
Conduction Problems 99
2–6 Heat Generation in a Solid 112
2–7 Variable Thermal Conductivity, k(T ) 120
42
Topic of Special Interest: A Brief Review of
Differential Equations 123
Summary 129
References and Suggested Readings 130
Problems 130
 xii
CONTENTS

CHAPTER THREE 4–4 Transient Heat Conduction in Multidimensional

Systems 278
STEADY HEAT CONDUCTION 151 Topic of Special Interest: Refrigeration and
Freezing of Foods 283
3–1 Steady Heat Conduction in Plane Walls 152
Thermal Resistance Concept 153 Summary 294
Thermal Resistance Network 155 References and Suggested Reading 296
Multilayer Plane Walls 157 Problems 296

3–2 Thermal Contact Resistance 162

3–3 Generalized Thermal Resistance Networks 167 CHAPTER FIVE
3–4 Heat Conduction in Cylinders and Spheres 169 NUMERICAL METHODS IN HEAT
Multilayered Cylinders and Spheres 172
CONDUCTION 315
3–5 Critical Radius of Insulation 176
3–6 Heat Transfer from Finned Surfaces 179 5–1 Why Numerical Methods? 316
Fin Equation 180 1 Limitations 317
1 Infinitely Long Fin (​​T​fin tip​​  = ​T​∞​​)​  182 2 Better Modeling 317
2 Negligible Heat Loss from the Fin Tip 3 Flexibility 318
·
​​​ ​​​​ fin tip​​  = 0​) 183
(Adiabatic fin tip, Q 4 Complications 318
3 Specified Temperature (​​Tfin, ​ tip​​  = ​TL​ ​​)​  183 5 Human Nature 318
4 Convection from Fin Tip 184
Fin Efficiency 185
5–2 Finite Difference Formulation of Differential
Fin Effectiveness 187 Equations 319
Proper Length of a Fin 190 5–3 One-Dimensional Steady Heat Conduction 322
3–7 Bioheat Transfer Equation 196 Boundary Conditions 324
Treating Insulated Boundary Nodes as Interior Nodes: The
3–8 Heat Transfer in Common Configurations 201 Mirror Image Concept 326
Topic of Special Interest: Heat Transfer Through 5–4 Two-Dimensional Steady Heat Conduction 333
Walls and Roofs 206 Boundary Nodes 334
Irregular Boundaries 338
Summary 216
References and Suggested Reading 218 5–5 Transient Heat Conduction 342
Problems 218 Transient Heat Conduction in a Plane Wall 344
Stability Criterion for Explicit Method: Limitation on Δt 346
Two-Dimensional Transient Heat Conduction 355
CHAPTER FOUR Topic of Special Interest: Controlling the
Numerical Error 360
TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION 249
Summary 363
References and Suggested Reading 364
4–1 Lumped System Analysis 250 Problems 365
Criteria for Lumped System Analysis 251
Some Remarks on Heat Transfer in Lumped Systems 253

4–2 Transient Heat Conduction in Large Plane CHAPTER SIX

Walls, Long Cylinders, and Spheres with Spatial
Effects 256
Nondimensionalized One-Dimensional Transient
Conduction Problem 257
Exact Solution of One-Dimensional Transient Conduction
Problem 259
Approximate Analytical Solutions 262
4–3 Transient Heat Conduction in Semi-Infinite
Solids 269
Contact of Two Semi-Infinite Solids
FUNDAMENTALS OF CONVECTION 391
6–1 Physical Mechanism of Convection 392
Nusselt Number 394
6–2 Classification of Fluid Flows 396
Viscous Versus Inviscid Regions of Flow 396
Internal Versus External Flow 396
Compressible Versus Incompressible Flow 396
273 Laminar Versus Turbulent Flow 397
 xiii
CONTENTS
Natural (or Unforced) Versus Forced Flow 397 7–4 Flow Across Tube Banks 462
Steady Versus Unsteady Flow 397 Pressure Drop 465
One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows 398
Summary 469
6–3 Velocity Boundary Layer 399 References and Suggested Reading 470
Wall Shear Stress 400 Problems 471
6–4 Thermal Boundary Layer 401
Prandtl Number 402

6–5 Laminar and Turbulent Flows 402

CHAPTER EIGHT
Reynolds Number 403 INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION 491
6–6 Heat and Momentum Transfer in Turbulent
Flow 404 8–1 Introduction 492
6–7 Derivation of Differential Convection 8–2 Average Velocity and Temperature 493
Equations 406 Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Tubes 494
The Continuity Equation 407 8–3 The Entrance Region 495
The Momentum Equations 407 Entry Lengths 497
Conservation of Energy Equation 409
8–4 General Thermal Analysis 498
6–8 Solutions of Convection Equations for a Flat Constant Surface Heat Flux (​​​q• ​​s​​  ​​  = constant)​  499
Plate 413 Constant Surface Temperature ​(T ​ ​s​​  = constant)​  500
The Energy Equation 415
8–5 Laminar Flow in Tubes 503
6–9 Nondimensionalized Convection Equations and Pressure Drop 505
Similarity 417 Temperature Profile and the Nusselt Number 507
Constant Surface Heat Flux 507
6–10 Functional Forms of Friction and Convection Constant Surface Temperature 508
Coefficients 419 Laminar Flow in Noncircular Tubes 509
Developing Laminar Flow in the Entrance Region 510
6–11 Analogies Between Momentum and Heat
Transfer 420 8–6 Turbulent Flow in Tubes 514
Fully Developed Transitional Flow Heat Transfer 515
Topic of Special Interest: Microscale Heat Rough Surfaces 516
Transfer 423 Developing Turbulent Flow in the Entrance Region 518
Summary 426 Turbulent Flow in Noncircular Tubes 518
References and Suggested Reading 427 Flow Through Tube Annulus 518
Problems 428 Heat Transfer Enhancement 519
Topic of Special Interest: Transitional
Flow in Tubes 526
CHAPTER SEVEN Summary 538
References and Suggested Reading 539
EXTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION 439 Problems 540

7–1 Drag and Heat Transfer in External Flow 440

Friction and Pressure Drag 440
Heat Transfer 442
CHAPTER NINE
7–2 Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates 443 NATURAL CONVECTION 555
Friction Coefficient 444
Heat Transfer Coefficient 445 9–1 Physical Mechanism of Natural Convection 556
Flat Plate with Unheated Starting Length 447
Uniform Heat Flux 448 9–2 Equation of Motion and the Grashof
General Solutions for Simultaneously Moving Plates and Number 559
Fluids 448 The Grashof Number 561

7–3 Flow Across Cylinders and Spheres 454 9–3 Natural Convection Over Surfaces 562
Effect of Surface Roughness 456 Vertical Plates ​(Ts = constant)​  563
Heat Transfer Coefficient 458 Vertical Plates ​(​q· ​s = constant)​  563
 xiv
CONTENTS

Vertical Cylinders 565 10–6 Film Condensation Inside Horizontal

Inclined Plates 565
Tubes 651
Horizontal Plates 566
Horizontal Cylinders and Spheres 566 10–7 Dropwise Condensation 653
9–4 Natural Convection from Finned Surfaces and Topic of Special Interest: Non-Boiling
PCBs 570 Two-Phase Flow Heat Transfer 655
Natural Convection Cooling of Finned Surfaces
Summary 662
(Ts = constant) 570
References and Suggested Readings 664
Natural Convection Cooling of Vertical PCBs
Problems 664
​(​q· ​s = constant)​  571
Mass Flow Rate Through the Space Between Plates 572

9–5 Natural Convection Inside Enclosures 574

Effective Thermal Conductivity 575 CHAPTER ELEVEN
Horizontal Rectangular Enclosures 575
Inclined Rectangular Enclosures 576 HEAT EXCHANGERS 677
Vertical Rectangular Enclosures 577
Concentric Cylinders 577 11–1 Types of Heat Exchangers 678
Concentric Spheres 578
Combined Natural Convection and Radiation 578 11–2 The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 681
Fouling Factor 684
9–6 Combined Natural and Forced Convection 584
11–3 Analysis of Heat Exchangers 688
Topic of Special Interest: Heat Transfer
Through Windows 589 11–4 The Log Mean Temperature Difference
Summary 600
Method 690
Counterflow Heat Exchangers 692
References and Suggested Reading 601
Multipass and Crossflow Heat Exchangers: Use of a
Problems 602
Correction Factor 693

11–5 The Effectiveness–NTU Method 700

CHAPTER TEN 11–6 Selection of Heat Exchangers 714
Heat Transfer Rate 715
BOILING AND CONDENSATION 623 Cost 715
Pumping Power 715
10–1 Boiling Heat Transfer 624 Size and Weight 716
Type 716
10–2 Pool Boiling 626 Materials 716
Boiling Regimes and the Boiling Curve 626 Other Considerations 716
Natural Convection Boiling (to Point A on the Boiling
Curve) 626 Topic of Special Interest: The Human
Nucleate Boiling (Between Points A and C) 627 Cardiovascular System as a Countercurrent
Transition Boiling (Between Points C and D) 628 Heat Exchanger 718
Film Boiling (Beyond Point D) 628
Heat Transfer Correlations in Pool Boiling 629 Summary 725
Nucleate Boiling 629 References and Suggested Reading 726
Peak Heat Flux 630 Problems 726
Minimum Heat Flux 632
Film Boiling 632
Enhancement of Heat Transfer in Pool Boiling 633
C H A P T E R T W E LV E
10–3 Flow Boiling 637
FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMAL
10–4 Condensation Heat Transfer 638
RADIATION 747
10–5 Film Condensation 639
Flow Regimes 641
Heat Transfer Correlations for Film Condensation 641 12–1 Introduction 748
Effect of Vapor Velocity 647 12–2 Thermal Radiation 749
The Presence of Noncondensable Gases in
Condensers 647 12–3 Blackbody Radiation 751
 xv
CONTENTS

12–4 Radiation Intensity 758 Summary 847

Solid Angle 758 References and Suggested Reading 848
Intensity of Emitted Radiation 759 Problems 849
Incident Radiation 761
Radiosity 761
Spectral Quantities 761 CHAPTER FOURTEEN
12–5 Radiative Properties 764 MASS TRANSFER 871
Emissivity 764
Absorptivity, Reflectivity, and Transmissivity 768
Kirchhoff’s Law 771 14–1 Introduction 872
The Greenhouse Effect 774 14–2 Analogy Between Heat and Mass
12–6 Atmospheric and Solar Radiation 774 Transfer 873
Temperature 874
Topic of Special Interest: Solar Heat Gain Conduction 874
Through Windows 779 Heat Generation 874
Summary 786 Convection 875
References and Suggested Reading 787 14–3 Mass Diffusion 875
Problems 788 1 Mass Basis 875
2 Mole Basis 876
Special Case: Ideal Gas Mixtures 877
Fick’s Law of Diffusion: Stationary Medium
CHAPTER THIRTEEN Consisting of Two Species 877

RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER 799 14–4 Boundary Conditions 881

14–5 Steady Mass Diffusion Through a
13–1 The View Factor 800 Wall 886
13–2 View Factor Relations 804 14–6 Water Vapor Migration in Buildings 890
1 The Reciprocity Relation 807
2 The Summation Rule 807 14–7 Transient Mass Diffusion 895
3 The Superposition Rule 809 14–8 Diffusion in a Moving Medium 897
4 The Symmetry Rule 810 Special Case: Gas Mixtures at Constant Pressure and
View Factors Between Infinitely Long Surfaces: The Temperature 901
Crossed-Strings Method 812 Diffusion of Vapor Through a Stationary Gas: Stefan
13–3 Radiation Heat Transfer: Black Surfaces 814 Flow 902
Equimolar Counterdiffusion 904
13–4 Radiation Heat Transfer: Diffuse, Gray
Surfaces 816 14–9 Mass Convection 909
Analogy Between Friction, Heat Transfer, and Mass
Radiosity 816
Transfer Coefficients 913
Net Radiation Heat Transfer to or from a Surface 817
Special Case: Pr ≈ Sc ≈ 1 (Reynolds Analogy) 913
Net Radiation Heat Transfer Between Any Two
General Case: Pr ≠ Sc ≠ 1 (Chilton–Colburn
Surfaces 818
Analogy) 914
Methods of Solving Radiation Problems 819
Limitation on the Heat–Mass Convection
Radiation Heat Transfer in Two-Surface Enclosures 820
Analogy 915
Radiation Heat Transfer in Three-Surface Enclosures 822
Mass Convection Relations 915
13–5 Radiation Shields and the Radiation 14–10 Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer 919
Effects 828
Radiation Effect on Temperature Measurements 830 Summary 924
References and Suggested Reading 926
13–6 Radiation Exchange with Emitting and Problems 926
Absorbing Gases 834
Radiation Properties of a Participating Medium 835
Emissivity and Absorptivity of Gases and Gas CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Mixtures 836
Topic of Special Interest: Heat Transfer COOLING OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
from the Human Body 843 (Online Chapter)
 xvi
CONTENTS

15–1 Introduction and History 17–3 Thermal Properties of Food

15–2 Manufacturing of Electronic Equipment 17–4 Refrigeration of Fruits and Vegetables
15–3 Cooling Load of Electronic Equipment 17–5 Refrigeration of Meats, Poultry, and Fish
15–4 Thermal Environment 17–6 Refrigeration of Eggs, Milk, and Bakery
15–5 Electronics Cooling in Different Applications Products
15–6 Conduction Cooling 17–7 Refrigeration Load of Cold Storage Rooms
15–7 Air Cooling: Natural Convection and Radiation 17–8 Transportation of Refrigerated Foods
Summary
15–8 Air Cooling: Forced Convection References and Suggested Reading
15–9 Liquid Cooling Problems

15–10 Immersion Cooling

Summary APPENDIX 1
References and Suggested Reading
Problems PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS
(SI UNITS) 945
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
Table A–1 Molar mass, gas constant, and
HEATING AND COOLING OF BUILDINGS ideal-gas specific heats of some
(Online Chapter) substances 946
Table A–2 Boiling and freezing point
16–1 A Brief History properties 947
16–2 Human Body and Thermal Comfort Table A–3 Properties of solid metals 948
Table A–4 Properties of solid nonmetals 951
16–3 Heat Transfer from the Human Body
Table A–5 Properties of building materials 952
16–4 Design Conditions for Heating and Cooling
Table A–6 Properties of insulating
16–5 Heat Gain from People, Lights, and Appliances materials 954
16–6 Heat Transfer through Walls and Roofs Table A–7 Properties of common foods 955
16–7 Heat Loss from Basement Walls and Floors Table A–8 Properties of miscellaneous
16–8 Heat Transfer through Windows materials 957
16–9 Solar Heat Gain through Windows Table A–9 Properties of saturated water 958
16–10 Infiltration Heat Load and Weatherizing Table A–10 Properties of saturated
refrigerant-134a 959
16–11 Annual Energy Consumption
Table A–11 Properties of saturated ammonia 960
Summary
References and Suggested Reading Table A–12 Properties of saturated propane 961
Problems Table A–13 Properties of liquids 962
Table A–14 Properties of liquid metals 963
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN Table A–15 Properties of air at 1 atm
pressure 964
REFRIGERATION AND FREEZING OF Table A–16 Properties of gases at 1 atm
FOODS (Online Chapter) pressure 965
Table A–17 Properties of the atmosphere at high
17–1 Control of Microorganisms in Foods altitude 967
17–2 Refrigeration and Freezing of Foods Table A–18 Emissivities of surfaces 968
 xvii
CONTENTS

Table A–19 Solar radiative properties of Table A–7E Properties of common foods 982
materials 970 Table A–8E Properties of miscellaneous
FIGURE A–20 The Moody chart for the friction materials 984
­factor for fully developed flow in cir- Table A–9E Properties of saturated water 985
cular pipes 971
Table A–10E Properties of saturated
refrigerant-134a 986
APPENDIX 2 Table A–11E Properties of saturated ammonia 987
Table A–12E Properties of saturated propane 988
PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS
Table A–13E Properties of liquids 989
(ENGLISH UNITS) 973
Table A–14E Properties of liquid metals 990
Table A–1E Molar mass, gas constant, and ideal-gas Table A–15E Properties of air at 1 atm pressure 991
specific heats of some substances 974 Table A–16E Properties of gases at 1 atm
Table A–2E Boiling and freezing point pressure 992
properties 975 Table A–17E Properties of the atmosphere at high
Table A–3E Properties of solid metals 976 altitude 994
Table A–4E Properties of solid nonmentals 978
Index 995
Table A–5E Properties of building materials 979 Nomenclature 1015
Table A–6E Properties of insulating materials 981 Conversion Factors 1017
 P REFACE

BACKGROUND
Heat and mass transfer is a basic science that deals with the rate of transfer
of thermal energy. It is an exciting and fascinating subject with unlimited
practical applications ranging from biological systems to common household
appliances, residential and commercial buildings, industrial processes, elec-
tronic devices, and food processing. Students are assumed to have an ade-
quate background in calculus and physics. The completion of first courses in
thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and differential equations prior to taking
heat transfer is desirable. However, relevant concepts from these topics are
introduced and reviewed as needed.

OBJECTIVES
This book is intended for undergraduate engineering students in their sopho-
more or junior year and as a reference book for practicing engineers. The
objectives of this text are
∙ To present the basic principles and equations of heat transfer.
∙ To show numerous and diverse real-world engineering examples to
help students develop the intuition they need to correctly apply heat
transfer principles in engineering.
∙ To develop an intuitive understanding of heat transfer by emphasizing
the physics and physical arguments.
It is our hope that this book, through its careful explanations of concepts
and its use of many practical examples and figures, helps students to develop
the skills they need to bridge the gap between gaining knowledge and confi-
dently applying that knowledge.
In engineering practice, an understanding of the mechanisms of heat trans-
fer is becoming increasingly important since heat transfer plays a crucial
role in the design of vehicles, power plants, refrigerators, electronic devices,
buildings, and bridges, among other things. Even a chef needs an intuitive
understanding of heat transfer in order to cook the food “right” by adjusting
the rate of heat transfer. We may not be aware of it, but we already use the
principles of heat transfer when we seek thermal comfort. We insulate our
bodies by putting on heavy coats in winter, and we minimize heat gain by
radiation by staying in shady places in summer. We speed up the cooling of
hot food by blowing on it and keep warm in cold weather by cuddling up and
thus minimizing our exposed surface area. That is, we already use heat trans-
fer whether we realize it or not.

PHILOSOPHY AND GOAL

This text is the outcome of an attempt to have a textbook for a practically
oriented heat transfer course for engineering students. The text covers the
standard topics of heat transfer with an emphasis on physics and real-world
 xx
PREFACE

applications. This approach is more in line with students’ intuition and makes
learning the subject matter enjoyable.
The philosophy that contributed to the overwhelming popularity of the
prior editions of this book has remained unchanged in this edition. Our goal
has been to offer an engineering textbook that
∙ Communicates directly with tomorrow’s engineers in a simple yet pre-
cise manner.
∙ Leads students toward a clear understanding and a firm grasp of the
basic principles of heat transfer.
∙ Encourages creative thinking and development of a deeper understand-
ing and intuitive feel for heat transfer.
∙ Is read by students with interest and enthusiasm rather than being used
as a guide to solve problems.
Special effort has been made to appeal to students’ natural curiosity and to
help them explore the various facets of the exciting subject area of heat trans-
fer. The enthusiastic response we received from the users of prior editions—
from small colleges to large universities all over the world—indicates that our
objectives have largely been achieved. It is our philosophy that the best way
to learn is by practice. Therefore, special effort is made throughout the book
to reinforce material that was presented earlier (in each chapter as well as in
material from previous chapters). Many of the illustrated example problems
and end-of-chapter problems are comprehensive and encourage students to
review and revisit concepts and intuitions gained previously.
Yesterday’s engineer spent a major portion of his or her time substituting
values into formulas and obtaining numerical results. However, now formula
manipulations and number crunching are being left mainly to the computers.
Tomorrow’s engineer will have to have a clear understanding and a firm grasp
of the basic principles so that he or she can understand even the most com-
plex problems, formulate them, and interpret the results. A conscious effort is
made to emphasize these basic principles while also enabling students to see
how computational tools are used in engineering practice.

NEW TO THE SIXTH EDITION

One of the primary changes in the sixth edition of this text is the effective
use of full color to enhance the learning experience of students and to make it
more enjoyable. Another significant change is the inclusion of a new s­ ection
in Chap. 1 on Engineering Codes and Standards (C&S). A knowledge of heat
and mass transfer, along with adherence to the relevant codes and standards,
allow engineers to analyze, design, and build components and systems to
function within the design conditions. Throughout the text, as appropriate,
example problems and end-of-chapter problems related to engineering codes
and standards have been presented to introduce this concept to tomorrow’s
engineers. The third important change has been in Chap. 4 where the graphical
representation of the one-dimensional transient conduction solutions (Heisler
charts) have been eliminated, and the emphasis has been placed on the solu-
tion with more accurate approximate or exact analytical expressions. Other
important changes have been the addition of five new sections or subsections:
“Aerogel—A Remarkable Superinsulating Material,” “Equation Solvers,” and
 xxi
PREFACE

“Accuracy, Precision and Significant Digits” to Chap. 1, “General Solutions

for Simultaneously Moving Plates and Fluids” to Chap. 7, and “Analogies
Between Momentum and Heat Transfer in the Transition Region” to Chap. 8.
We have also incorporated 20 new solved example problems in the text,
modified over 450 of the existing end-of-chapter problems, and added over
150 new end-of-chapter problems. A significant number of the new problems
are on the concept of Engineering Codes and Standards (C&S). All the popu-
lar features of the previous editions have been retained, while new ones have
been added. Updates and changes for clarity and readability have been made
throughout the text.

ENGINEERING CODES AND STANDARDS (C&S) PROBLEMS

A recent study done by ASME Vision 2030 Project reveals that almost
50 percent of engineers in their early careers are unfamiliar with engineering
codes and standards. As companies and manufacturers are expanding opera-
tions globally, there is a greater interest in harmonizing codes and standards
across jurisdictions and disciplines. The need for engineers to have the
knowledge about codes and standards is growing, and having this knowledge
allows engineers to innovate and manufacture competitive products. In the
subject of heat and mass transfer, there are several engineering codes and
standards that are relevant. These codes and standards have been issued and
published by professional associations, such as the ASME and the ASHRAE,
and standards organizations, such as ASTM International, ANSI, and the ISO.
The Engineering Codes and Standards (C&S) concept is first introduced in
Chap. 1. The engineering C&S concept complements the Prevention through
Design (PtD) concept that was introduced in the fifth edition of this book
to emphasize safety in designs. The example problems and end-of-chapter
problems in each chapter not only offer perspectives on interesting real-world
applications but also introduce the concepts of engineering C&S to tomor-
row’s engineers so they may influence a change in the culture toward a greater
emphasis on codes and standards. The knowledge of heat and mass transfer,
along with adherence to the relevant codes and standards, allow engineers to
analyze, design, and build components and systems to function within their
design conditions.

CONTENT CHANGES AND REORGANIZATION

With the exception of the changes already mentioned, several updates and
changes for clarity and readability have been made in the text. In this edition,
we have introduced 20 new example problems and over 600 new and modi-
fied end-of-chapter problems. The noteworthy changes are summarized here
for those who are familiar with the previous edition.
∙ In Chap. 1, four new sections or subsections have been added:
“Aerogel—A Remarkable Superinsulating Material” by Dr. Ann
M. Anderson of Union College, “Engineering Codes and Standards
(C&S)” by Dr. Clement C. Tang of the University of North Dakota,
“Equation Solver,” and “Accuracy, Precision and Significant Digits.”
Also, the Topic of Special Interest on “Thermal Comfort” has been
expanded.
∙ In Chap. 3, the section on “Bioheat Transfer Equation” has been
expanded.
 xxii
PREFACE

∙ In Chap. 4, the graphical representation of the one-dimensional tran-

sient conduction solutions (Heisler charts) have been eliminated, and
the emphasis has been placed on the solution with more accurate
approximate or exact analytical expressions. Based on the input we
have received from instructors, very few students use the graphical
representations of the one-dimensional, transient conduction solutions
(Heisler charts); most prefer to solve the approximate or exact analyti-
cal expressions. In addition, all the example problems using the graphi-
cal solution have been updated.
∙ In Chap. 7, a new subsection on “General Solutions for Simultaneously
Moving Plates and Fluids” has been added. In addition, new equa-
tions for the flat plate average Nusselt number with unheated starting
length for laminar and turbulent flows have been added. We have also
updated Table 7-1 with several additional correlations for noncircular
geometries.
∙ In Chap. 8, a new subsection on “Analogies Between Momentum and
Heat Transfer in the Transition Region” has been added. Also, we have
updated/expanded internal forced convection heat transfer correlations
in laminar, transitional, and turbulent flows.
∙ In Chap. 10, the coverage of the Topic of Special Interest on “Non-
Boiling Two-Phase Flow Heat Transfer” has been expanded.
∙ In Chap. 11, the coverage of the Topic of Special Interest on “The
Human Cardiovascular System as a Countercurrent Heat Exchanger”
has been expanded.
∙ In Chap. 13, the section on view factors was updated. We have also
updated and added a few view factor relations.

LEARNING TOOLS
EMPHASIS ON PHYSICS
A distinctive feature of this book is its emphasis on the physical aspects of
the subject matter in addition to mathematical representations and manipu-
lations. The authors believe that the emphasis in undergraduate education
should remain on developing a sense of underlying physical mechanisms
and a mastery of solving practical problems that an engineer is likely to
face in the real world. Developing an intuitive understanding should also
make the course a more motivating and worthwhile experience for the
students.

EFFECTIVE USE OF ASSOCIATION

An observant mind should have no difficulty understanding engineering
sciences. After all, the principles of engineering sciences are based on our
everyday experiences and experimental observations. Therefore, a physi-
cal, intuitive approach is used throughout this text. Frequently, parallels are
drawn between the subject matter and students’ everyday experiences so that
they can relate the subject matter to what they already know. The process of
cooking, for example, serves as an excellent vehicle to demonstrate the basic
principles of heat transfer.
 xxiii
PREFACE

SELF-INSTRUCTING
The material in the text is introduced at a level that an average student can
follow comfortably. It speaks to students, not over students. In fact, it is self-
instructive. The order of coverage is from simple to general. That is, it starts
with the simplest case and adds complexities gradually. In this way, the basic
principles are repeatedly applied to different systems, and students master
how to apply the principles instead of how to simplify a general formula.
Noting that principles of science are based on experimental observations, all
the derivations in this text are based on physical arguments, and thus they are
easy to follow and understand.

EXTENSIVE USE OF ARTWORK

Figures are important learning tools that help the students “get the picture,”
and the text makes effective use of graphics. It contains more figures and
illustrations than any other book in this category. This sixth edition of Heat
and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals & Applications, features an enhanced art
program done in four colors to provide more realism and pedagogical under-
standing. Further, a large number of figures have been upgraded to become
three-dimensional and thus more real-life. Figures attract attention and stimu-
late curiosity and interest. Most of the figures in this text are intended to serve
as a means of emphasizing some key concepts that would otherwise go unno-
ticed; some serve as summaries.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES AND SUMMARIES

Each chapter begins with an Overview of the material to be covered and
chapter-­specific Learning Objectives. A Summary is included at the end of
each chapter, providing a quick review of basic concepts and important rela-
tions, and pointing out the relevance of the material.

NUMEROUS WORKED-OUT EXAMPLES WITH A

SYSTEMATIC SOLUTIONS PROCEDURE
Each chapter contains several worked-out examples that both clarify the mate-
rial and illustrate the use of the basic principles in a context that helps develop
student’s intuition. An intuitive and systematic approach is used in the solution
of all example problems. The solution methodology starts with a statement of
the problem, and all objectives are identified. The assumptions and approxima-
tions are then stated together with their justifications. Any properties needed
to solve the problem are listed separately. Numerical values are used together
with their units to emphasize that numbers without units are meaningless, and
that unit manipulations are as important as manipulating the numerical values
with a calculator. The significance of each example’s result is discussed fol-
lowing the solution. This methodical approach is also followed and provided
in the solutions to the end-of-chapter problems, available to the instructors.

A WEALTH OF REALISTIC END-OF-CHAPTER PROBLEMS

The end-of-chapter problems are grouped under specific topics to make prob-
lem selection easier for both instructors and students. Within each group of
problems are:
∙ Concept Questions, indicated by “C,” to check the students’ level of
understanding of basic concepts.
 xxiv
PREFACE

∙ Prevention through Design Problems, designated by the icon .

These problems introduce the concepts of PtD to the minds of
­tomorrow’s engineers whereby they may influence a change in culture
toward more emphasis on safe designs.
∙ Engineering Codes and Standards Problems, designated by the

icon . These problems introduce the concepts of C&S to engineer-

ing students. The knowledge of heat and mass transfer, along with
adherence to the relevant engineering codes and standards, allow
tomorrow’s engineers to analyze, design, and build components and
systems to function within the design conditions.

∙ Computer-Oriented Problems, designated by the icon . These

problems are comprehensive in nature and are intended to be solved
with a computer, using appropriate software.
∙ Review Problems are more comprehensive in nature and are not
directly tied to any specific section of a chapter—in some cases they
require review of material learned in previous chapters. These prob-
lems are placed under the heading “Review Problems.”
∙ Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) Exam Problems are designed
to help students prepare for the Fundamentals of Engineering exam,
as they prepare for their Professional Engineering license. These are
multiple-choice problems, and they are intended to check the readers’
understanding of fundamentals and to help them avoid common pit-
falls. These problems are placed under the heading “Fundamentals of
Engineering (FE) Exam Problems.”
∙ Design and Essay Problems are intended to encourage students to
make engineering judgments, to conduct independent exploration of
topics of interest, and to communicate their findings in a professional
manner. These problems are placed under the heading “Design and
Essay Problems.”
∙ Problems Designated by an “E” are in English units, and SI users can
ignore them.
Several economics- and safety-related problems are incorporated through-
out to enhance cost and safety awareness among engineering students.
Answers to selected problems are listed immediately following the problem
for convenience to students.

USE OF COMMON NOTATION

The use of different notation for the same quantities in different engineering
courses has long been a source of discontent and confusion. A student taking
both heat transfer and fluid mechanics, for example, has to use notation Q for
heat transfer in one course and for volume flow rate in the other. In this text,
we have made a conscious effort to minimize this conflict by adopting the
•
familiar thermodynamic notation V ​ ​for volume flow rate, thus reserving the
notation Q for heat transfer. This type of effort has been made in all the other
engineering texts by lead author Yunus Çengel. We think that both students
and instructors will appreciate this effort to promote a common notation.
Another random document with
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children like stories, and during the telling of the story, if it is at all
worth while, the children will be quiet and attentive. The teacher
may, however, call the restless child to herself, saying to him, “I like
to have somebody stand by me.” Better still, she may gather all the
pupils around her and say to the mischievous boy, “Robert, I am
going to tell you a story. The other boys and girls may listen.” This
will captivate the child, and when she has finished she may ask him
to tell the story.
By this time the reader will sigh and ask, “Must all this be done to
keep one mischievous boy at work?” Yes, but it is far easier to
interest him than to be worried by his pranks. Then, too, by keeping
him interested, the teacher is administering to his development,
while to let him loll in his mischief would only tend to create in him
habits of inattention and idleness. At the close of the day the boy will
go home happy and the benediction of a happy teacher will follow
him. Nothing adds more to a teacher’s usefulness and happiness
than the thought of work well done.
In the above procedure the teacher has practiced suggestive
control. She has led the mischievous boy into activities that interest
him, that appeal and fascinate as well as satisfy that active mind, and
that will mature into right action. It is far easier to deal with a child
full of life, than to deal with a dullard. Direct properly the impulse
that causes this mischief, and it will become a force for real good in
the child’s life. The discreet teacher will look ahead and avoid
difficulties, and nowhere will she get more valuable clues to a
method of control than on the playground.
Watch the child in his play at recess to see what activity interests
him most. Suggest to him some point about that activity which he
has overlooked and commend him on his skill. Every child has a
hobby. If you can find this boy’s hobby and tell him something about
it which he does not know, you will make a warm place in his heart
for yourself. Then utilize the knowledge thus gained, and his
increased confidence in you, in order to add to his school work just
the element that will make it so interesting for the child that he will
find the work more delightfully fascinating than the mischief.
The first grade teacher needs to be in her room but a few days
before she will see some little child making grimaces at his neighbor
and not infrequently he may make a grimace at the teacher,
especially if he feels that the teacher has not dealt fairly with him.
This is not a serious annoyance and should give the prudent teacher
no worry. It can not be repeated too often that many of the small
offenses that harass a school day are doubly intensified by the
attention that is paid them. Often when a pupil does some petty
misdemeanor, he would soon forget it were it not that the teacher
notices it and pounces upon the offender with some brand of
punishment and thereby the child learns that this certain offense is a
thing that the teacher dislikes. In the future, whenever that child’s
feelings are ruffled, he will resort to this certain offense to annoy the
teacher. The discreet teacher will train her pupils in such a way that
they will not settle upon any specific type of annoyance.
In cases where a child resorts to the practice too frequently, the
teacher will find it well to devise some means by which she can
substitute one activity for another; that is, substitute a more
interesting activity for the making of grimaces. The teacher may use
the following method and conversation:
“Children, we are planning to have a little play party once a month.
This is to be on the last Friday afternoon of each month. Each one of
you is to bring either a cooky, an apple, an orange, or a banana, and I
will bring some candy. We will play all kinds of games and just before
school dismisses we will eat our dainties. Won’t that be fine? But,
children, I have just thought that any one who makes grimaces or
ugly faces during the month ought not to be invited. We do not want
our party spoiled. What do you say?”
Of course all, or nearly all of the children will say that any one who
is guilty of making faces shall not come. The teacher who has not
tried anything like this will think it is absurd and impracticable, but
it will greatly assist in removing grimacing and many other evils that
troop through a teacher’s school experiences.
The means of discipline need not necessarily be a party. It can be
some other affair or activity that children like. If the teacher chooses
a party, she must have a goodly number of games ready and keep her
children intensely interested.
The luncheon is an important feature of the party and must be well
managed by the teacher. All the sweetmeats must be divided into
small parts and so mixed that a child does not get the dainty he
contributed. A cooky can be cut into four pieces, a banana into four
or five pieces, and the same with other sweetmeats. Children like
little things. Then, too, the teacher may suggest that they play at
having a luncheon.

CASE 84 (SECOND GRADE)

Adams White knew a large number of Making Faces

systems by which to rearrange his features For Fun
so as to produce laughter. When the book-agent sat at the side of the
room, Adams took occasion to entertain him with the horrible figure
made by drawing down his lower eyelids until a large part of the
eyeball was exposed to view. The boy did this, or a similar prank,
every once in a while, and his teacher, young Benjamin Danner,
scarcely knew what penalty would do the boy the most good.
Unfortunately for Adams, he was caught in the act. “Go to the
blackboard, Adams. Put your hands behind your back and lean
forward till your head touches the wall. Did you understand me?”
“Well,” thought the agent, “this is interesting. I can hardly believe
that such methods are in use today. But here is the proof right before
my eyes.” He watched Adams move in a clumsy, resistant manner,
and assume the position prescribed.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Instead of such a punishment as the one described above, we

propose that Mr. Danner pay no attention to the deed until school is
out for the day. Find some favor that Adams can do for you and put
him at it immediately. When he has completed the task, or at least
made good headway, call him to one side, look him straight in the
eye, as he is seated in front of you, and say:
“Adams, you need to be careful how you look at visitors who call at
our school. The gentleman was surprised at your action today. I felt
sorry for him. I want to know if you can keep at your work in an
orderly way on similar occasions hereafter.”
If the answer is more or less satisfactory, accept it and say:
 “I am going to depend on you for this. I A Firm
want to see no more expressions of shame Injunction
on the face of a visitor because of your conduct. I want every pupil to
work straight on no matter who may come in.”

COMMENTS

This boy needs no publicity as a reward for his misdemeanor; he

will sooner or later take advantage of his unexpected predicament to
make more trouble for his teacher. The penalty had no logical
connection with the prank, and only aggravated the boy’s antipathy
toward school rules. Mr. Danner advertised his lack of good
discipline by resorting to this barbarous penalty, especially when a
stranger was present.
If the conduct of Adams is to be permanently improved, this one
act must be viewed in its relation to his conduct generally. As soon as
Adams feels vitally his part in making the school a success, his
behavior will improve. No pupil is so obstreperous that one need
despair of winning him by some kind of means, at least until one has
exhausted his resources.
The plan recommended above, or some adaptation of it, can be
used profitably for a pupil of any grade.

ILLUSTRATION (FIFTH GRADE)

Jim was ten years old when he was Making a Man

transferred from Webster Street School in
the East End of the city to Central School on Main Street. This
transfer was the culmination of a long series of misdemeanors on his
part and many untactful methods employed by his teachers. No
species of juvenile mischief remained untried by him.
He went into each room with a scarred record from his former
teacher, and was not allowed to forget the fact that he always did the
wrong thing. He was scolded daily, sent into the hall to stay for hours
and gaze benignly upon the works of art that decorated the walls,
which of course he didn’t do, not being deeply engrossed in art study.
More naturally he spent the time in mischievous pranks. He was
whipped, threatened, and denied the advantages of less energetic
and less talented pupils.
But with the transfer came a change in the boy’s nature. When he
entered Central School, Miss Burns grasped his hand and said, “Well,
Jim, I’m glad you’re going to be in our school. I know we’re going to
get along finely.” She treated him as if he intended to do the right
thing, and before long he actually thought he did so intend.
She had him go on errands for her when she saw he was getting
restless, or erase the blackboard for her after an exercise, which he
did with great dispatch, and before the end of the first day she had
completely won his respect and gratitude.
One morning on his way to school Jim heard his classmates
planning Christmas presents for their teacher. Immediately he began
to contrive ways and means for securing a beautiful necklace he had
seen in the jeweler’s shop—a necklace of gold and pearls. This was
the only gift that his active little brain could conceive of as being
worth giving to Miss Burns.
Only, he hadn’t the money to buy the necklace. His parents were
far-seeing in a financial way, and did not believe in bestowing
unlimited amounts of coin upon their children. So it was that Jim
found need to do something unusual in order to secure the coveted
present. He was not long in working up a paper route. He would rise
early in the morning and spend long hours delivering his papers.
In connection with this work he took orders for Christmas wreaths,
then secured a large quantity of holly from a wholesale man on
market; his little sister, Ruth, bought a supply of fluffy, flaming
ribbon at the Ten-Cent Store. Together they made the wreaths, Jim
paying Ruth for her artistic advice and time. In this way the wreaths
cost less than the ready-made wreaths, and Jim was able to secure a
better price for them. Thus Jim saved enough money to buy the
necklace and also some lovely presents for those at home.
You can imagine Miss Burn’s surprise when, among other gifts,
she found Jim’s necklace on her desk the morning before Christmas.
Realizing the value of the gift and Jim’s true devotion to her, she won
from him the story of his sacrifice. She said, “Oh, Jim, you don’t
know how this makes me feel,” and Jim went home at the end of the
day with a beaming face.
Jim’s sacrifice reacted upon himself, for this taste of his powers led
him into many fair means of earning money, and so launched him
well on what turned out to be a successful business career.
“Making faces” is essentially a little child’s offense, although
sometimes it persists in upper grades or even in the high school.

CASE 85 (FOURTH GRADE)

In a small village there existed bad feeling “Making Faces”

between the pastor of the church and for Spite
several of his leading members. Some parishioners took sides with
the pastor, and in the school the children of these two church
factions carried on the quarrel of their elders. The teacher kept peace
on the playground through active personal supervision, but in school
he encountered the face-making problem in a degree only less
ridiculous than it was annoying.
There existed an active emulation in the ugliness of the facial
contortions produced, and when a member of one faction had made
a particularly horrid grimace, he looked for and received the silent
applause of his sympathizers.
Charles Briggs was the teacher. He knew that the feeling of alliance
in the members of the factions was the cause of the face-making
epidemic, but he could not at first think of a logical way of meeting
the situation. He tried, first, the use of his absolute authority. He
forbade the making of faces, and punished the children when he
caught them at it. Whereupon face-making became a more exciting
sport than ever, since the zest of escaping notice was added to the
pleasure of presenting an ugly front to the enemy.
Mr. Briggs said, “How funny you would all look if your faces
should stay twisted into those grotesque shapes.” Nevertheless the
children spent their recesses, when kept in, in inventing new twists
and contortions; they stood in corners and drew the attention of the
whole room to fresh triumphs in grotesqueness. The evil grew,
because the cause was not touched. One boy even set a looking-glass
up in front of his book, into which he made faces for the benefit of
the girl who sat behind him, keeping his head lowered meanwhile as
if using his handkerchief to wipe his tearful eyes.
Then Mr. Briggs began to think of underlying causes and intrinsic
remedies. As a consequence, he made up a fairy story about a land
where people’s thoughts molded their features with instant magic
into the semblance of ugly animals or noble men and beautiful
women. He introduced a princess of evil disposition whose face was
that of a cross, snapping dog, but whom a magician changed into a
being of loveliness and grace by his persuasions to self-sacrifice and
kindness. He told this story as vividly as he could, with emphasis
upon the dislike people feel for an ugly face. Then he waited a day or
two for the story to take effect. He heard the children laughingly
allude to it once or twice, but the evil went on.
Then he talked to his school about face-making. He explained that
such contortions really do affect the faces and characters of those
who make them, not of those who see them. He led his boys and girls
to see that face-making made them contemptible, and that every
time it was done it published the inferiority of the doer. Then, having
condemned the old ideal, he tried to build up a new habit by showing
that the strongest man is the one who is most self-controlled, and
ended by a little skillful ridicule of the babyish method they had been
taking to show a silly spite.
“Suppose,” he proposed at last, “that we put the babies who make
faces over here with the primary pupils, where they’ll feel more at
home? Bright people don’t like to be associated with such children.
But we’ll not try it unless we have to. I shall watch you during the
next few days, and I’m going to see how many can show their friends
and their enemies, if they have any, that they are worth respecting,
and that their souls don’t look like twisted turnips.”
No magical change came over the school, but gradually the
sentiment for, and practice of, face-making died out. The children
unconsciously copied the teacher’s contempt for it. By stories and
references he built up an ideal of beauty and dignity in personal
appearance and behavior.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT
 Mr. Briggs did well to search for underlying causes and effective
remedies, because the use of authority in such a case is a mistake, as
he found. Make no attempt to suppress the practice, but proceed at
once to the constructive plan of building up a good sentiment.
Whatever you do, do not assume that the pupil is disrespectful to
you. If the pupils have shown such disrespect in the past, simply set
about gaining their confidence.
Face-making is largely an outgrowth of the play impulse, no matter
what its motive. Substitute a better form of play. Dramatizing a story
that emphasizes the opposite of the undesirable characteristics, is
one of the best ways of overcoming the fault. Read “The Little Knight
of Kentucky” during the twenty-minute periods just before school
closes. Dramatize parts of it. When the children are imbued with the
chivalrous spirit of the story, suggest the incongruities of face-
making and other spiteful acts, by saying to the boy whom you
“catch”: “Harold, the little knights of Kentucky did not make faces at
each other. Would we be as proud of them as we are, had they done
so? Then, let’s not have any one who makes faces play that story
today.”

COMMENTS

When the motive is the approbation of fellow-pupils, these fellow-

pupils must be made to change their attitude of admiration for
muscular grotesqueness for one of appreciation of facial repose,
beauty and dignity. It is a matter of inculcating ideals. Beautiful
pictures of ideal faces, such as those of Hoffman’s Boy Christ and
Raphael’s Madonna of the Chair, may be used to illustrate the ideal
of fine, controlled faces that express beautiful and kind thoughts.
Sometimes offhand contempt of a babyish practice helps, especially
with a vain and self-conscious type of pupil.

ILLUSTRATION (THIRD GRADE)

Miss Grasome stood aghast at the rude Cure for Bad

manners and selfishness of her third grade Manners
pupils. She had tried many plans for improving the situation, but
with little success, for the children had the constant example before
them of rude manners in their homes. As the Christmas season drew
near she thought to herself, “I’ll try once more. We will dramatize
‘The Birds’ Christmas Carol.’ Perhaps that beautiful story will teach
the children the lesson that I seem to have failed thus far in
clinching. I’ll use the rudest and most selfish girl I have for the sick
child’s part. She won’t play as well as some of the others, but if she’ll
only catch the lesson I want her to get, I won’t mind the blunders.”
The proposition to have a play instead of a Christmas tree
delighted the children. The story interested them so much that when,
toward the latter part of their study, Miss Grasome proposed that
they follow out the thought of the story and make some needy or
unfortunate person the recipient of their gifts this year instead of
making them to each other, the children were quite ready for the
sacrifice.
Of course committees must be appointed, and much coöperative
work done before all details could be arranged. But every child had a
share in the planning, and not many weeks had passed before a
gentler and more considerate spirit began to dominate the school-
room. Miss Grasome smiled and said to herself: “Coöperation works
better than prohibiting or forcing, even in such matters as the
training of manners, it seems.”

CASE 86 (FIFTH GRADE)

Algie B. knew all the fun there is in Paper Wads

throwing paper wads, particularly when he
could run the greatest risks of detection and yet escape discovery.
Said he to himself one busy morning:
“I believe I’ll take a shot at Redtop. The teacher’s got him scared
into looking at his book; he’s got to be waked up.”
A good-sized wad soon sped across space, struck Redtop plump on
the side of the head, fell and rolled back toward Algie.
“Better yet, I’ll just get that wad and have it for another shot. It’s a
lucky boy I am, if I can do that.”
 Stooping, he made four stealthy steps forward, regained his wad
and slid back into his seat. When Miss Stone looked about, the next
moment Algie’s eyes fell to his book and all was quiet and peaceful as
a day in spring.
This fine example of bravery and success was not lost on other
restless spirits. By the next day an observing onlooker counted up ten
instances in which sly wad-throwers had reproduced Algie’s feat.
On the third day over-boldness brought the climax. Miss Stone had
been too much absorbed to note the minor noises that were
provoked. But when Amy Lane, nervous, uncontrolled, uttered a yell
of terror as a cold wad struck her in the back of her neck and slipped
down, ten pupils broke loose in a chorus of laughter.
Miss Stone roused up and, strange to say, succeeded in getting a
story of the recent happenings. She threatened the last culprit, who
in self-defense said,
“Why must I suffer when all the other boys do the same thing?”
and he named nearly every boy in school, ending up with Algie.
Her threats of punishment of course were vain in the presence of
so many offenders. With a sharp talk she dropped the discussion.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Miss Stone has one simple task: to rouse from absorption in one
duty and wisely distribute her attention to several matters.
Promises must not be taken as fulfillment; assurances of any sort
must not be taken for more than they are worth. Find a safe medium
between espionage and disastrous indifference.

COMMENTS

School-room behavior will never take care of itself under any

system of management. A teacher who thinks he has solved all of his
disciplinary problems is resting in a deceitful security. A sweet
trustfulness that keeps every pupil in his most delightful mood and
never sees the wild emotions and boisterous conduct that arises from
them is the rock of destruction for a teacher’s influence.

ILLUSTRATION (SIXTH GRADE)

Roland was an unkempt, dirty, red- Painting Face

headed little fellow in the sixth grade of a
small town school. He came from an unlettered, hard-working,
shiftless family in the country and, like Topsy, had just growed up.
He was bright enough, but his reasoning power and sense of right
and wrong were undeveloped because he had never been taught
rightly. He had been whipped when naughty without fully
understanding that what he had done was wrong.
One day, in the new school, he daubed his nose, cheeks and chin
with ink when Miss Downer, the teacher, was not looking, and
convulsed with laughter everyone who looked at him.
It was almost recess time, and Miss Downer quietly bade him wash
his face. When the rest were dismissed she said, “Roland, I want to
speak to you a minute.”
“Going to get a licking!” whispered the boy behind him, and
Roland grinned scornfully, for whippings really did not matter much
to him any more, though Miss Downer was new and untried and she
looked as though she might be pretty strong.
When the rest had gone Miss Downer sat down in front of Roland
and spoke to him kindly, “Roland, why do you do such things in
school?”
Roland shifted uneasily and said, “Dunno.”
“Have you your language lesson?” at which he shook his head.
“Didn’t you think that besides foolishly wasting your own time you
were wasting the other children’s time by making them laugh at
you?”
This was an entirely new thought to him and he looked at her in
incomprehension.
“You come to school to learn, don’t you, Roland? And the more you
can learn the better off you will be. Some day when you get to be a
man you’ll be glad you know more than somebody else, and sorry
that you don’t know as much as some other person. Why, you were
just telling me yesterday that your father didn’t have a chance to go
to school beyond the fourth grade! And here you are wasting this
precious, precious time of yours!”
Roland looked intently at a dirty finger-nail and Miss Downer
could not tell whether she had made an impression on him or not.
She gave him a story from a supplementary reader, telling of
Lincoln’s struggles to get an education, to read during the rest of
recess.
A week later Roland became really interested in the history lesson.
This teacher’s questions weren’t the kind you could answer, parrot-
like, by memorizing the words of the textbook. You had to stop and
think about it. He asked, “I’d like to know about this yere Civil War,
anyway. Some says they fit about slavery and the book says because
they seceded, and I’d like to know which is right.”
Miss Downer devoted the rest of the class period to satisfying
Roland’s query, and counted the time well spent because she had laid
the first stone in the foundation of Roland’s education—she had
aroused intellectual curiosity, satisfied it, and given him food for
more questions.
Every time he misbehaved after that she kept him in and talked to
him seriously. Not once did she threaten or scold. And at other times
she tried to draw him out by being interested in him and his affairs—
the baby brother at home, a new dog he had, and what “my paw” said
and did.
At length Roland began to realize that this teacher was not a
vindictive creature, wreaking her spite upon him for harmlessly
amusing himself and other people, but one who was interested in
him, Roland Smith, and really cared what he did and thought. And,
though she had queer ways of looking at things, he really hated to
disappoint her and she could make him feel most awfully
uncomfortable and ashamed of himself.
Miss Downer’s final test came when Paper Wads
Roland was discovered throwing paper
wads at a boy across the room. Miss Downer felt very much inclined
to thrash him soundly, for this was a case of wanton naughtiness. But
she did not.
 Instead she merely talked to him as she had talked before, bringing
in a little more of the personal element.
“Roland, what if your brother kicked you every time you were
almost asleep at night, or joggled your elbow every time you started
to take a mouthful at the table, or pulled the chair out from under
you when you started to sit down? It would be funny at first,
wouldn’t it, but how long do you suppose you and your brother could
keep on playing together as good friends if he kept it up?”
Roland shook his head, mystified.
“That’s just what you’re doing to me. You told me you wanted to
learn and get on in the world, and the rest of these children do, too—
they don’t want to be stupid when they’re grown up. But we can’t
learn very fast with some one hindering us all the time, and I was
counting on your help.”
Miss Downer spoke very kindly and earnestly, and looked directly
at Roland.
“I wasn’t goin’ to throw them paper wads, honest I wasn’t, Miss
Downer. But before I knowed it, they was thrown,” and Roland did
look truly sorry.
Miss Downer’s impulse was to punish him, not to forgive him
again, but if he really were sorry and trying to do better, a whipping
would spoil all the good work she had accomplished so far.
“Are you sorry, Roland?” her voice was low and serious.
There was a long pause, during which Roland fingered a scrap of
paper nervously, not looking up. Then his lip began to quiver and he
nodded violently, breaking into sobs.
“I—I d-didn’t mean to and I won’t do it no more, honest.” Roland,
whose boast was that “nary whipping” had ever made him cry, was
penitent because he had disappointed her who had been kind to him.

CASE 87 (HIGH SCHOOL)

Hen. Rutgers couldn’t help having plenty Laughing at

of fun. If no one made it for him he took a Nothing
turn and produced it himself. He could have plenty and not laugh.
Then he could laugh like the falling water on a cataract when there
was very little fun in sight.
Hen. laughed. He laughed out loud. Miss Gresham went speedily
to his desk, looked him straight in the face, and said:
“Henry, why did you laugh just now?”
Hen. lifted his head slowly and just as slowly rolled his eyes over
until he looked her squarely in the eyes. With their glances mutually
fixed Henry said very deliberately:
“I—don’t—know,” without a smile.
“Henry, you surely know what caused you to laugh. What was it?”
Then glibly but without a smile came Henry’s reply.
“O yes, I remember. I was just thinking what would happen if Mr.
Finley (superintendent, weighing two hundred and fifty pounds)
should back off the platform there sometime when he’s walking
around so fast.”
“You should be at work, Henry,” was all that Miss Gresham could
utter at the time. The chief reason for her weak response was she had
drawn the attention of half the pupils and a general titter arose at
Henry’s reply chiefly because of his absolute composure of
countenance.
Henry did not care so much for mischief for its own sake. His chief
sport was attracting the attention of other pupils and getting the
teacher into a mild predicament by setting a sort of disciplinary trap
for her.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Avoid asking such questions as, What made you laugh? Why did
you do it? etc., except privately. Even then unless you are reasonably
sure of a satisfactory answer to these questions you may complicate
your case by so doing instead of helping it toward a solution.
Pass over details of causes which pupils most often allude to and
lay hold of the prime provocation for bad order. Use your power of
analysis and apply an effective remedy. Henry needs an abundance
of heavy but interesting work. Bear down so deep into his interest in
geology that he cannot menace your loyalty to him by trifling with
you in respect to discipline. Treat him so squarely, frankly,
generously that his respect for you will be an unremitting check on
small misdemeanors.

COMMENTS

Pupils may not know what to answer when asked, “Why did you do
so and so?” The truth is the causes are numerous. The last cause may
have been the stumbling of one pupil over another one’s foot. But
another cause lies behind this—disrespect for the teacher; behind
this, fondness for another teacher. Why does a pupil act in a certain
fashion? He is underfed, improperly clothed, irritated from
insufficient sleep—these are all proper answers to the question,
“Why?” Hence, every time the query is put a teacher runs the risk of
provoking a worse situation and yet of gaining nothing from the
inquisition.

ILLUSTRATION

Superintendent Finley called Henry in after his little one-act play

in the assembly room and the following interview occurred.
“I have some facts about your affairs in Gymnasium
the study period, Henry, that need to be
cleared up. Yesterday you are said to have denied making faces when
the fact was you had been guilty.”
“Well, I’ll tell you just how it was. I was at Remedy
my desk. Miss Gresham thought something
was off-color and came down to see me. I told her I didn’t know and
then I recalled and answered her. The pupils looked on and laughed.
Miss Gresham was nettled, I suppose. She walked down the aisle,
stopped at Ellen’s desk, her back to me, and said to Ellen,
“‘Look over to Henry’s desk and see what he is doing.’
“Ellen caught sight of me and must have told that I was making a
face, for Miss Gresham came to me and said: ‘What were you doing
just now?’ I said, ‘Nothing.’ She said, ‘You were making a face.’ I said,
‘I was not.’ Then she sent me home.”
 “Why did you deny making a face?”
“Because I hadn’t done it. I scowled but that was all. I didn’t do
anything that need excite Miss Gresham. She’s got it in for me.”
“Now that will do on that. You are not properly occupied some way
in your periods in the study room. I credit you with having intellect
enough to know how to play the gentleman. It’s a question of
whether you are always going to take advantage of opportunities to
make sport at the expense of pupils’ and teachers’ time, or whether
you are going to help make school work a success. I know pretty well
what you think on these matters, but I’d like to hear you express
yourself on this point.”
Henry did discuss the matter; there were a few weak spots in his
view of school life. His evident restlessness during long school hours
was a predisposing cause of several troubles. For this and other
reasons, Mr. Finley decided to revise his schedule for use of the
gymnasium during school hours and to provide suitable
interruptions of mental labor by physical exercise of various sorts.
This new program gratified the pupils as well as relieved physical
necessities.
The interview ended fortunately for both teacher and pupil and
eventually brought relief to several unfavorable conditions in the
school as a whole.
(2) Teasing tricks. Sometimes a pupil can cause no end of
annoyance by teasing others. This fault may have been trained into
the child at home.

CASE 88 (SEVENTH GRADE)

A bright lad and into all sorts of mischief, George had gradually
acquired the reputation among the teachers of being “a bad boy”;
and the new superintendent was informed to this effect when he
came to the school.
One day there was a great commotion in Snake in School-
his grade; an innocent garter snake had room
been let loose in the school-room. George was accused, and as the
disturbance had begun in his corner of the room, and as he was
known to have a great fondness for all sorts of animals, insects,
snakes, etc., the evidence seemed decidedly against him.
“No, sir!” he replied to the superintendent, when sent for to go to
the office. “No, sir! I didn’t do it!”
“I’m afraid that you are not telling me the truth, George. You have
a bad reputation. I think that I shall punish you by sending you into
the next lower grade, until you can learn to become more of a man.”
“It’s such a disgrace, mother! No, I can’t go back. The boys will all
make fun of me. Besides, I didn’t do it!”
Finally, however, his mother made him see that the manly thing
would be to take his punishment, even if he wasn’t to blame. So, on
the following morning, he reported himself to the teacher of the next
lower grade, and told her that he was to study there.
Later in the day the superintendent made his rounds, and
exclaimed surprisedly, when he saw George,
“Why, you here? I didn’t expect to ever see you again!”
Needless to say that was the last appearance of George at school,
and a life that might have been helped was spoiled by an unjust
punishment and a careless remark. Even superintendents may make
mistakes!

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Say to the mischief-loving boy, “George, we can not have these

animals loose in the school-room; it disturbs our work entirely too
much. But there is a way that we can have them here, some of them
at least, and everybody enjoy them. How would you like to help me
make a fresh water aquarium for the school?” “You would like it?
Very well. We shall need one more to help us. Tell the boy who
brought in the snake to come to me with you this afternoon and
together we will plan how to make the aquarium. We’ll get it all ready
and give the other children a surprise. I’ll help you until it is ready
for the animals. You and he can get the specimens, and after that I
would like to have you two take care of them. Meanwhile, we’ll get
from the library all the books we can find about the animals you two
select, and talk about them in the nature study period.” The
aquarium, referred to above, need not be an expensive apparatus. In
fact, most any kind of a vessel or a very large bottle would serve the
purpose very well. Do not furnish this yourself but let one of the boys
bring it.

COMMENTS

The fact that George was fond of animals, insects, snakes, etc., was
the clew for the teacher to work upon in gaining the good will and
coöperation of the troublesome boy. Knowing one strong interest
that he had, the teacher should start with that and work out from it
to other and broader fields of action.
Unless the teacher had actual proof to the contrary, she should
have accepted the boy’s statement that he did not bring in the snake.
It is far better that a guilty boy go unpunished, than that an innocent
person be punished. Take the initiative in coöperation with the
troublesome pupil and the troubles will soon disappear.

ILLUSTRATION 1 (THIRD GRADE)

Henry Gould was very fond of his collie The Pet Dog
and insisted upon having his company every
day at school. His teacher, Miss Greenway, probably would have
made no objection to this had it not been for a fact that the dog was
inclined to snap at any child except his master and thus endanger the
safety of the other children. How to forbid the presence of the dog
without arousing the antagonism of his owner was the problem. She
resolved to try approval and initiative in coöperation. So she called
Henry to her at noon time and said:
“Henry, I noticed the collie snapping at one of the little girls today,
and I think we shall have to ask him to stay at home after this. But he
is such a bright little fellow we shall miss him. Don’t you think it
would be fine for the children to take his picture before he goes? How
would you like to get him into a good position when the drawing
period comes and let the children use him for a model?”
 Henry was proud to have his pet honored, stood by him patiently
while the children drew, and made no further insistence that he
should come to school.

ILLUSTRATION 2 (HIGH SCHOOL)

A practical joke loses all of its point when A Live Mouse

nobody is annoyed or made ridiculous by it.
A teacher who tactfully makes himself seem one of a group who is
deriving benefit from an experiment, wins the respect of his
students. Such a teacher was the high school instructor in science,
whose attention was directed to a mischievous pupil, by a girl’s
seemingly nervous fear of this fun-loving boy. Cautious investigation
revealed the fact that a living mouse was in the wide-mouthed bottle
which protruded from the joker’s pocket.
This principal told the boy that it would be instructive fun to let
the mouse loose in the building and see what the timid little thing
would do, but that such a course of action would endanger the future
safety of books, lunches, etc., left in the building. He, therefore,
advised that, at the coming recess, all who did not fear the mouse,
form a large circle in the school yard and that the mouse be let loose
in the center of the circle. And that all observe closely just what the
little animal did.
At recess, the principal himself joined the circle, asking the boys to
notice carefully whether or not the mouse would change his course to
avoid a shouting student.
After the mouse was experimented upon and killed the mischief-
maker began to wonder why it was that he was glad that he had not
annoyed the principal with the mouse, as he had intended to do.

CASE 89 (EIGHTH GRADE)

Teasing Rhymes
“Hey Diddle Diddle!
Parts his hair in the middle!”
 This was the couplet that greeted John Fraser as he entered his
eighth grade room one September noon. Above the couplet was a
portrait of himself, the style of his hair indicated very clearly. He
erased the decorations hastily, but said nothing about it. He was very
young, however, and the thoughtless disrespect shown him hurt
sadly.
A day or two passed, during which he noticed the covert
amusement at his faultlessly pressed clothes, his punctilious
manners, his careful grooming, all new and strange to the crude little
town in the Southwest in which he taught. Then, one noon, he
entered the room from the playground to find a rough cartoon on the
board, labeled, “Mr. Fraser pressing his pants to make creases at 2
a.m.” The pupils were vastly entertained by it.
“Who made this picture?” John demanded, very angry and feeling
that his dignity demanded that the offender be punished. Every head
turned instantly toward Cleaver Trotter, who seemed much pleased
to be singled out for attention.
“Cleaver, you may remain in at recess. I want to see you.”
“Just as you say, Mr. Fraser!” sang out Cleaver, jauntily. There was
a half-suppressed titter of admiration, and Mr. Fraser felt that he
had come out second best.
At recess he ascertained that Cleaver had really drawn the picture,
and forbade him sternly to repeat the offense. The interview took
place in the otherwise empty school-room, and when Cleaver was
allowed to go he joined a group of gaping admirers on the
playground.
“What did he do to you?” they demanded to a man.
“Oh, he asked me why I did it, and I told him I couldn’t help it; I
just knew it took him all night to press his pants that way.”
“And what did he say then?”
“Well, he smelled of the smelling-salts and said that’d be all for
today, so I came on out.”
None of this account was true, but Cleaver won by it the thing his
boyish vanity wanted, the admiration of his crowd. They approved
the ridicule because it furnished them with fun, and Cleaver was
shrewd enough to know that his leadership depended upon their
approbation of his attitude. He annoyed John Fraser constantly