CURRENT ELECTRICITY - I

1. Electric Current
2. Conventional Current
3. Drift Velocity of electrons and current
4. Current Density
5. Ohm’s Law
6. Resistance, Resistivity, Conductance &
Conductivity
7. Temperature dependence of resistance
8. Colour Codes for Carbon Resistors
9. Series and Parallel combination of
resistors
10. EMF and Potential Difference of a cell
11. Internal Resistance of a cell
12. Series and Parallel combination of cells
Electric Current:
SI unit- 1 Ampere
The electric current is defined as the charge flowing through any
section of the conductor in one second. 1 Ampere= 1 Coulomb/1 second

I=q/t (if the rate of flow of charge is steady)

Practical units-
I = dq / dt (if the rate of flow of charge varies with time) 1 miliampere
1 microampere

Different types of current:

a) Steady current which does not vary I b c

with time a

b) & c) Varying current whose

magnitude varies with time
d

d) Alternating current whose magnitude 0

varies continuously and direction t
changes periodically

Current is a Scalar Quantity but has direction still

scalar because vector law is not applicable to current
The number density of free electrons in a copper conductor is 8.5 ×
1028 m–3 .How long does an electron take to drift from one end of a
wire 3 m long, to its other end? The area of cross- section of the wire is
2.0 ×10–6 m2 and it is carrying a current of 3.0 A.
Conventional Current:
Conventional current is the current whose direction is along the direction of the + --
motion of positive charge under the action of electric field. + + + + --
+
+ I
Electronic current due to motion of electrons is in the direction
opposite to that of conventional current.
-- - - - +
-- +
+
I +
Drift Velocity and Current:
Drift velocity is defined as the velocity with which the free electrons get drifted l
towards the positive terminal under the effect of the applied electric field.
A vd - - - E
Metals have large charge density-1026 per cubic metre I
The elecectrons keeps on moving within the metal due to the thermal energy
by the sorrounding environment

This velocity is known as THERMAL VELOCITY-105 m/s

But due to random motion, net velocity turns out to be ZERO

Thus, there is no net movement of electrons in a particular direction

In presence of EF
Electrons feels a drift in the direction opposite to EF
This drift last only last, till it collides again with another electron
Time between two succesive collisions is known as RELAXATION TIME and the
velocity with which it moves is known as DRIFT VELOCITY. l
Vd = u + aƮ Unet=0 A vd - - -E
I
vd = a τ F=-qE F=ma

vd = - (eE / m) τ

vd - drift velocity, a – acceleration, τ – relaxation time, E – electric field,

e – electronic charge, m – mass of electron, n – number density of electrons,
l – length of the conductor and A – Area of cross-section
Relation between CURRENT and DRIFT VELOCITY

Suppose a conductor of length l and area of cross section A and having elctrons density as n

We apply a potential difference acroos the ends of conductor

E=V/ l l

A vd - - -E
Total No. of electrons in length l of conductor = nAl
I

Total charge (q) = Ne = neAl

Time required by the elctrons to cross the conductor from one end to another

T= l/vd

I= q/T I = neA vd
Current is directly proportional to drift velocity.

vd - drift velocity, a – acceleration, τ – relaxation time, E – electric field,

e – electronic charge, m – mass of electron, n – number density of electrons,
l – length of the conductor and A – Area of cross-section
The number density of free electrons in a copper conductor is 8.5 ×
1028 m–3 .How long does an electron take to drift from one end of a
wire 3 m long, to its other end? The area of cross- section of the wire is
2.0 ×10–6 m2 and it is carrying a current of 3.0 A.

Ans- 2.7 x 104 s

At room temperature (27.0°C), the resistance of a heating element is 100 Ω.
At what temperature does the resistance of the element change to 117 Ω?
Given that the temperature coefficient of the material of the resistor is 1.70
× 10–4 °C–1.
Current density: J

Current density at a point, within a conductor, is the current through a unit area of the conductor, around that point,
provided the area is perpendicular to the direction of flow of current at that point.

J = Vector Quantity
J = I / A = nevd
In vector form, I = J . A This shows that current I is a scalar product of 2
vector quanity i.e. Scalar Quantity

Ohm’s Law:
The electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across the
two ends of the conductor when physical conditions such as temperature, mechanical strain, etc. remain the
same.

I
IαV or V α I or V = R I

I V

0 V
Resistance:
The resistance of conductor is the property by virtue of which the opposition is offered by the
conductor to the flow of electric current through it.
Resistance is directly
proportional to length and
R=V/I SI= ohm= V/A
inversely proportional to
cross-sectional area of the
Resistance in terms of physical features of the conductor: conductor and depends on
nature of material.
I = neA | vd |
L
R =ρ
I = neA (e |E| / m) τ A

ne2Aτ V
I= m
m L
where ρ =
ne2τ
V mL
= is resistivity or specific
I ne2Aτ resistance
m L
R =
ne2τ A SI = ohm metre

Resistivity depends upon nature of material and not on the geometrical dimensions of the conductor.
MOBILITY

It is defined as the drift velocity acquired by the charge carrier, when a unit Electric Field is applied across it.

𝞵= vd /E

When Temp. increases- Mobility decreases- due to decrease in Relaxation Time

Relation between Mobility and Current

I=neAE 𝞵

Temperature dependence of Resistivity:

m Depends on no. density of charge and Relaxation Time,
ρ = which changes due to change in Temperature.
ne2τ

Temperature coefficient of Resistivity / Resistance:

R0 – Resistance at 0°C
Rt – R0 R2 – R1
α= or α= Defned as the Increase in resistivity per unit Rt – Resistance at t°C
R0 t R1t2 – R1t1
resistivity per degree rise in Temperature. R1 – Resistance at t1°C
If R2 < R1, then α is – ve. R2 – Resistance at t2°C
Unit - Celcius-1
METALS
When temperature increases, the no. of collisions increases due to more internal
energy and relaxation time decreases. Therefore, Resistivity increases.

α=+ For most of the metals, the value of α is nearly 4 x 10-3 ℃-1

ALLOYS Eg. Ni-Cr alloy

Both have different charge and size

They occupy random location
Thus, more resistance is offered to the electron movement
Leads to less relaxation Time
Hence, large Resistivity

The resistivity of nichrome is weak Temp. dependence. At almost zero temp. Pure metal has negligibly
small resistivity but alloys still offer some resistivity due to their configuration.
Semi-Conductors and Insulators

As we Increase the temp

The increase in no. of charge density of free electrons is more

dominant compared to the increase in the relaxation time
Thus with increase in temp, the resisitivity decreases

We know,

ρ = 1/ n(T)

α=-
At room temperature (27.0°C), the resistance of a heating element is 100 Ω.
At what temperature does the resistance of the element change to 117 Ω?
Given that the temperature coefficient of the material of the resistor is 1.70
× 10–4 °C–1.

Ans- 1027 C
OHMIC and NON-OHMIC Device

It is not a Fundanental Law in NAture

Those substances which obeys OHM’s Law are known as OHMIC conductors
These conductors shows the linear relationship between the V and I.
Also if we reverse the direction of Potential, then the direction of current is also reversed.

OHMIC and NON-OHMIC Device

Those substances which doesn’t obeys OHM’s Law are known as
NON-OHMIC conductors
These conductors doesn’t shows the linear relationship between
the V and I.
Examples-

Metallic conductors- when current passed through them is very high

P-n junction diode Thyristor
A parallel-plate capacitor has plates of area 10 cm2 separated by a distance of 1 mm. It
is filled with the dielectric mica and connected to a battery of emf 6 volts. Find the
leakage current through the capacitor. Resistivity of mica = 1 × 1013 Ohm-m.

Ans- 6 x 10-13 A
Eg.A battery of emf 2V and internal resistance 0.5 Ohm is connected across a
resistance of 9.5 Ohm. How many electrons cross through a cross section of the
resistance in 1 second?
Internal Resistance of a cell:
The opposition offered by the electrolyte of the cell to the flow of electric current through it is called
the internal resistance of the cell.

Factors affecting Internal Resistance of a cell:

i) Larger the separation between the electrodes of the cell, more the length
of the electrolyte through which current has to flow and consequently a
higher value of internal resistance.
ii) Greater the conductivity of the electrolyte, lesser is the internal resistance
of the cell. i.e. internal resistance depends on the nature of the electrolyte.
iii) The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the common
area of the electrodes dipping in the electrolyte.
iv) The internal resistance of a cell depends on the nature of the electrodes.
v) It increases with decrease in temp of the Electrolyte.
E r
E =V+v
= IR + Ir v
I I
= I (R + r) R
I = E / (R + r)
V
This relation is called circuit equation.
Internal Resistance of a cell in terms of E,V and R:

Work done in carrying Work done in carrying a unit Work done in carrying a unit A E r B
a unit charge along the = charge from A to B against + charge from B to A against the
v
complete circuit the external resistance R internal resistance r I I
R
Eq0 = Vq0 + vq0
V
V- Potential drop across the
E =V+v resistance of the external circuit
= V + Ir
Ir = E - V v- Potential drop across the
resistance offered by Electrolyte
Dividing by IR = V,

Ir E–V E
= r =( - 1) R
IR V V
Characteristic curves of a CELL
E vs R graph
The emf of a cell is the potential difference when no current is drawn from the circuit
Thus, emf is independent of the Resistance of the circuit

V vs R Graph V vs I Graph

E =V+v
V=E-v
As R increases, R=0 V=0
V=E-Ir
V also Increases R=r V=E/2
R= ∞ V=E V=-Ir+E
Y=mx+c
Eg.A battery of emf 2V and internal resistance 0.5 Ohm is connected across a
resistance of 9.5 Ohm. How many electrons cross through a cross section of the
resistance in 1 second?

Ans- 1.25 x 1018

Two cells E1 and E2 of EMF’s 5 V and 9 V and internal resistances of 0.3Ω and 1.2Ω
respectively are connected to a network of resistances as shown in the figure. Calculate
the value of current flowing through the 3Ω resistance.
CELLS IN SERIES

Potential difference b/w A and B

VA-VB= E1-Ir1 ……1

Potential difference b/w B and C

VB-VC= E2-Ir2 ……..2

If we wish to replace these 2 cells with one cell of Equivalent Emf, then

VA-VC= Eeq-Ireq …….3

Add equation 1 and 2

VA-VC= E1-Ir1 + E2-Ir2

VA-VC= E1+ E2 - I (r1 + r2) ………….4

Comparing equation 3 and 4

Eeq = E1+ E2 req = r1 + r2

CELLS IN PARALLEL

Potential Drop in First cell

V = E1-I1r1 I1= (E1-V)/r1
Potential Drop in Second cell
V = E2-I2r2 I2= (E2-V)/r2

Total Current : I = I1 +I2

I= (E1-V)/r1 + (E2-V)/r2

I= (E1/r1 +E2/r2) – V( 1/r1 + 1/r2)

Cells in Series combination:
Cells are connected in series when they are joined end to end so that the same quantity of electricity must
flow through each cell or when the negative terminal of a cell is connected to the positive terminal of
another cell.
E r E r E r
NOTE:
1. The emf of the battery is the sum of the I
individual emfs
I
R
2. The current in each cell is the same and is
identical with the current in the entire
arrangement. V
3. The total internal resistance of the battery is
the sum of the individual internal resistances.

Total emf of the battery = nE (for n no. of identical cells)

Total Internal resistance of the battery = nr
Total resistance of the circuit = nr + R

(i) If R << nr, then I = E / r (ii) If nr << R, then I = n (E / R)

nE
Current I =
nr + R Conclusion: When internal resistance is negligible in comparison to the external
resistance, then the cells are connected in series to get maximum current.
Cells in Parallel combination:
Cells are said to be connected in parallel when they are joined positive to
positive and negative to negative such that current is divided between the cells.
E r
NOTE:
1. The emf of the battery is the same as that of a
single cell.
E r
2. The current in the external circuit is divided equally
among the cells.
3. The reciprocal of the total internal resistance is the E r
sum of the reciprocals of the individual internal I I
resistances.

Total emf of the battery = E R

Total Internal resistance of the battery = r / n V

Total resistance of the circuit = (r / n) + R

(i) If R << r/n, then I = n(E / r) (ii) If r/n << R, then I = E / R

nE
Current I = Conclusion: When external resistance is negligible in
nR + r comparison to the internal resistance, then the cells are
connected in parallel to get maximum current.
MIXED GROUPING of CELLS

Total Internal Resistance = nr/m

Total Resistance = R + nr/m

To have the maximum current, the denominator should be minimum

(mR+nr) should be minimum

mR + nr = 0
R = nr/m

Or Rm=nr
Find the net resistance of the circuit shown.

Ans- 1.5 ohm

Two cells E1 and E2 of EMF’s 5 V and 9 V and internal resistances of 0.3Ω and 1.2Ω
respectively are connected to a network of resistances as shown in the figure. Calculate
the value of current flowing through the 3Ω resistance.

Ans= 1/3 A]
ELECTRIC POWER

The rate at which work is done by a source of emf in maintaining an electric current through a circuit.

P = W/t = Vq/t = VI = I2R = V2/R SI unit-watt (W)

1hp=746W

ELECTRIC ENERGY
The total work done by the source of emf in maintaining an Electric current in a circuit for a given time

W = Vit = I2Rt SI unit- joule (J)

ELECTRIC EFFIECIENCY

The efficiency of an electric device is defined as the ratio of output power to the input power

POWER RATING
It is the electrical energy consucmed by the appliance per second.
CURRENT ELECTRICITY - II

1. Kirchhoff’s Laws of electricity

2. Wheatstone Bridge
3. Metre Bridge
4. Potentiometer
i) Principle
ii) Comparison of emf of primary cells
KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS: German Physicist-Kirchoff extended the OHM’s Law for
more complicated circuits
I Law or Current Law or Junction Rule:
Junction-
Any point in a circuit, where two or more conductrs are joined together.
Loop-
Any closed conducting path in a circuit.
Branch-
Any part of the network that lies between two junctions.

I1 I2
The algebraic sum of electric currents at a junction in any electrical
network is always zero. I3
O
I5
I1 - I2 - I3 + I4 - I5 = 0
I4
Sign Conventions:
1. The incoming currents towards the junction are taken positive.
2. The outgoing currents away from the junction are taken negative.

Note: The charges cannot accumulate at a junction. The number of charges that arrive at a junction
in a given time must leave in the same time in accordance with conservation of charges.
II Law or Voltage Law or Loop Rule:
The algebraic sum of all the potential drops and emf’s along any closed
path in an electrical network is always zero.
I1 E1 I1
R1
A B Loop ABCA:

R2 - E1 + I1.R1 + (I1 + I2).R2 = 0

I2 I1 + I2 I1
Loop ACDA:
D C
I2 R3 I2 - (I1 + I2).R2 - I2.R3 + E2 = 0
E2
Sign Conventions:
1. The emf is taken negative when we traverse from positive to negative terminal
of the cell through the electrolyte.
2. The emf is taken positive when we traverse from negative to positive terminal
of the cell through the electrolyte.

The potential falls along the direction of current in a current path

and it rises along the direction opposite to the current path.

3. The potential fall is taken negative. Note: The path can be traversed in clockwise
4. The potential rise is taken positive. or anticlockwise direction of the loop.
Wheatstone Bridge: B

It is an arrangement of 4 resistances, used to determine the P Q

value of one of these resistances in terms of the others. I1 I1 - Ig
Ig
Currents through the arms are assumed by A
applying Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule. G C

Applying Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule for:

R S
Loop ABDA: Loop BCDB: I - I1
- (I1 - Ig).Q + (I - I1 + Ig).S + Ig.G = 0 I I - I1 + Ig I
-I1.P - Ig.G + (I - I1).R = 0
D

Let S be the unknown resistance

The value of R is so adjusted that there is no current in the GALVANOMETER I I
E
When Ig = 0, the bridge is said to balanced.

By manipulating the above equations, we get At BALANCED CONDITION-

There is no effet on the null point, if the battery and
Galvanometer are interchanged.
P R
Q S WHEATSTONE BRIDGE is said to be sensitive, if it shows a large
deflection with small change in resistance.
 Applying Kirchhoff’s rule, find the current through each resistor

Ans- BAD, I = (5/13)A, DCB, I = (6/13)A, BD, I = (1/13)A]

Metre Bridge:
R.B (R) X
Metre Bridge is based on the principle
of Wheatstone Bridge.

G
When the galvanometer current is made
zero by adjusting the jockey position on A B
the metre-bridge wire for the given values
l cm J 100 - l cm
of known and unknown resistances,

K
E
R RAJ R AJ R l

X RJB X JB X 100 - l (Since, Resistance ∾ length)

Therefore, X = R (100 – l) ⁄ l