How all these possible??

Sexual reproduction in flowering

plants
• Reproductive organ- flower
• Parts of flower/Whorls of a flower
• CALYX (Sepals)
• COROLLA (petals)
• ANDROECIUM(stamen)-anther+filament
• GYNOECIUM(pistil)-Stigma+style+Ovary
 LEARNING INTENTION
• To understand the fascinating organ of
angiosperm i.e Flower and the process of
reproduction and to apply the concepts in
creating different varieties of plant.
FLOWER
• Flower is a modified
stem which functions
as a reproductive organ
and produces ova
and/or pollen.
• A typical angiospermic
flower consists of four
whorls of floral
appendages attached
on the receptacle:
calyx, corolla,
androecium (male
reproductive organ
consisting of stamens)
and gynoecium
(composed of ovary,
style and stigma) .
 Pre-fertilisation: Structures and
Events
• • Several structural and hormonal changes
lead to formation and development of the
floral primordium. Inflorescence is formed
that bears floral buds and then flower.
• • In flowers, male (androecium) and female
(gynoecium) differentiate and develops in
which male and female gametes are
produced.
• Stamen, Microsporangium and Pollen Grain.
• Can we differentiate these terms??
Stamen, Microsporangium and Pollen
Grain
• Stamen consists of long and slender stalk
called filament
• Anthers are generally bilobed.
• Each lobe contains two theca (dithecous).
• The anther is four-sided structure consisting of
four microsporangia, two in each lobes.
• Microsporangia develop further and become
pollen sacs which contain pollen grains.
• Now can you tell me a typical anther is
considered to be tetrasporoginate. Why?
Stamen, Microsporangium and Pollen
Grain :
Transverse section of an anther
showing Microsporangium
• Microsporangia---sporogenous tissue---each
cell can act as MMC
• MMC---meiosis—microspores---pollengrains
 Microsporangium is generally
surrounded by four layered walls-
• Epidermis
• Endothecium PROTECTIVE IN FUNCTION
&HELP IN DEHISCENCE OF
• Middle layer ANTHER

• Tapetum.

Why we need tapetum?

• Innermost layer tapetum nourishes the
developing pollen grains.
• How the cells of tapetum specialized for giving
nutrients?
 Tapetum consists of:
• Cells with dense cytoplasm
• Have more than one nuclei.

• Do you think tapetum cells then disturb the

ploidy of the plant?
• Sporogenous tissues- It is compactly arranged
homogenous cells which are present at centre
of each microsporangium when the anther is
young
• Each cell in the sporogenous tissue can act as
microspore mother cell or pollen grain mother
cell.
• How do we get microspores exactly?
• Is microspores same as pollen grains?
 Microsporogenesis
• Microsporogenesis- The process of the
formation and differentiation of microspores
(pollen grains) from microspore mother cells
(MMC) by meiosis is called microsporogenesis.
• What is so special about sporogenous tissue?
• As each cell of the sporogenous tissue is
capable of giving rise to a microspore tetrad.
• Each one is a potential pollen or microspore
mother cell (PMC).
 PREVIOUS BOARD QUESTIONS
• Draw the diagram of the microsporangium of
an angiosperm and label any four parts. State
the function of its innermost layer. 3M
• Describe the structure of microsporangium.
3M
• What is a microspore tetrad?
• The microspores, as they are formed, are
arranged in a cluster of four cells–the
microspore tetrad.
 PBQs
• A bilobed, dithecous anther has 100
microspore mother cells per
microsporangium. How many male
gametophytes this anther can produce?
• Each pollen sac has 100 microspore mother
cells.
• Meiosis produces 4 pollen grains or male
gametophytes.
• Meiosis in 400 microspore mother cell will
produce=400*4=1600 pollen grains or male
gametophytes.
Which structure represent the male
gametophytes??
• The pollen grains represent the male
gametophytes.
 Structure of pollen grain
• Pollen grains are generally spherical measuring about micrometers in diameter.
• It has a prominent two-layered wall.
• The hard outer layer called the exine is made up of sporopollenin which is one of
the most resistant organic material known.
• It can withstand high temperatures and strong acids and alkali.
• No enzyme that degrades sporopollenin is so far known.
• Pollen grains are well preserved as fossils because of the presence of
sporopollenin.

• Pollen grain exine has prominent apertures called germ pores where sporopollenin
is absent. The exine exhibits a fascinating array of patterns and designs.
• The inner wall of the pollen grain is called the intine.
• It is a thin and continuous layer made up of cellulose and pectin.
• The cytoplasm of pollen grain is surrounded by a plasma membrane.
• When the pollen grain is mature it contains two cells, the vegetative cell and
generative cell.
• Vegetative cell
• The vegetative cell is bigger, has abundant food reserve and a large irregularly
shaped nucleus.
• Generative cell
• The generative cell is small and floats in the cytoplasm of the vegetative cell.
• It is spindle shaped with dense cytoplasm and a nucleus.
• In over 60 per cent of angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at this 2-celled stage.
• In the remaining species, the generative cell divides mitotically to give rise to the
two male gametes before pollen grains are shed (3-celled stage).
 What is the disadvantage of pollen
grains?
• Pollen grains of many species cause severe
allergies and bronchial afflictions in some
people often leading to chronic respiratory
disorders– asthma, bronchitis, etc
Can you think of an example of plant whose
pollens are ubiquitous and cause pollen
allergy?
Parthenium or Carrot grass
• Pollen consumption has been claimed to increase
the performance of athletes and race horses.
Why?
• What is pollen viability? Why is it so important?
• What factors determine the pollen viability?
• Can we store pollen grains? Why do you think we
need to store it?(PBQ)
• Pollen grain can act as fossil. How is it
possible?(PBQ)
• It is possible to store pollen grains of a large
number of species for years in liquid nitrogen
(-1960 C).
• Such stored pollen can be used as pollen
banks, similar to seed banks, in crop breeding
programmes.
 The Pistil, Megasporangium (ovule)
and Embryo sac
• Gynoecium consists of:
• Monocarpellary-- single pistil
• Multicarpellary -- more than one pistil

syncarpous Apocarpous
 PISTIL

• The stigma serves as a landing

platform For pollen grains.
• The style is the elongated
slender part beneath the
Stigma.
• The basal bulged part of the
pistil is the ovary.
• Inside the ovary is
the ovarian cavity
(locule).
• The placenta is
located inside the
ovarian cavity.
• Where is
megasporangia??
• Arising from the placenta are the
megasporangia, commonly called ovules.
• The number of ovules in an ovary may be one
(wheat, paddy, mango) to many (papaya,
water melon, orchids).
The Megasporangium • The Megasporangium
(Ovule)
• Ovule is a small structure
(Ovule) Typical anatropous
attached to placenta. ovule
• Funicle – stalk by which ovule is
attached to placenta
• Hilum- junction between ovule
and funicle
• Integuments- protective
envelops
• Micropyle- small opening at the
tip of ovule into where pollen
tube enters
• Chalaza- basal part of ovule
• Nucellus (2n)-mass of cells
enclosed in integuments. Has
abundant food reserve.
• What is an embryo sac? Where is it located?
• the embryo sac or female gametophyte
located in nucellus.
• How many embryo sac generally an ovule has?
• Nucellus is a mass of cells. Can all the cells in
nucellus able to produce embryo sac?
• So Embryo sac is produced from which cell?
• How many embryo sac generally an ovule has?
• Generally one.

• Nucellus is a mass of cells. Can all the cells in

nucellus able to produce embryo sac?
• No
• So Embryo sac is produced from which cell?
• Megaspore.
• How did we get this Megaspore???
 Megasporogenesis
• Megasporogenesis : The process of formation of
megaspores from the megaspore mother cell is called
megasporogenesis.
• Ovules generally differentiate a single megaspore
mother cell (MMC) in the micropylar region of the
nucellus. HOW?
• It is a large cell containing dense cytoplasm and a
prominent nucleus.
• The MMC undergoes meiotic division.
• What is the importance of the MMC undergoing
meiosis?
• Meiosis results in the production of four megaspores.
Megasporogenesis
 Female gametophyte
• One of the megaspores is functional while the
other three degenerate. WHY ?????

• Only the functional megaspore develops into

the female gametophyte (embryo sac).

• Then what is monosporic development?

Think!!
• This method of embryo sac formation from a
single megaspore is termed monosporic
development.
Think!!
• What will be the ploidy of the cells of the
nucellus, MMC, the functional megaspore and
female gametophyte?
• There is a characteristic distribution of the
cells within the embryo sac. Explain.
• The nucleus of the functional megaspore divides mitotically to form
two nuclei which move to the opposite poles, forming the 2-
nucleate embryo sac.
• Two more sequential mitotic nuclear divisions result in the
formation of the 4-nucleate and later the 8-nucleate stages of the
embryo sac.
• These mitotic divisions are strictly free nuclear, that is, nuclear
divisions are not followed immediately by cell wall formation. After
the 8-nucleate stage, cell walls are laid down leading to the
organisation of the typical female gametophyte or embryo sac.
• Six of the eight nuclei are surrounded by cell walls and organised into cells; the
remaining two nuclei, called polar nuclei are situated below the egg apparatus in the
large central cell.
 VERY IMPORTANT BQ!!!
• A typical angiosperm embryo sac, at maturity,
is a 8-nucleate ,7-celled. Explain.
• There is a characteristic distribution of the cells within the
embryo sac.
• Three cells are grouped together at the micropylar end and
constitute
• the egg apparatus.
• The egg apparatus, in turn, consists of two synergids and one
egg cell.
• The synergids have special cellular thickenings at the
micropylar tip called filiform apparatus, which play an
important role in guiding the pollen tubes into the synergid.
• Three cells are at the chalazal end and are called the
antipodals.
• The large central cell, as mentioned earlier, has two polar
nuclei.
• Thus, a typical angiosperm embryo sac, at maturity, though 8-
nucleate is 7-celled.
 VERY IMPORTANT BQ!!!
• A typical angiosperm embryo sac, at maturity,
is a 8-nucleate ,7-celled. Explain.
 Pollination
• Transfer of pollen grains (shed from the
anther) to the stigma of a pistil is termed
pollination.
 Kinds of Pollination
• Depending on the source of pollen, pollination
can be divided into three types:
➢Autogamy
➢Geitonogamy
➢Xenogamy
 Autogamy

• Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to

the stigma of the same flower.
• It is self pollination
• E.g: pea, rice, wheat etc.
• In a normal flower which opens and exposes
the anthers and the stigma, complete
autogamy is rather rare. Why?
• Autogamy in such flowers requires :
• synchrony in pollen release and stigma
receptivity.
• the anthers and the stigma should lie close to
each other so that self-pollination can occur.
What is so special about these plants
Viola(common pansy), Oxalis, and
Commelina?
The below given picture is the viola plants.

• What kind of pollination will the

flower follow? why?
• Can you give the technical
name for these kind of flowers
produced by Viola plant?
• If Viola plant need to ensure
the formation of Assured seed
sets what strategy should the
plant follow in the nature?
Explain.
• Some plants such as Viola(common pansy),
Oxalis, and Commelina produce two types of
flowers –
• Chasmogamous flowers which are similar to
flowers of other species with exposed anthers
and stigma
• Cleistogamous flowers which do not open at
all.
 cleistogamous flowers
• In such flowers, the anthers and stigma lie
close to each other.
• When anthers dehisce in the flower buds,
pollen grains come in contact with the stigma
to effect pollination.
• Thus, cleistogamous flowers are invariably
autogamous as there is no chance of cross-
pollen landing on the stigma.
• Cleistogamous flowers produce assured seed-
set even in the absence of pollinators.
• Do you think that cleistogamy is advantageous
or disadvantageous to the plant? Why?
 Devices for self pollination
• Cross pollination can be prevented by:
• Cleistogamous flowers
• Homogamy: condition of maturity of anther
and stigma at the same time. E.g: Vinca
• The close association between anther and
stigma e.g: mirabilis
 Geitonogamy
• Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to
the stigma of another flower of the same
plant.
• E.g: cucurbita
 Male and female flowers on a
cucumber plant (Monoecious plants)
 IMPORTANT!!
• Although geitonogamy is functionally cross-
pollination involving a pollinating agent,
genetically it is similar to autogamy since the
pollen grains come from the same plant.
 Xenogamy

• Transfer of pollen grains from anther to the

stigma of a different plant.
• This is the only type of pollination which
during pollination brings genetically different
types of pollen grains to the stigma.
• E.g: papaya
Male and female flowers on a maize
plant (Monoecious plants)
 Agents of Pollination
• Abiotic agents: wind and water
• Biotic agents: animals
 Pollination by wind
(anemophily)anemophilous flower
• Pollination by wind is more common
amongst abiotic pollinations.
 QUESTION
Observe the given diagram, and
answer the following questions.
1. what kind of pollinating agent
will help in pollinating such
kind of flower?
2. What are the features of the
following part of the flower if
they want to support for the
pollinating agent:
• Stamens, stigma, Pollen
grains, petals
 Wind-pollinated flowers are different in structure because
they do not have to attract insects to them but do need to be
exposed to the wind.

Pollen grains are very Anthers are exposed to the

small and light, non- wind so that pollen can
sticky dry and winged. easily be blown away
They occur in very large
numbers

Stigma are
feathery and
sticky to catch
pollen carried on
wind
Petals are small and
green as there is no
No scent or nectary
need to attract
insects
Flower Structure Pollination Fertilisation Seed Dispersal Germination Test
 • Pollen grains are light and non- sticky.
• Possess well-exposed stamens (so that the
pollens are easily dispersed into wind currents,
FEATURES OF • Large often-feathery stigma to easily trap air-
WIND borne pollen grains.
• Windpollinated flowers often have a single ovule
POLLINATED in each ovary
• Numerous flowers packed into an inflorescence
FLOWER • a familiar example is the corn cob – the tassels
you see are nothing but the stigma and style
which wave in the wind to trap pollen grains.
Wind-pollination is quite common in grasses.
 Pollination by water(Hydrophily)
• Pollination by water is quite rare in flowering
plants and is limited to about 30 genera,
mostly monocotyledons.
• Water is a regular mode of transport for the
male gametes among the lower plant groups
such as algae, bryophytes and pteridophytes.
 Some examples of water pollinated
plants
• Vallisneria and Hydrilla which grow in fresh
water .
• several marine sea-grasses such as Zostera.
• In another group of water pollinated plants
such as seagrasses, female flowers remain
submerged in water and the pollen grains are
released inside the water.
• Pollen grains in many such species are long,
ribbon like and they are carried passively
inside the water.
• In vallisneria the female flower stalk is coiled
to reach the water surface to receive the
pollen grains carried by water currents.
• In most of the water-pollinated species,
pollen grains are protected from wetting by a
mucilaginous covering.
 Observe the given plant images. Can you identify
these plants? Which pollinating agent will play the
role of pollination??
Water hyacinth(Eichhornia
crassipes) Water lilly
 Pollination in water hyacinth and
water lily
• In a majority of aquatic plants such as water
hyacinth and water lily, the flowers emerge
above the level of water and are pollinated by
insects or wind as in most of the land plants.
 Pollination by animals
• Majority of flowering plants use a range of animals as pollinating
agents.

• Bees, butterflies, flies, beetles, wasps, ants, moths, birds

(sunbirds and humming birds) and bats are the common
pollinating agents.

• Among the animals, insects, particularly bees are the dominant

biotic pollinating agents.

• Even larger animals such as some primates (lemurs), arboreal

(tree-dwelling) rodents, or even reptiles (gecko lizard and garden
lizard) have also been reported as pollinators in some species.
 Insect pollination : entomophily
Entomophilous flower
• In some species floral rewards are in providing
safe places to lay eggs;
• an example is that of the tallest flower of
Amorphophallus (the flower itself is about 6
feet in height).
 Insect pollination : entomophily-
characteristics of insect pollination
• Majority of insect-pollinated flowers are large, colourful,
fragrant and rich in nectar.
• When the flowers are small, a number of flowers are
clustered into an inflorescence to make them conspicuous.
• Animals are attracted to flowers by colour and/or fragrance.
• The flowers pollinated by flies and beetles secrete foul odours
to attract these animals.
• To sustain animal visits, the flowers have to provide rewards
to the animals.
 REWARDS GIVEN BY THE FLOWER TO
THE ANIMALS/INSECTS
• Nectar and pollen grains are the usual floral rewards.
• For harvesting the reward(s) from the flower the
animal visitor comes in contact with the anthers and
the stigma.
• The body of the animal gets a coating of pollen
grains, which are generally sticky in animal pollinated
flowers.
• When the animal carrying pollen on its body comes
in contact with the stigma, it brings about
pollination.
 IS THERE ANY OTHER FLORAL
REWARDS?
• In some species floral rewards are in providing
safe places to lay eggs;
• an example is that of the tallest flower of
Amorphophallus (the flower itself is about 6
feet in height).
• A similar relationship exists between a species
of moth and the plant Yucca where both
species – moth and the plant – cannot
complete their life cycles without each other.
• The moth deposits its eggs in the locule of the
ovary and the flower, in turn, gets pollinated
by the moth.
• The larvae of the moth come out of the eggs
as the seeds start developing.
Insect-pollinated flowers are adapted to attract
insects to them to enable transfer of pollen
Pollen has
barbs for
nectar and a hooking onto
scent present insect fur

Anthers positioned
to rub pollen onto
insects

Sticky stigma to
collect pollen Brightly coloured
petals

Flower Structure Pollination Fertilisation Seed Dispersal Germination Test

• (a) Write the characteristic features of anther, pollen and stigma of
wind pollinated flowers.
• (b) How do flowers reward their insect pollinators? Explain.
• How do the pollen grains of Vallisneria protect themselves?
• What are tassels in corn-cob?Why do corn cobs have long tassels?
• How do flowers of Vallisneria get pollinated?
• Name the type of cross-pollination in silk-cotton tree and
Vallisneria, respectively.
• Write the differences between wind-pollinated and insect-
pollinated flowers. Give an example of each type.
• Explain the mutually rewarding relationship between Yucca plant
and a species of moth.
• Not all aquatic plants use water for
pollination. Justify this statement by giving an
example.
• Majority of flowering plants produce
hermaphrodite flowers and pollen grains are
likely to come in contact with the stigma of
the same flower.
• What kind of pollination will it lead for?
• Self pollination
• Continued self-pollination result in inbreeding
depression.
• Flowering plants have developed many
devices to discourage self pollination and to
encourage cross-pollination.
 Out breeding devices
• In some species, pollen release and stigma
receptivity are not synchronised.
• Either the pollen is released before the stigma
becomes receptive or stigma becomes receptive
much before the release of pollen.
• In some other species, the anther and stigma are
placed at different positions so that the pollen
cannot come in contact with the stigma of the
same flower.
• Both these devices prevent autogamy.
• self-incompatibility.
• The third device to prevent inbreeding is self-
incompatibility.
• This is a genetic mechanism and prevents self-
pollen (from the same flower or other flowers
of the same plant) from fertilising the ovules
by inhibiting pollen germination or pollen
tube growth in the pistil.
• Can you suggest a device which will prevent
autogamy but not geitonogamy.
• Monoecious plants
• Another device to prevent self-pollination is
the production of unisexual flowers. If both
male and female flowers are present on the
same plant such as castor and maize
(monoecious), it prevents autogamy but not
geitonogamy.
• Can you suggest a device which will prevent
both autogamy and geitonogamy.
• Dioecious plants.
• In several species such as papaya, male and
female flowers are present on different plants,
that is each plant is either male or female
(dioecy). This condition prevents both
autogamy and geitonogamy.
 Strategies (devices) to favor cross
pollination
• Dioecious plants: Some plants have flowers that are
only male - they have only stamen. Other plants of the
same species have flowers that are only female - they
have only carpels.

• Monoecious plants: Some flowers on a plant are only

male; other flowers on the same plant are only female.
So, self pollination is avoided by a difference in the
timing of their development.

• Dichogamy:condition in which stamens and stigma of a

bisexual flower mature at different times.
• Protandry: Anthers on some plants mature
first.

• Protogyny: The stigmas mature first.

• Self-incompatibility: it’s a genetic mechanism.

Pollination can occur but the pollen tube
doesn't grow well, if at all, so no fertilization
takes place.
• Question.8. Starting from the innermost
part, the correct sequence of parts in an
ovule are
(a) Egg, nucellus, embryo sac, integument
.
(b) Egg, embryo sac, nucellus, integument.
(c) Embryo sac, nucellus, integument, egg
(d) Egg, integument, embryo sac, nucellus
• Question.9. From the statements given
below, choose the option that are true for a
typical female gametophyte of a flowering
plant.
i. It is 8-nucleate and 7-celled at maturity
ii. It is free-nuclear during the development
iii. It is situated inside the integument but
outside the nucellus
iv. It has an egg apparatus situated at the
chalazal end
(a) i and iv (b) ii and iii
(c) i and ii (d) ii and iv
• Question.10. Autogamy can occur in a
chasmogamous flower if
(a) Pollen matures before maturity of
ovule
(b) Ovules mature before maturity of
pollen
(c) Both pollen and ovules mature
simultaneously
(d) Both anther and stigma are of equal
lengths
• Question.11. Choose the correct
statement from the following:
(a) Cleistogamous flowers always exhibit
autogamy
(b) Chasmogamous’flowers always exhibit
geitonogamy
(c) Cleistogamous flowers exhibit both
autogamy and geitonogamy
(d) Chasmogamous flowers never exhibit
autogamy
• Question.12. A particular species of plant
produces light, non-sticky pollen in large
numbers and its stigmas are long and
feathery. These modifications facilitate
pollination by
(a) Insects (b) Water (c) Wind (d) Animals
• Self-pollination is fully ensured if
• (A) the flower is bisexual.
• (B) the style is longer than the filament.
• (C) the flower is cleistogamous.
• (D) the time of pistil and anther maturity is different.
• When a breeder is interested in crossing
different species and often genera to combine
desirable characters to produce commercially
‘superior’ varieties. How can the plant breeder
do that process?
• Artificial hybridisation is one of the major
approaches of crop improvement programme.
• In such crossing experiments it is important to
make sure that only the desired pollen grains
are used for pollination and the stigma is
protected from contamination (from
unwanted pollen).
• This is achieved by emasculation and bagging
techniques.
Steps in making a cross in pea
• EMASCULATION:
• If the female parent bears bisexual flowers, removal of anthers from the flower
bud before the anther dehisces using a pair of forceps is necessary. This step is
referred to as emasculation.
• This is to prevent self pollination.
• Bagging:
• Emasculated flowers have to be covered with a bag of suitable
size, generally made up of butter paper, to prevent
contamination of its stigma with unwanted pollen. This
process is called bagging.

• When the stigma of bagged flower attains receptivity, mature

pollen grains collected from anthers of the male parent are
dusted on the stigma, and the flowers are rebagged, and the
fruits allowed to develop.
• If the female parent produces unisexual flowers, there is no need for
• emasculation. The female flower buds are bagged before the flowers open.
• When the stigma becomes receptive, pollination is carried out using the
• desired pollen and the flower rebagged.
 Questions to be done in your notebook. You can choose questions in any
order of your choice.

1. Which part of the plant has the ability to differentiate between right and wrong
pollen? And how do you think it differentiate?
2. A pollen grain in angiosperm at time of dehiscence from an anther
could be 2 celled or 3 celled. Explain. How are the cells placed
within the pollen grain when shed at a 2 celled stage?
3. How many cells are present in pollen grains? Which cell in the
pollen grain produces male gametes? What kind of cell division
they undergo to produce the male gametes?
4. What does an interaction between pollen grains and its compatible
stigma result in after pollination? List two steps in sequence that
follow after the process.
5. State the function of filiform apparatus found in mature embryo
sac of an angiosperm.
6. What are the benefits of choosing a dioecious plant species for
plant breeding experiments? How would you proceed to cross
pollinate a monoecious flower?
7.Why should a bisexual flower be emasculated and bagged prior to
artificial pollination?
 Pollen-pistil Interaction
• Pollination will allow two types of pollen
grains:
• Right type pollens
• Wrong type pollens
• Can pollen grain from same flower act as a
wrong pollen?
• If its wrong type (Incompatible)----Prevent
pollen germination.
• If its right type---- the pistil accepts the pollen-
--- promotes post-pollination events ---lead for
fertilization.
• Think!!
• Which part of the plant has the ability to
differentiate between right and wrong
pollen? And how do you think it works?
• The ability of the pistil to recognise the pollen
followed by its acceptance or rejection is the
result of a continuous dialogue between
pollen grain and the pistil.
• This dialogue is mediated by chemical
components of the pollen interacting with
those of the pistil.
 Explain the events if pollen grain is
compatible
• Pollen grain germinates on the stigma to produce a pollen
tube through one of the germ pores.
• The contents of the pollen grain move into the pollen tube.
• Pollen tube grows---stigma--- style and reaches the ovary.
• Pollen grains are shed at two-celled condition (a vegetative
cell and a generate cell). In such plants, the generative cell
divides and forms the two male gametes during the growth
of pollen tube in the stigma.
• In plants which shed pollen in the three-celled condition,
pollen tubes carry the two male gametes from the
beginning.
• Pollen tube, after reaching the ovary, enters the ovule
through the micropyle and then enters one of the synergids
through the filiform apparatus.
• All these events–from pollen deposition on
the stigma until pollen tubes enter the ovule–
are together referred to as pollen-pistil
interaction.
• Generative cell and vegetative cell—pollen
tube
• Generative nucleus---mitosis---2 male gametes
• Male gametes---micropyle—through filiform
apparatus---male gametes released—
cytoplasm synergids
L.S. of pistil showing path of pollen
tube growth;
• After entering one of the synergids, the
pollen tube releases the two male gametes
into the cytoplasm of the synergid.
1. Explain the following process:
• Syngamy
• Triple fusion
2. Fertilization in angiosperms is called as double
fertilization. Why?
3. Mention the ploidy of the following cells: Zygote,
PEN, synergids, egg cell.
4. Draw the structure of the fertilized embryo sac.
 Double fertilization
Syngamy
Male Gamete (n) + Egg Cell(n) ---- Zygote (2n)

Triple fusion
Male Gamete + Polar nuclei --- Primary
(n) (2n) endosperm nucleus(3n)
(PEN)
Fertilised embryo sac showing zygote and
Primary Endosperm Nucleus (PEN)
 What happens after double
fertilization?
Since two types of fusions, syngamy and triple fusion take place in an
embryo sac the phenomenon is termed double fertilisation, an event
unique to flowering plants.
The central cell after triple fusion becomes the primary endosperm
cell (PEC)

Primary endosperm cell (PEC)---develops--endosperm

Zygote ------ develops ---- embryo

 Post-fertilisation events.

Following double fertilisation,

• events of endosperm and embryo development,

• maturation of ovule(s) into seed(s) and
• ovary into fruit,

The above steps are collectively termed

post-fertilisation events.
 The primary endosperm cell divides
repeatedly and forms a triploid
endosperm tissue.

The cells of this tissue are filled with

reserve food materials
Endosperm

This is used for the nutrition of the

developing embryo.
1. Which are the events coming under post
fertilization events?
2. How does the primary endosperm becomes
an endosperm tissue?
• What does the following in coconut refers to:
• A. Coconut water
• B. white kernel of coconut.
• PEN undergoes successive nuclear divisions --
---- to give rise to free nuclei (this stage of
endosperm development is called free-
nuclear endosperm) ------ Subsequently cell
wall formation occurs ----- endosperm
becomes cellular.
 The coconut water from
tender coconut is free-
nuclear endosperm (made
up of thousands of nuclei)
ENDOSPERM
TISSUE
white kernel is the cellular
endosperm.
PRIMARY ENDOSPERM CELL--- ENDOSPERM TISSUE
 Endosperm may be completely
The consumed by the developing
embryo before seed maturation.
following e.g: pea, groundnut, beans

processes
can happen
with or
endosperm: It may persist in the mature seed and
be used up during seed germination.
E.g: castor and coconut
• Where does the embryo develop in embryo
sac???
 Embryo
• Embryo develops at the micropylar end of
the embryo sac where the zygote is situated.

• Most zygotes divide only after certain

amount of endosperm is formed.

WHY???
• This is an adaptation to provide assured
nutrition to the developing embryo.
• The early stages of embryo development
(embryogeny) are similar in both
monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
• The zygote gives rise to the proembryo and
subsequently to the globular, heart-shaped
and mature embryo.
 Fertilized embryo sac showing zygote
and primary endosperm nucleus (PEN)
Stages in embryo development
Explain the role of stigma in pollen-pistil interactions.
• Ans. a) Mature Dicot Embryo,
• B-Suspensor ; C- Radicle ; D-Plumule ; E-Cotyledon ;
• b) Storage of food reserves (as in legumes) = ½ × 6
• [3 Marks]

• Explain the role of stigma in pollen-pistil

interactions.
• Ans. (a) Role of Stigma
• Landing platform for the pollen grain , enables continuous chemical dialogue
between pollen
• and pistil , rejects incompatiable pollen grain , promotes the growth of pollen tube
of the
• compatible pollen grain leading to fertilization = ½ × 4
Ques: In a fertilised embryo sac, the haploid, diploid and
triploid structures are:
• a. Synergid, zygote and primary endosperm nucleus
• b. Synergid, antipodal and polar nuclei
• c. Antipodal, synergid and primary endosperm nucleus
• d. Synergid, polar nuclei and zygote.
Ques: In an embryo sac, the cells that degenerate after
fertilisation are:
• a. Synergids and primary endosperm cell
• b. Synergids and antipodals
• c. Antipodals and primary endosperm cell
• d. Egg and antipodals.
• 16. While planning for an artificial
hybridization programme involving dioecious
plants, which of the following steps would not
be relevant:
• a. Bagging of female flower
• b. Dusting of pollen on stigma
• c. Emasculation
• d. Collection of pollen
A typical dicot embryo
 How many terms you know? Explain
these terminologies.
• Embryonal axis
• Cotyledons
• Epicotyl
• Hypocotyl
• Plumule
• Radicle
• Root cap
• Scutellum
• Coleorrhiza
• Coleoptile
• Seed
• Albuminous seed
• Non-albuminous seed
• Perisperm
 Structure of dicotyledonous embryo
• A typical dicotyledonous embryo consists of
an embryonal axis and two cotyledons.
• The portion of embryonal axis above the level
of cotyledons is the epicotyl, which
terminates with the plumule or stem tip.
• The cylindrical portion below the level of
cotyledons is hypocotyl that terminates at its
lower end in the radical or root tip.
• The root tip is covered with a root cap.
Structure of monocotyledonous
embryo
 Structure of monocotyledonous
embryo
• Consists only one cotyledon.
• In the grass family the cotyledon is called
scutellum that is situated towards one side
(lateral) of the embryonal axis.
• At its lower end, the embryonal axis has the
radical (Hypocotyl) and root cap enclosed in
an undifferentiated sheath called coleorrhiza.
 Structure of monocotyledonous
embryo
• The portion of the embryonal axis above the
level of attachment of scutellum is the
epicotyl.
• Epicotyl has a shoot apex (Plumule) and a few
leaf primordia enclosed in a hollow foliar
structure, the coleoptile.
 Seed
• In angiosperms, The seed is the final product
of sexual reproduction.
• It is often described as a fertilised ovule.
• Seeds are formed inside fruits.
• A seed typically consists of:
➢ Seed coat(s):
• 1-2 in number,having an opening called
micropyle.
• Outer integument forms outer seed coat: testa
• Inner integument forms inner seed coat: tegmen
➢ Cotyledon(s) :
• 1-2 in number and rich in reserve food material
➢ An embryo axis.
Structure of dicotyledonous seed
(Bengal Gram)
Castor Seed (Dicot with endosperm)
 Types of seed
• Albuminous(endospermic)
• retain a part of endosperm
• as it is not completely used up during embryo
development
• e.g., wheat, maize, barley, castor, sunflower.
• Non-albuminous (non-endospermic)
• seeds have no residual endosperm
• as it is completely consumed during embryo
development
• e.g., pea, groundnut.
• Occasionally, remnants of nucellus are also
persistent in some seeds. This residual,
persistent nucellus is the perisperm.

• E.g black pepper, waterlily and beet

• As ovule matures into seeds , list out the
changes that happens during the process.
• Differentiate between false and true fruits.
• Is it possible to develop a fruit without
undergoing fertilization? Justify your answer.
• Seeds offer several advantages to
angiosperms. Explain.
• Fertilised ovary is the fruit
• Ovarian wall– pericarp-(fruit wall)
• Pericarp is divided into 3 layers
• Epicarp
• Mesocarp
• Endocarp
• True fruit- A fruit which develops only from
ovary. Example- mango, Avacado, banana,
• False fruit- a fruit which is not developed from
ovary but other part of the flower contributed
in fruit formation like Thalamus in case Apple,
Strawberry.
• Parthenocarpic fruits:
• A fruit which is developed without fertilization.
• Example: banana
• Process- Parthenocarpy.
• It can be induced through the application of
growth hormones.
• Advantages: they are seedless fruits
• In some cases, parthenocarpic fruits may produce
seeds but they are non viable.
• As the seed matures, its water content is
reduced and seeds become relatively dry (10-
15 per cent moisture by mass).
• The general metabolic activity of the embryo
slows down.
• The embryo may enter a state of inactivity
called dormancy.
• If favourable conditions are available
(adequate moisture, oxygen and suitable
temperature), they germinate.
• Ovarian wall– pericarp– fruit wall
• Is it possible to have seeds without
fertilization?
 Apomixis
• Apomixis (agamospermy) is a form of asexual
reproduction that mimics sexual reproduction
by formation of seed without fertilization.
• Example: Plant species like Asteraceae and
grasses.
 Ways of forming apomictic seeds:

• In some species, the diploid egg cell is

formed without reduction division and
develops into the embryo without
fertilisation.
• Some cells of nucellus which are diploid in
nature start dividing and without
fertililization develop into embryo e.g citrus
fruits , mango etc
What is your observation from these
pictures?
 Predictions
• How do you think from one seed we get
multiple plantlets?
 Polyembryony
• Occurrence of more than one embryo in a
seed is referred as polyembryony.
 Ways of forming polyembryonic
seeds:
• Development of cells like synergids, cells of
nucellus , cells of integument into embryo
• Formation of more than one embryo sac in an
ovule
• Formation of more than one egg in an embryo
sac
 HOTs
• What will be the advantage of making the
hybrids into apomicts? Why?
• Are pollination and fertilization necessary in
apomixis? Give reason.
 VALUE BASED QUESTION
• You and your friend are walking in the orchard that your
father owns. You notice that some of the flowers and the
developing fruits in a guava tree are covered with butter
paper bags. Your friend is about to remove the bags around
the flowers saying that flowers will not be eaten by animals.
You know the care taker has done this to improve the quality
of the yield.
• (a) What practice is the caretaker carrying out?
• (b)How will you explain to your friend the need for covering
the flowers?
• (c ) What are the values shown by your friend?
• (d) Do you think all the seeds produced will grow into plants
with all the desirable qualities? Why?