NETWORKING

A computer network is an interconnection of various computer systems located at different places. In computer network
two or more computers are linked together with a medium and data communication devices for the purpose of
communicating data and sharing resources. The computer that provides resources to other computers on a network is
called as server. In the network Individual computers, which access shared network resources, are known as
workstations or nodes. Computer networks can be classified on the basis of geographical area in two broad categories.

LAN
According to IEEE (Institute of Electric and Electronic Engineers) Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronic Terms, LAN is defined as “a
communication network used to interconnect a variety of devices (e.g., personal computers, workstations, printers, file storage devices) that can
transmit data over a limited area, typically within a facility. Data rates vary from 1 Mbps to 1000 Mbps. LAN data rates, the number of devices
connected to a LAN, the spacing of those devices, and the network extension depend on:
 The transmission medium employed
 The transmission technique (i.e., baseband or broadband)
 Network access protocol
 The incorporation of such devices as repeaters, bridges, routers, and switching hubs

Repeaters: A repeater is nothing more than a regenerative repeater. It extends a LAN. It does not provide any kind of segmentation of a LAN,
except the physical regeneration of the signal. Multiple LANs with common protocols can be interconnected with repeaters, in effect making just
one large segment. A network using repeaters must avoid multiple paths, as any kind of loop would cause data to circulate indefinitely and could
ultimately make the network crash.

LAN Bridges: Whereas repeaters have no intelligence, bridges do. Bridges can connect two LANs, at the data-link or MAC protocol level. There
are several varieties of bridges, depending on the intelligence incorporated. A transparent bridge is the bridge that isolates traffic and doesn’t
forward traffic that it knows is destined to another station on the same side of the bridge as the sending station. The bridge is able to isolate
traffic according to the MAC source and destination address(es) of each individual data frame. A bridge can be used for segmenting and
extending LAN coverage. Thus, it lowers traffic volume for each segment. A transparent bridge does not modify
any part of a message that it forwards.

Routers: Routers carry more intelligence than bridges. Like a bridge, a router forwards data packets/frames.
Routers make forwarding decisions based on the destination network layer address. Whereas a bridge worked
on the data-link layer, a router operates at the network-layer level. Because routers have more intelligence than bridges, routers will typically
have better network management agents installed. This enables them to be remotely configured, to be programmed to pass or not to pass data
for security purposes, and to be monitored for performance, particularly error performance. Due to the additional processing performed at
routers, they tend to be slower than bridges. Internetworking Troubleshooting Seminar Presentation, 1995 suggests that some protocols do not
lend themselves to routing, such as IBM’s SNA and NetBios, among others.

 High data transmission rate.

 High rate of data transmission is possible.
 Addition of new computer to network is easy.
 High degree of interconnection between computers.
 Peripheral devices like magnetic disk and printer can be shared by other computers.
 Every computer has the potential to communicate with any other computer of the network.
 The reliability of network is high because the failure of one computer in the network does not affect functioning for other computers.
Disadvantages: If the communication line fails, the entire network system breaks down.

WIDE AREA NETWORK

Whereas the conventional LAN provides data communication capabilities among a comparatively small and closed user group covering a very
limited geographical area, a WAN not only has the potential of covering the entire world and outer space, but also has the capability of reaching
an extremely large and diverse user group (e.g., the INTERNET).

The term WAN is used to describe a computer network spanning a regional, national or global area. For example, for a large company the
headquarters might be at Delhi and regional branches at Bombay, Madras, Bangalore and Calcutta. Here regional centers are connected to HQs
through WAN. The distance between computers connected to WAN is larger. Therefore, the transmission medium used is normally telephone
lines, microwaves and satellite links.

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 Communication Facility: For a big company spanning over different parts of the country the employees can save long distance phone
calls and it overcomes the time lag in overseas communications. Computer conferencing is another use of WAN where users communicate
with each other through their computer system.
 Remote Data Entry: is possible in WAN. It means sitting at any location you can enter the data, update data and query other information
of any computer attached to the WAN but located in other cities. For example, suppose you are sitting at Madras and want to see some
data of a computer located at Delhi, you can do it through WAN.
 Centralized information: In modern computerized environment you will find that big organizations go for centralized data storage. This
means if the organization is spread over many cities, they keep their important business data in a single place. As the data are generated at
different sites, WAN permits collection of this data from different sites and save at a single site.
Examples: Ethernet: developed by Xerox Corporation is a famous example of WAN. This network uses coaxial cables for data transmission.
Special integrated circuit chips called controllers are used to connect equipment to the cable.
Arpanet: is another example of WAN. It was developed at Advanced Research Projects Agency of U.S. Department. This network connects more
than 40 universities and institutions throughout USA and Europe.

Difference between LAN and WAN

 LAN is restricted to limited geographical area of few kms. But WAN covers great distance and operate nationwide or even worldwide.
 In LAN the computer terminals and peripheral devices are connected with wires and coaxial cables. IN WAN there is no physical connection.
Communication is done through telephone lines and satellite links.
 Cost of data transmission in LAN is less because the transmission medium is owned by a single organization. In case of WAN the cost of
data transmission is very high because the transmission medium used is hired either telephone lines or satellite links.
 The speed of data transmission is much higher in LAN than in WAN. The transmission speed in LAN varies from 0.1 to 100 mbs. In case of
WAN the speed ranges from 1800 to 9600 bps.
 Few data transmission errors occur in LAN compared to WAN. It is because in LAN the distance covered is negligible.

NETWORK TOPOLPOGY
The term topology in the context of communication network refers to the way the computers or workstations in the network are linked together.
According to the physical arrangements of workstations and nature of work, there are three major types of network topology.

Star Topology
In star topology a number of workstations or nodes are directly linked to a central node. Any communication between stations on a star
LAN must pass through the central node. There is bi-directional communication between various nodes. The central
node controls all the activities of the nodes.
 It offers flexibility of adding or deleting of workstations from the network.
 Breakdown of one station does not affect any other device on the network.
 The major disadvantage of star topology is that failure of the central node disables communication throughout the
whole network.

Bus Topology
In bus topology all workstations are connected to a single communication line called bus. In this type of network topology, there is no
central node as in star topology. Transmission from any stations travels the length
of the bus in both directions and can be received by all workstations.
 If one station of the topology fails it does not affect the entire system.
 The disadvantage of bus topology is that any break in the bus is difficult to identify.

Ring Topology
In ring topology each station is attached to nearby stations on a point-to-point basis so that the entire system is in the form of a ring. In this
topology data is transmitted in one direction only. Thus, the data packets circulate along the ring in either clockwise or anticlockwise
direction. The advantage of this topology is that any signal transmitted on the network passes through all the LAN stations. The
disadvantage is that the breakdown of any one station on the ring can disable the entire system.

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 BASIC COMPUTER OPERATIONS
A computer performs basically five major operations or functions irrespective of their size and make. These are:
 Accept data or instructions by way of input
 Store data
 Process data as required by the user
 Gives result in the form of output and
 Controls all operations inside a computer

Input ― The process of entering data and programs into the computer is called as input. It
takes data as raw form and performs some processing giving out the processed data.

Storage ― The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data has to be fed up into the system before the
actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of CPU is fast that the data has to be fed up with the same speed. Therefore, the data
is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit or the primary storage of computer performs the following
major functions:

 All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing
 Intermediate results of processing are also stored here

Processing ― The task of performing arithmetic and logical operations is called processing. The CPU takes data and instructions from the
storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to storage unit.

Output ― The process of producing results from the data for getting useful information. Similarly, the output produced by the computer
after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer before being given to us in human readable form. Again, the output is also
stored inside the computer for further processing.

Control ― The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are performed. Controlling all operations like input,
processing, and output are performed by the CU. It takes care of step-by-step process of all operations inside the computer.

I/O DEVICES
A computer is only useful when it is able to communicate with the external environment. When you work with the computer you feed data and
instructions through some devices to the computer. These devices are called input devices. Similarly, computer after processing gives output
through other devices called output devices. They are also known as peripheral devices because they surround the CPU and make a
communication between computer and other world.

Keyboard ― This is the standard input device attached to all computers. The layout of- keyboard is just like the traditional typewriter of
QWERTY. It also contains some extra commands and functions keys. It contains a total of 101-104 keys. In order to input the data, one has to
press the right keys. The computer recognizes electric signals corresponding to the correct key combinations and processing is done accordingly.
Alphabetic keys, numeric keys, function keys, control keys and other special keys such as escape and enter keys are parts of keyboard.

Mouse ― An input device used with PC. It rolls on a small ball and has two or three buttons on the top. As the mouse moves the pointer also
moves on the screen. The pointer moves very fast giving us the freedom to work in any direction.

Scanner ― The keyboard can input only text through keys provided in it. If we want to input a picture the keyboard cannot do that.
Therefore, scanner is used to do the job. The common optical scanner devices are OMR and OCR.
OMR — Optical Mark Reader is used when students have appeared in objective type tests and they had to mark their answer by darkening a
circular space by pencil. These answer sheets are directly fed to a computer for grading where OMR is used.
OCR — is expensive and is used for direct reading of any printed character. Suppose you have a set of hand written characters on a piece of
paper. You put in inside the scanner of the computer. This pattern in compared with a site of patterns stored inside the computer. Whichever
pattern in matched is called a character read. Patters that cannot be identified are rejected leaving blank space or question mark.

Printer ― An important output device which can be used to get a printed copy of the processed text or result on paper. There are different
types of printers that are designed for different types of applications. Depending on their speed and approach of printing, printers are classified
as impact and non-impact printers. Impact printers use the familiar typewriter approach of hammering a typeface against the paper and inked
ribbon. For example, dot matrix printers. Non-impact printers do not hit or impact a ribbon to print. They use electrostatic chemicals and inkjet
technologies. Laser printers and inkjet printers are its example. This type of printers can produce color printing and elaborate graphics.

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 FUNCTIONAL UNITS
In order to carry out the basic operations, the computer allocates the task between its various functional units. The
computer system is divided into three separate units.

ALU ― After we enter the data through the input devices, it is stored in the primary storage unit. The actual
processing of the data and instructions are performed by ALU. The major operations performed by the ALU are addition,
subtraction, division and multiplication. After processing the output is returned back to storage unit for further
processing or getting stored.

CU ― The next component of computer is the CU which acts like the supervisor seeing that things are done in proper fashion. The control unit
determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main
memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer to execute them. It also acts as a switch board
operator when several users access the computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as
they perform the I/O. Therefore, it is the manager of all operations mentioned above.

CPU ― The ALU and CU of a computer system are jointly known as the CPU. You may call CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is just
like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of computer functions by activating and
controlling operations.

BUS
Connection between components or devices connected to a computer.
Why called bus? Because just like public transportation or a school bus. These types of buses are capable of transporting people from one
destination to another destination. Like these buses, a computer bus transmits data from one location or device to another location or device.
 A computer bus maintains a strict schedule, "picking up" data and "dropping it off" at a regular interval. For example, if a bus operates at
a frequency of 200 MHz, it completes 200 million data transfers per second.
 The bus contains multiple wires (signal lines). Each wire in the bus carries a bit(s) of information, which means the more wires a bus has, the
more information it can address. For example, a computer with a 32-bit address bus can address 4 GB of memory, and a computer with a
36-bit bus can address 64 GB of memory.
 Can be in the form of wired cables / electrical wires embedded in the computer motherboard (Printed Circuit board PCB)

Data Bus ― It is a group of conducting wires which carries only data from the keyboard, memory and other devices. It passes information
at speeds up to billions of characters per second. The central processor reads the data, performs calculations, and moves new data back to
memory, the hard drive and other locations.

 Data bus is bidirectional because data flow in both directions, from microprocessor to memory or I/O devices and from memory or I/O
devices to microprocessor.
 When it is write operation, the processor will put the data (to be written) on the data bus, when it is read operation, the memory controller
will get the data from specific memory block and put it into the data bus.

Address Bus ― It is a group of conducting wires which carries address only. The computer must be able to access every character of
memory rapidly, so every character has its own address number. Address bus is unidirectional because data flow in one direction, from
microprocessor to memory or from microprocessor to Input/output devices (That is, Out of Microprocessor).

 The Length of the address bus determines the amount of memory a system can address. Such as a system with a 32-bit address bus can
address 4 GB of memory. However, the actual amount of memory that can be accessed is usually much less than this theoretical limit due
to chipset and motherboard limitations.
Control Bus ― The motherboard's control bus manages the activity in the system. It is a group of conducting wires, which is used to
generate timing and control signals to control all the associated peripherals. Microprocessor uses control bus to process data that is what to do
with selected memory location. Some control signals are:

 Memory read/write
 I/O read/Write
In one line of control bus may be the read/write line. If the wire is low (no electricity flowing) then the memory is read, if the wire is high
(electricity is flowing) then the memory is written.

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 COMPUTER MEMORY
The basic purpose of memory—human or machine—is to keep a record of information for a period of time. One of the really noticeable things
about human memory is that it's extremely good at forgetting. It’s like turning out old junk from your closet to make room for new stuff.

Computers don't remember or forget things the way that human brains do. They either know something or they don't—and once they've
learned, they generally don't forget. Humans are different. We can recognize things ("I've seen that face before somewhere") or feel certain that we know
something ("I remember learning the German word for cherry when I was at school") without necessarily being able to recollect them. Unlike computers, humans
can forget... remember... forget... remember... making memory seem more like an art or magic than science or technology. When clever people
master tricks that allow them to memorize thousands of pieces of information, they're celebrated like great magicians—even though what
they've achieved is far less impressive than anything a five-dollar, USB flash memory stick could do!

One thing human brains and computers do have in common is different types of memory. Human memory is actually split into a short-term
"working" memory (of things we've recently seen, heard, or processed with our brains) and a long-term memory (of facts we've learned, events
we've experienced, things we know how to do, and so on. A typical computer has two different kinds of memory as well.

Internal memory can store and retrieve data very quickly, so it's used to help the computer process whatever it's currently working on.
Generally, internal memory is volatile, which means it forgets its contents as soon as the power is switched off. That's why computers also have
what's called auxiliary memory (or storage) as well, which remembers things even when the power is disconnected.

Primary Memory
Computer memory is used to store two things: data and instructions to execute a program or data. When the computer is doing any job, the
data that have to be processed are stored in the primary memory. This data may come from an input device like keyboard or a secondary
storage device like floppy disks.

As program or the set of instructions are kept in primary memory, the computer is able to follow instantly the set of instructions. For example,
when you book ticket from railway reservation counter, the computer has to follow the same steps: take the request, check the availability of seats, calculate
fare, wait for money to be paid, store the reservation and get the ticket printed out. The program containing these steps is kept in memory of the computer and is followed for each request.

The primary memory in the computer is in the form of ICs. These circuits are called RAM. It is accessible directly by the processing unit. RAM is
an example of primary memory. As soon as the computer is switched off, the contents of the primary memory are lost. You can store and
retrieve data much faster with primary memory compared to the secondary memory.

RAM — The primary storage is referred to as RAM because it is possible to randomly select and use any locations of the memory directly
store and retrieve data. It is also called R/W memory. The storage of data and instructions inside the primary storage is temporary. It disappears
from RAM as soon as the power to the computer is switched off. The memories, which lose their content on failure of power supply, are known
as volatile memories. Therefore, RAM is a volatile memory.

ROM — There is another memory in computer which is called ROM. Again, it is the ICs inside the PC that form the ROM. The ROM can only be
read by the CPU but it cannot be changed.
 Permanent data store, Non-volatile
 BIOS is stored in the ROM

Cache memory — The speed of CPU is very high compared to the access time of main memory. Therefore, the performance of CPU decreases
due to the slow speed of main memory. To decrease the mismatch in operating speed, a small memory chip is attached between CPU and main
memory whose access time is very close to the processing speed of CPU. It is called cache memory.
 Used to store programs or data currently being executed or temporary data frequently used by CPU.
 Accessed much faster than conventional RAM.
 Very expensive, size is normally kept small.

Secondary Memory
The storage capacity of main memory is very limited. Therefore, additional memory is required in all the computer systems. This memory is
called as auxiliary memory or secondary memory. Huge volume of data can be stored here on permanent basis and transferred to the primary
storage as and when required. However, the operating speed is slower than that of primary storage. Most widely used secondary storage
devices are magnetic disks and optical disks …etc are located outside the computer.

Magnetic Disk — It is circular in shape and is coated with magnetic material. It rotates with very high speed inside the computer drive. Data is
stored on both the surfaces of the disk. Each disk consists of number of invisible concentric circles called tracks. Information is recorded on
tracks of a disk surface in the form of tiny magnetic spots. The presence of a magnetic spot represents one bit and its absence represents zero
bit. The information stored in a disk can be read many times without affected the stored data. So, the reading operation is non-destructive. But if
you want to write a new data, then the existing data is erased from the disk and new data is recorded.

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Optical disk: can be divided into CD and EOD.
1. CD: made of reflective metals. CD-ROM is written during the process of manufacturing by high power laser beam. Here the access time is
relatively fast. Each disk is approximately 4 ½ inches in diameter and can hold over 600 MB of data. As the CD-ROM can be read only we cannot
write or make changes into the data contained in it.

2. Erasable Optical Disk: Optical disk where data can be written, erased, and rewritten. This also applies a laser beam to write and rewrite the
data. These disks may be used as alternative to traditional disks. Erasable optical disks are based on a technology known as magnetic optical
(MO). To write a data bit on to the erasable optical disk the MO drive’s laser bean heats a tiny, precisely defined point on the disk’s surface and
magnetizes it.

How data is stored on Hard Drive?

Suppose you need to leave a message for a friend that is “either you will see your friend later that day or not”. And all you have is a magnet and a
demagnetized iron nail. You could arrange with your friend that you will drop a nail through their letterbox. If the nail is magnetized, it means
you will see them later; if the nail is demagnetized, you won't. Your friend gets in from school and finds a nail on the doormat. They take it to the
kitchen table and try to pick up a paperclip. If the clip attaches to the magnet, it must be magnetized—and it must mean you plan to see them
later. It's a pretty weird way to leave a message for someone, but it illustrates something very important: magnetism can be used to store
information.

Hard disk is a common data storage used in computers. Data is stored on the hard disk in the form of 0 and 1. The part of the hard disk that
stores the data is known as platter. Platters are circular disk made of a non-magnetic material typically aluminum alloy coated with a thin layer of
a magnetic material. Platters are further separated in to the tracks which are concentric circles (image.)

Hard disk stores information in the form of magnetic fields. Data is stored digitally in the form of tiny magnetized regions on the platter where

each region represents a bit. When your computer stores data on its hard drive, it doesn't just throw magnetized nails into a box, all jumbled up

together. The data is stored in a very orderly pattern on each platter. Bits of data are arranged in tracks. Each track is broken up into smaller

areas called sectors. Part of the hard drive stores a map of sectors that have already been used up and others that are still free. In Windows, this

map is called the File Allocation Table or FAT. When the computer wants to store new information, it takes a look at the map to find some free

sectors. Then it instructs the read-write head to move across the platter to exactly the right location and store the data there. To read

information, the same process runs in reverse.

BIOS
A BIOS (Basic I/O System) is a boot firmware program that a computer uses to successfully start operating. The BIOS is located on a chip inside
of the computer and is designed in a way that protects it from disk failure.

When you turn on a PC, the BIOS first conduct a basic hardware check, called a Power-On-Self-Test ( POST), to determine whether all of the
attachments are present and working. Then it loads the operating system into your computer's random access memory, or RAM. The BIOS
stores the date, the time, and your system configuration information in a battery-powered, non-volatile memory chip, called a CMOS
(Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) after its manufacturing process.

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 COMPUTER CLASSIFICATION
Human’s cognitive development…We all know that evolution of computer started form 16 th century and resulted in the form that we see today.
The present-day computers, however, have also undergone rapid change. This period, during which evolution of computer took place can be
divided into five distinct phases knows as Generations of computers.

Micro Computers/PC
They became popular in the 70s and 80s, at the dawn of the microprocessor chips. This signaled the start of the mobile age, which continued to
go with the trend of smaller devices as the new century progressed. This ultimately gave birth to wearable computers and gadgets.
Microcomputers are the smallest, least expensive and the most used types of computers. They have a small memory, less processing power, are
physically smaller, and permit fewer peripherals compared to super and mainframe computers. They are more commonly known as personal
computers or simply PCs.

The microcomputers are specially designed for general purpose usage life entertainment, education, and work purposes. The operating system
used in personal computers varies but the common ones include: Windows, Mac OS X, Linux, IOS, and Android. Well-known manufacturers of
microcomputers are: Dell, Apple, Samsung, Sony, Toshiba, and HP

 Fast speed and accuracy

 Small in size
 Easy to operate
 Easy to move
 Cheaper
 We can use desktop computers as a single user and multi-user environment

Mini Computers
Minicomputers also called as mid-range servers, are more powerful computers than microcomputers in terms of processing power and
capabilities. Minicomputers are mainly multi-user systems where many users simultaneously work on the systems.
 Greater storage capacity and larger memories
 High processing power. E.g. 7500 MAGNUM

Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers are designed to handle huge volumes of data and information. These can support more than 100 users at same time.
These very large and expensive computers
 Great processing speed and very large storage capacity
 Performance measured in millions of instructions per seconds (MIPS)
 Multi-user and Multi-processor (work with more than one processor at the same time)
 Capable of operating for over 10 years without failing.

For mainframe computers, very sophisticated operating systems are needed to control and supervise their operation. Most of these systems run
the z/OS on 64bit architecture.

 Performing ATM cash withdrawals and deposits.

 Business transactions that use credit cards or pre-paid cards.
 Online electronic transactions.
 Cloud storage.
 Handling of patient records in major hospitals.
 Making reservations and travel schedules for airline companies.

The price of mainframe computers starts at $75,000 and can go up to $1 million. E.g. System z9.

Super Computers
Generally, sizes of computers determine the processing abilities. Larger computers have higher processing speeds while smaller ones offer the
better experience for personal computing. These computers are the largest in terms of size. They can occupy anything from a few feet to
hundreds of feet. They also don’t come cheap as they can be priced between $200,000 to over $100 million.

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Supercomputers were made popular in the 1960s by Seymore Cray. They soon became the choice for complex projects. The operating systems
that run in supercomputers vary depending on the manufacturer but are generally based on the Linux Kernel.

They consist of several processors running together thereby making them immensely faster and powerful. These computers are capable of
handling huge amounts of calculations that are beyond human capabilities. A Japanese supercomputer has calculated the value of Pi to 16
million decimal places.

Super computers can perform billions of instructions per second which is calculated in floating point operations per second (FLOPS). equal to
that of 40000 microcomputers. These are arguably the most powerful in terms of speed and accuracy. They are types of computers used in
solving complex mathematical computations.

 In the field of research, Scientists use them to simulate and test the effects of nuclear weapon detonation.
 The military use supercomputers to test new aircraft, tanks, and a host of weaponry and camouflage. These machines are also used to help
encrypt and decrypt sensitive data.
 In entertainment, supercomputers are used to help make a flawless online gaming experience. Games like World of Warcraft demand
intense processing. When thousands of gamers around the world are playing, supercomputers help stabilize the game performance.
 Meteorologists use them to simulate weather behavior. They can also be used to predict earthquakes.
 Hollywood uses supercomputers to create realistic animations.

Examples of supercomputer are: PARAM and PACE

SYSTEM & APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a
particular problem.

System Software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself.
System software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level
languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the interface between the hardware and the end
users. Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc. Here is a list of some of the most
prominent features of a system software:

 Fast in speed
 Difficult to design
 Difficult to understand
 Less interactive
 Difficult to manipulate
 Generally written in low-level language

Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. All software applications prepared in the
computer lab can come under the category of Application software. Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's
notepad for writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software package, which work
together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package. Examples of Application software are the following −

 Student Record Software  Microsoft PowerPoint

 Income Tax Software
 Easy to design
 Railways Reservation Software
 More interactive
 Microsoft Office Suite Software  Slow in speed
 Microsoft Word  Generally written in high-level language
 Microsoft Excel  Easy to understand
 Bigger in size and requires large storage space

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 INFORMATION SYSTEM
Welcome to the world of information systems, a world that seems to change almost daily. Over the past few decades information systems have
progressed to being virtually everywhere, even to the point where you may not realize its existence in many of your daily activities. Stop and
consider how you interface with various components in information systems every day through different electronic devices. Smart phones,
laptop, and personal computers connect us constantly to a variety of systems including messaging, banking, online retailing, and academic
resources, just to name a few examples. Information systems are at the center of virtually every organization, providing users with almost
unlimited resources.

Information systems surround you almost every day. Wi-fi networks on your university campus, database search services in the learning
resource center, and printers in computer labs are good examples. Every time you go shopping you are interacting with an information system
that manages inventory and sales. Even driving to school or work results in an interaction with the transportation information system, impacting
traffic lights, cameras, etc. Vending machines connect and communicate using the Internet of Things (IoT). Your car’s computer system does
more than just control the engine – acceleration, shifting, and braking data is always recorded. And, of course, everyone’s smart phone is
constantly connecting to available networks via Wi-fi, recording your location and other data.

Definition
 “An information system (IS) can be defined technically as a set of interrelated components that collect, process, store, and distribute
information to support decision making and control in an organization.”
 “Information systems are combinations of hardware, software, and telecommunications networks that people build and use to collect,
create, and distribute useful data, typically in organizational settings.”

 “Information systems are interrelated components working together to collect, process, store, and disseminate information to support
decision making, coordination, control, analysis, and visualization in an organization.”

As you can see these definitions focus on two different ways of describing information systems: the components that make up an information
system and the role those components play in an organization. Each of these needs to be examined.

Components / Resources of Information System

Information systems can be viewed as having five major components: hardware, software, data, people, and processes. The first three
are technology. These are probably what you thought of when defining information systems. The last two components, people and processes,
separate the idea of information systems from more technical fields, such as computer science. In order to fully understand information
systems, you will need to understand how all of these components work together to bring value to an organization.

Hardware
Hardware is the tangible, physical portion of an information system – the part you can touch. Computers, keyboards, disk drives, and flash drives
are all examples of information systems hardware. How these hardware components function and work together will be covered in Chapter 2.

Software
Software comprises the set of instructions that tell the hardware what to do. Software is not tangible – it cannot be touched. Programmers
create software by typing a series of instructions telling the hardware what to do. Two main categories of software are: Operating Systems and
Application software. Operating Systems software provides the interface between the hardware and the Application software. Examples of
operating systems for a personal computer include Microsoft Windows and Ubuntu Linux. The mobile phone operating system market is
dominated by Google Android and Apple iOS. Application software allows the user to perform tasks such as creating documents, recording data
in a spreadsheet, or messaging a friend. Software will be explored more thoroughly in Chapter 3.

Data
The third technology component is data. You can think of data as a collection of facts. For example, your address (street, city state, postal code),
your phone number, and your social networking account are all pieces of data. Like software, data is also intangible, unable to be seen in its
native state. Pieces of unrelated data are not very useful. But aggregated, indexed, and organized together into a database, data can become a
powerful tool for businesses. Organizations collect all kinds of data and use it to make decisions which can then be analyzed as to their
effectiveness. The analysis of data is then used to improve the organization’s performance. Chapter 4 will focus on data and databases, and how
it is used in organizations.

9
Network Communication
Besides the technology components (hardware, software, and data) which have long been considered the core technology of information
systems, it has been suggested that one other component should be added: communication. An information system can exist without the ability
to communicate – the first personal computers were stand-alone machines that did not access the Internet. However, in today’s hyper-
connected world, it is an extremely rare computer that does not connect to another device or to a enetwork. Technically, the networking
communication component is made up of hardware and software, but it is such a core feature of today’s information systems that it has become
its own category. Networking will be covered in Chapter 5.

People
When thinking about information systems, it is easy to focus on the technology components and forget to look beyond these tools to fully
understand their integration into an organization. A focus on the people involved in information systems is the next step. From the front-line
user support staff, to systems analysts, to developers, all the way up to the chief information officer (CIO), the people involved with information
systems are an essential element. The people component will be covered in Chapter 9.

Process
The last component of information systems is process. A process is a series of steps undertaken to achieve a desired outcome or goal.
Information systems are becoming more integrated with organizational processes, bringing greater productivity and better control to those
processes. But simply automating activities using technology is not enough – businesses looking to utilize information systems must do more.
The ultimate goal is to improve processes both internally and externally, enhancing interfaces with suppliers and customers. Technology
buzzwords such as “business process re-engineering,” “business process management,” and “enterprise resource planning” all have to do with
the continued improvement of these business procedures and the integration of technology with them. Businesses hoping to gain a competitive
advantage over their competitors are highly focused on this component of information systems.

The Role of Information System

You should now understand that information systems have a number of vital components, some tangible, others intangible, and still others of a
personnel nature. These components collect, store, organize, and distribute data throughout the organization. You may have even realized that
one of the roles of information systems is to take data and turn it into information, and then transform that information into organizational
knowledge. As technology has developed, this role has evolved into the backbone of the organization, making information systems integral to
virtually every business. The integration of information systems into organizations has progressed over the decades.

10
 ARTIFICIAL INTLLIGENCE
Can Machines Think?
Less than a decade after breaking the Nazi encryption machine Enigma and helping the Allied Forces win World War II, mathematician Alan
Turing changed history a second time with a simple question: "Can machines think?" Turing's paper "Computing Machinery and Intelligence"
(1950), and its subsequent Test, established the fundamental goal and vision of artificial intelligence.

When most people hear the term artificial intelligence, the first thing they usually think of is robots. That's because big-budget films and novels
weave stories about human-like machines that wreak havoc on Earth. But nothing could be further from the truth. Artificial intelligence is based
on the principle that human intelligence can be defined in a way that a machine can easily mimic it and execute tasks, from the most simple to
those that are even more complex.

According to the father of Artificial Intelligence, John McCarthy, it is “The science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially
intelligent computer programs”. Artificial Intelligence is a way of making a computer, a computer-controlled robot, or a software think
intelligently, in the similar manner the intelligent humans think. AI is accomplished by studying how human brain thinks and how humans learn,
decide, and work while trying to solve a problem, and then using the outcomes of this study as a basis of developing intelligent software and
systems.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a field of science and technology based on disciplines such as computer science, biology, psychology, linguistics,
mathematics, and engineering. The goal of AI is to develop computers that can simulate the ability to think, as well as see, hear, walk, talk, and
feel. A major thrust of artificial intelligence is the simulation of computer functions normally associated with human intelligence, such as
reasoning, learning, and problem solving.

An artificial neural network tries to simulate the processes of densely interconnected brain cells, but instead of being built from biology, these
neurons, or nodes, are built from code. What if we want it to be able to take what it has learned from analyzing photographs and use that
knowledge to analyze different data sets? (when tag in fb photo, it mentions that you might be in that photo)
It’s likely that you’ve interacted with some form of AI in your day-to-day activities. If you use Gmail, for example, you may enjoy the automatic e-
mail filtering feature. If you own a smart phone, you probably fill out a calendar with the help of Siri, Cortana, or Bixby. If you own a newer
vehicle, perhaps you’ve benefited from a driver-assist feature while driving.

Narrow A-Intelligence
At a very high level artificial intelligence can be split into two broad types: narrow AI and general AI. Narrow AI is what we see all around us in
computers today: intelligent systems that have been taught or learned how to carry out specific tasks without being explicitly programmed how
to do so. This type of machine intelligence is evident in the speech and language recognition of the Siri virtual assistant on the Apple iPhone, in
the vision-recognition systems on self-driving cars, in the recommendation engines that suggest products you might like based on what you
bought in the past. Unlike humans, these systems can only learn or be taught how to do specific tasks, which is why they are called narrow AI.

There are a vast number of emerging applications for narrow AI: interpreting video feeds from drones carrying out visual inspections of
infrastructure such as oil pipelines, organizing personal and business calendars, responding to simple customer-service queries, coordinating
with other intelligent systems to carry out tasks like booking a hotel at a suitable time and location, helping radiologists to spot potential tumors
in X-rays, flagging inappropriate content online, detecting wear and tear in elevators from data gathered by IoT devices, the list goes on and on.

AI for Humanity
Artificial intelligence helps farmers, doctors and rescue workers make a positive impact on society. Artificial intelligence (AI) powers many
gadgets, like smart phones, smart thermostats and voice-activated virtual assistants that bring modern conveniences to daily life. Artificial
Intelligence is already able, as many of us have seen for ourselves, to drive vehicles and negotiate obstacles. This is being used in modern civilian
life, and has applications for military operations and space exploration. Serious success is being seen in the trials of new machinery designed to
identify tumours on CT scans and X-rays, and they have performed with at least 50% more accuracy than human experts have so far.

Mining and managing Big Data, as well as discovering important correlations within it, is possible with e-discovery software. This technology is
also being used to get through huge mountains of legal documents more effectively and efficiently than human paralegals can. Some journalism
jobs like sports summaries and market reports are also already within the scope of AI, as are certain middle management tasks.

As AI continues to develop, it is not only able to take on tasks that can be broken down into smaller, easily learnable steps. There is growing
concern that AI may become properly sentient and super-intelligent, displacing humans and rendering them obsolete. Elon Musk, Bill Gates and
Stephen Hawking have all opined that this reality is not so far off. The debate on AI’s risks and benefits has strong voices on both sides.

11
Uses
Although artificial intelligence evokes thoughts of science fiction, artificial intelligence already has many uses today, for example:

 Email filtering — Email services use artificial intelligence to filter incoming emails. Users can train their spam filters by marking emails as
“spam”.

 Personalization — Online services use artificial intelligence to personalize your experience. Services, like Amazon or Netflix, “learn” from
your previous purchases and the purchases of other users in order to recommend relevant content for you.

 Fraud detection —Banks use artificial intelligence to determine if there is strange activity on your account. Unexpected activity, such as
foreign transactions, could be flagged by the algorithm.

 Speech recognition — Applications use artificial intelligence to optimize speech recognition functions. Examples include intelligent
personal assistants, e.g. Amazon’s “Alexa” or Apple’s “Siri”.

 Keeping Kids Safe — Digital technology makes it easier for predators to create, access and share child sexual abuse images worldwide.
While fear of the negative consequences remain, AI is proving it can bring about enormous societal benefits.
 Improving Cancer Diagnosis — Cancer is a frightening diagnosis, impacting 1.65 million people in the U.S. in 2015. Waiting for biopsy
results can be stressful, but AI may help accelerate the diagnosis and treatment process. Working with healthcare industry leaders, by 2020
Intel aims to create one-day precision medicine for cancer patients — that means going to the doctor, getting a diagnosis and receiving a
personalized treatment plan, all in 24 hours.
 Reframing Forming — One of AI’s greatest impacts could be in food production—an industry challenged by a rapidly growing world
population, competition for natural resources and plateauing agricultural productivity. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO) estimates that the earth’s population will balloon to 9.7 billion people on by 2050. At a time when the agricultural
land available for farming is shrinking, farmers will need to grow approximately 50 percent more crops.

Applications
AI has been dominant in various fields such as −

 Gaming — AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker, tic-tac-toe, etc., where machine can think of large number of possible
positions based on heuristic knowledge.

 Natural Language Processing — It is possible to interact with the computer that understands natural language spoken by humans.

 Expert Systems — There are some applications which integrate machine, software, and special information to impart reasoning and
advising. They provide explanation and advice to the users.

Vision Systems − These systems understand, interpret, and comprehend visual input on the computer. For example,
A spying aeroplane takes photographs, which are used to figure out spatial information or map of the areas.
Doctors use clinical expert system to diagnose the patient.
Police use computer software that can recognize the face of criminal with the stored portrait made by forensic artist.

 Speech Recognition — Some intelligent systems are capable of hearing and comprehending the language in terms of sentences and their
meanings while a human talks to it. It can handle different accents, slang words, noise in the background, change in human’s noise due to
cold, etc.

 Handwriting Recognition — The handwriting recognition software reads the text written on paper by a pen or on screen by a stylus. It can
recognize the shapes of the letters and convert it into editable text.

 Intelligent Robots — Robots are able to perform the tasks given by a human. They have sensors to detect physical data from the real world
such as light, heat, temperature, movement, sound, bump, and pressure. They have efficient processors, multiple sensors and huge
memory, to exhibit intelligence. In addition, they are capable of learning from their mistakes and they can adapt to the new environment.

Is Pakistan prospering in the field of Science and Technology?

Pakistan’s most of the water is being wasted in agricultural (Fawad Choudhry in an interview at Capital Talk)

Fawad Choudhry’s team has invented a sensor that can be used with mango trees and orange trees and sugarcane. So, when the sufficient
amount of water is absorbed by the plants, the sensor would change its color. Thus, the farmer would stop feeding water. And water would be
saved automatically

12
How AI can be dangerous?
Most researchers agree that a super intelligent AI is unlikely to exhibit human emotions like love or hate, & that there is no reason to expect AI to
become intentionally benevolent or malevolent. Instead, when considering how AI might become a risk, experts think two scenarios most likely:

The AI is programmed to do something devastating — Autonomous weapons are artificial intelligence systems that are programmed to
kill. In the hands of the wrong person, these weapons could easily cause mass casualties. Moreover, an AI arms race could inadvertently lead to
an AI war that also results in mass casualties. To avoid being thwarted by the enemy, these weapons would be designed to be extremely difficult
to simply “turn off,” so humans could plausibly lose control of such a situation. This risk is one that’s present even with narrow AI, but grows as
levels of AI intelligence and autonomy increase.

The AI is programmed to do something beneficial, but it develops a destructive method for achieving its goal — This can
happen whenever we fail to fully align the AI’s goals with ours, which is strikingly difficult. If you ask an obedient intelligent car to take you to the
airport as fast as possible, it might get you there chased by helicopters and covered in vomit, doing not what you wanted but literally what you
asked for. If a super intelligent system is tasked with an ambitious geo engineering project, it might wreak havoc with our ecosystem as a side
effect, and view human attempts to stop it as a threat to be met.

As these examples illustrate, the concern about advanced AI isn’t malevolence but competence. A super-intelligent AI will be extremely good at
accomplishing its goals, and if those goals aren’t aligned with ours, we have a problem. You’re probably not an evil ant-hater who steps on ants
out of malice, but if you’re in charge of a hydroelectric green energy project and there’s an anthill in the region to be flooded, too bad for the
ants. A key goal of AI safety research is to never place humanity in the position of those ants.

How smart are computers and robots?

Let’s say you are exchanging instant messages over the Internet with someone you don’t know. You are allowed to make any comments and ask
any questions you like, for as long as you like. In reality, the “person” you are communicating with is a computer. Do you think a computer could
fool you into believing it was human? If it did wouldn’t that qualify it as “intelligent”? You may be surprised to learn that, to date, no machine has
come close to passing this test.

The problem computers face is that we humans can mentally “shift gears” from one topic to another with incredible flexibility. In contrast,
machine “intelligence” is currently “blind” outside its underlying set of rules. As a tiny example, u cann understnd wrds thet ar mizpeld.
Computers are very literal and easily stymied by such errors. Regardless, artificial intelligence has been successful at very specific tasks. Artificial
intelligence (AI) usually refers to computer programs capable of doing things that require intelligence when done by people.

BLUETOOTH
Is there anything worse than wires? If you've ever hooked up a computer and half a dozen peripherals (add-ons), a digital television and a DVD player, or run your
own telephone extensions through the house, you'll know just what a pain all those cables can be. Wouldn't it be nice if there were a way of bringing electronic
gadgets together so they could share whatever signals they need without any wires at all? Enter Bluetooth! It's a simple way for cell phones, printers, PCs, digital
cameras, and other gadgets to link together over relatively short distances using wireless ( radio wave) technology. The curious name comes from Harald Bluetooth, a
Danish king who united the Scandinavians in the 10th century. Will Bluetooth unite the electronic world the same way? Let's take a closer look!

Bluetooth uses radio waves instead of wires or cables to transmit information between electronic devices over short-distances. Unlike your cell phone, which
uses radio waves to communicate with a cell tower several miles away, the radio waves Bluetooth products use are 1000x weaker and only travel small distances
between the two communicating devices, usually 10 feet or less. If you have a wireless Bluetooth keyboard for your computer, and you take the keyboard to a friend’s house but leave the computer at home,
your keyboard won’t be able to communicate with the computer over such a distance. And if you type on it, nothing will appear on your computer screen at home.

Bluetooth devices automatically detect and connect to one another and up to eight of them can communicate at any one time. They don't interfere with one another
because each pair of devices uses a different one of the 79 available channels. If two devices want to talk, they pick a channel randomly and, if that's already taken,
randomly switch to one of the others (a technique known as spread-spectrum frequency hopping. To minimize the risks of interference from other electrical
appliances (and also to improve security), pairs of devices constantly shift the frequency they're using—thousands of times a second.

How Bluetooth Connects? ― When Bluetooth-enabled devices are close enough, they can connect with each other through a tiny computer chip inside
them that emits the special Bluetooth radio waves. But first, you have to turn on this chip, which you can usually do by pressing a specific button or flipping a marked
switch. Then, the communication between the two Bluetooth devices happens over a short-range network called a piconet (pico means really really small in the
metric system). This piconet is essentially a network of Bluetooth connected devices.

Is Bluetooth Secure? ― Wireless is always less secured than wired communication. Remember how old spy films used to show secret agents tapping into
telephone wires to overhear people's conversations? Cracking wired communication is relatively difficult. Eavesdropping on wireless is obviously much easier
because information is zapping back and forth through the open air. All you have to do is be in range of a wireless transmitter to pick up its sig nals. Wireless
Internet networks are encrypted (use scrambled communications) to get around this problem.

 Bluesnarfing is downloading information from someone else's device using a Bluetooth connection.

13
 FIBER OPTICS
Fiber optic cables were originally developed in the 1950s for endoscopes. The purpose was to help doctors view the inside of a human patient
without major surgery. In the 1960s, telephone engineers found a way to use the same technology to transmit and receive telephone calls at the
“speed of light”. That is about 186,000 miles per second in a vacuum, but slows to about two-thirds of this speed in a cable.

An optical fiber is a glass / plastic fiber that carries light along its length and is used to link computers within LANs. It permits transmission over
longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) because light has high frequency than any other form of radio signal. Light is kept in the core
of the optical fiber by total internal reflection. This causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals
travel along them with less loss, and they are also immune to electromagnetic interference caused by thunderstorm.

The maximum length of fiber-optic links ranges from 20 miles (32 km) to several hundred miles (km) before requiring a repeater. This length can
be extended by the use of amplifiers and/or repeaters, where each amplifier can impart a 20- to 40-dB gain. A fiber-optic repeater detects,
demodulates, and then remodulates a light transmitter. In the process of doing this, the digital signal is regenerated. A regenerator takes a
corrupted and distorted digital signal and forms a brand new, nearly perfect digital signal.

How Do Fiber Optics Work?

Unlike copper wire-based transmission where the transmission entirely depends on electrical signals passing through the cable, the fiber optics
transmission involves transmission of signal in the form of light from one point to the other. Furthermore, a fiber optic communication network
consists of transmitting and receiving circuitry, a light source and detector devices. When the input data, in the form of electrical signals, is given
to the transmitter circuitry, it converts them into light signal with the help of light source (LED). The light beam from the source is carried by a fiber
optic cable to the destination circuitry wherein the information is transmitted back to
the electrical signal by a receiver circuit.

Light travels down a fiber optic cable by bouncing off the walls of the cable repeatedly.
Each light particle (photon) bounces down the pipe with continued internal mirror-like
reflection. The light beam travels down the core of the cable. The core is the middle of
the cable and the glass structure. The cladding is another layer of glass wrapped around
the core. Cladding is there to keep the light signals inside the core.

The practical propagation of light through an optical fiber may best be explained using ray theory and Snell’s law. Simply stated, we can say that when light passes
from a medium of higher refractive index (n1) into a medium of lower refractive index (n2), the refractive ray is bent away from the normal. For instance, a ray
traveling in water and passing into an air region is bent away from the normal to the interface between the two regions. As the angle of incidence becomes more
oblique, the refracted ray is bent more until finally the refracted energy emerges at an angle of
90◦ with respect to the normal and just grazes the surface. Figure 9.24 shows various incident
angles of light entering a fiber. Figure 9.24b illustrates what is called the critical angle, where the
refracted ray just grazes the surface. Figure 9.24c is an example of total internal reflection. This
occurs when the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle. A glass fiber, for the effective
transmission of light, requires total internal reflection.

Types of Optical Fiber

Fiber optic cables carry light signals in modes. A mode is a path that the light beam follows when traveling down the fiber. There are three
categories of optical fiber, as distinguished by their modal and physical properties:

1. Single mode & Multi-mode

2. Step Index & Graded Index (multimode)

There are single mode and multimode fiber cables. Single mode fiber is the simplest structure. It contains a very thin core, and all signals travel
straight down the middle without bouncing off the edges. Single mode fiber optic cables are typically used for CATV, Internet, and telephone
applications, where the signals are carried by single mode fibers wrapped into a bundle.

Multimode fiber is the other type of fiber optic cable. It is about 10x larger than a single mode cable. The
light beams can travel though the core by following a variety of different paths, or in multiple different
modes. These cable types can only send data over short distances. Therefore, they are used, among other
applications, for interconnecting computer networks.

Step-index is characterized by an abrupt change in refractive index, and graded index is characterized by a
continuous and smooth change in refractive index (i.e., from n1 to n2). Both step-index and graded-index
light transmission are characterized as multimode because more than one mode propagates. Graded-index
fiber has a superior bandwidth–distance product compared to that of step-index fiber. In other words, it can transport a higher bit rate further
than step index. It is also more expensive. We can eliminate this cause of dispersion if we use single–mode fiber.

14
CONSTRUCTION
An optical fiber is a very thin strand of silica glass in geometry quite like a human hair. In reality it is a very narrow, very long glass cylinder with
special characteristics. When light enters one end of the fiber it travels until it leaves the fiber at the other end. An optical fiber consists of:

Core — The fiber core of fiber-optic cable is the central physical medium of the cable that carries the light signal received from an attached light
source and delivers it to a receiving device. This core is a continuous hair-thin strand of silica glass or plastic that is measured by the size of its
outside diameter. While single mode cores are typically less than 9 µm, the most commonly available multimode sizes of fiber-optic cable are 50
µm and 62.5 µm.

Cladding — The cladding is a thin layer of glass that surrounds the fiber core, forming a single solid glass fiber
that is used for light transmission. It creates a boundary containing the light waves, causing refraction. This enables
data to travel the length of the fiber segment.

Primary Coating — The primary coating comes after the cladding, and is also known as the primary buffer. It is
designed to absorb shocks, provide protection against excessive cable bends, and reinforce the fiber core. This primary coating is basically a
layer of plastic which does not interfere with the cladding or the light transmission of the core.

Strength Members — Also known as strengthening fibers, these are strands of Kevlar (Aramid yarn) which have been specifically placed to
protect the core against excessive tension during installation and other crushing forces.

Cable Jacket — The outer layer of any cable is known as the cable jacket. Depending on the application, some fiber-optic cables have yellow,
black, aqua, and other colored jackets. However, fiber-optic cables typically have an orange jacket. The jacket usually consists of one or more
layers of polymer. Its role is to protect the core and cladding from shocks that might affect their optical or physical properties. It acts as a shock
absorber. The jacket also provides protection from abrasions, solvents and other contaminants. The jacket does not have any optical properties
that might affect the propagation of light within the fiber optic cable.

 Fast Transmission Media – The future will be IoT and all of our devices and things will be connected to the internet, which needs good communication
and high speed. The only transmission media that supports such a requirement is Optical Fiber. The future needs IoT and IoT need Optical fiber for best
communication that could help reach Wireless data speed up to 100 Gbps speed, making communications and large size data transfer in seconds.

 Data Security – Security in IoT is the main concern when we think of large amount of data to be transferred between billions of devices connected
together. Hacking of data from communication media is possible unless it is Optical fiber. The optical fibers are very difficult to hack and hacking them
without being detected is like next to impossible. So again, an optical fiber can help secure the data and transfer it at very high speed.

 No data loss – The optical fiber cables can be installed anywhere (even underwater or at high-temperature areas) and don’t have any electromagnetic
interference resulting in no data loss due to interference. Fiber-optic cables are immune to problems that arise with electrical cables, such as ground
loops or electromagnetic interference (EMI).
 Low power loss – An optical fiber offers low power loss. This allows for longer transmission distance. In comparison to copper, in a network, the longest
recommended copper distance is 100 m while with fiber it is 2000 m.

 Security – Optical fibers are difficult to tap. As they do not radiate electromagnetic energy, emissions cannot be intercepted. Fiber is the most secure
medium available for carrying sensitive data.

Why light and not Electricity?

Light or Laser light (to be precise) is used for the optical fiber communication because of the reason that the laser light is a single wavelength
light source. While the other light signals like sunlight or bulb light have many wavelengths of light and as a result, if used for communication
they would produce a beam which is very less powerful and on the other hand, the laser having a single beam would result in a more powerful
beam as output. So, Less Dispersion, transmitting more number of signals & consuming less time makes the light a good source for
communication.

Why doesn’t light leak out?

The laser light (or simply light) that we have been talking about does not leak out of the cable (unless there is a break). The inner walls of the
cable are fitted with glass, so the light from the fiber optic bounces repeatedly off the walls, traveling at “almost” the speed of light. The main
part of the cable also referred to as the core, is the point through which the light travels. Outside of core, wrapping around it is another layer of
glass which is called the cladding. The job of the cladding is to keep the light signals within the core. It does this because the glass material that
makes up the cladding is different from the material within the core. Technically speaking, the cladding has a lower refractive index.

Another reason why the light does not leak outcomes from your tenth-grade Physics class. If light hits a glass at a really shallow angle (< 42o), it is
reflected back in again. The glass, in these cases, acts as if it became a mirror. The phenomenon is called total internal reflection, which is one of
the things that keep light inside the pipe.

15
 GPS
Humans have looked to the skies to find their way since ancient times. Ancient sailors used the
constellations in the night sky to figure out where they were and where they were going. Today, all we
need is a simple hand-held GPS receiver to figure out exactly where we are anywhere in the world. But we
still need objects high in the sky to figure out where we are and how we get to other places. Instead of
stars, we use satellites. Over 30 navigation satellites are zipping around high above Earth. These satellites
can tell us exactly where we are.

GPS is a system made up of three parts: satellites, ground stations, and receivers. Satellites act like the stars in constellations—we know where
they are supposed to be at any given time. The ground stations use radar to make sure they are actually where we think they are. A receiver, like
you might find in your phone or in your parents car, is constantly listening for a signal from these satellites. The receiver figures out how far
away they are from some of them. Once the receiver calculates its distance from four or more satellites, it knows exactly where you are.

GPS is a satellite navigation system used to determine the ground position of an object. GPS technology was first used by the United States
military in the 1960s and expanded into civilian use over the next few decades. Today, GPS receivers are included in many commercial products,
such as automobiles, smart phones, exercise watches etc

How GPS Works?

The GPS system includes 24 satellites deployed in space about 12,000 miles above the earth's surface. They orbit the earth once every 12 hours
at an extremely fast pace of roughly 7,000 mph. The satellites are evenly spread out so that 4 satellites are accessible via direct line-of-sight from
anywhere on the globe.

Each satellite broadcasts a message that includes the satellite's current position, orbit, and exact time. A GPS receiver combines the broadcasts
from multiple satellites to calculate its exact position using a process called trilateration. Three satellites are required in order to determine a
receiver's location, though a connection to four satellites is ideal since it provides greater accuracy.

In order for a GPS device to work correctly, it must first establish a connection to the required number of satellites. This process can take
anywhere from a few seconds to a few minutes, depending on the strength of receiver. For example, a car's GPS will typically establish a GPS
connection faster than the receiver in a watch/smart phone. Most GPS devices also use some type of location caching to speed up GPS
detection. By memorizing its previous location, a GPS device can quickly determine what satellites will be available the next time it scans for a
GPS signal.

NOTE: Since GPS receivers require a relatively unobstructed path to space, GPS technology is not ideal for indoor use. Therefore, smart
phones, tablets, and other mobile devices often use other means to determine location, such as nearby cell towers + public Wi-Fi signals. This
technology, referred to as local positioning system (LPS), is often used to supplement GPS when a consistent satellite connection is unavailable.

 The safety of the children is a reason for concern for every parent. Often, a child left alone could be lost which is a nightmare for the
parents. It has come to the rescue in such situations as it helps parents to keep the track of their child with the help of a wearable
tracking device which is GPS enabled.
 The emergence of SOS has ensured road safety as with just a click of a button, you could share your location, and rescue operation
would be in right away.
 If you have pets, you could tie around a GPS enabled collar around its neck to ensure the pet doesn’t get lost anytime.
 If there is an urgent appointment, and somehow you need to reach early, you could always use it to get the best, and the shortest
routes to reach your destination.
 Finding restaurants nearby is just a piece of cake these days as it lets you locate the best restaurants.
 When you are traveling, there is sometimes a possibility you might lose your luggage. However, it allows you to track everything, and
avoid losing anything important.
 In crowded places like concerts, events, you could lose track of one another. With this, you could always track your friends, family, in
such situations.
 Sole-travelling is an art these days. However, one could lose their way in certain places if the Global Positioning System is not used
properly.

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 SATELLITE
A satellite is anything that orbits another object: Earth orbits the sun, and also has a satellite of its own – the Moon (our one moon is a modest
number compared with Jupiter’s 79 moons). The Moon remained Earth’s sole satellite for billions of years until Oct. 4, 1957. On that day, the
Soviet Union launched the first ever artificial satellite – Sputnik I that could orbit the Earth in 98 minutes.

When we talk about satellites, we usually mean the artificial ones which are currently 5102, positioned at different heights in space, according to
the UNs Office for Outer Space Affairs. “In general, satellites provide the only means to monitor the Earth globally and continuously. Especially
for the polar regions (with their harsh environment and remoteness)” says Markus Thorsten, the head of NASA Goddard’s Cryospheric Sciences
Lab and the project scientist for the ICESat-2 mission.

How do satellites reach their orbit? In order to communicate, satellites are equipped with antennas and a transponder, a device that
receives one type of signal and converts it to another. The energy is provided by fuel and by solar panels that give satellites a metallic bird-like
appearance. Satellites are launched into space by rockets that have to accelerate to at least 40,320 km/h—the so-called escape velocity that
propels the satellite into space despite Earth’s gravity. Once the satellite’s desired height is reached, the rocket releases it.

Why doesn’t the satellite simply fall down or even speed off into open space? The answer has to do with speed and gravity. The
momentum that the satellite gains from the launch maintains the movement, but gravity’s pull doesn’t let the satellite get away: the satellite is
technically continuously falling towards Earth, but its speed ensures that it falls around the Earth, while remaining in the same orbit.

“The Earth has been falling around the Sun for the past five billion years and that’s just what these things do,” says Jonathan McDowell, an
astronomer at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics . “We are not used to this idea because we spend our lives in the murky atmosphere
that has friction. So if I throw something at you, it will quickly be slowed down.”

Orbit — The spaces where satellites operate are separated into four orbits: low, medium, and geostationary or high earth orbits. Particularly
interesting is the geostationary orbit that floats some 22,236 miles above the Earth’s equator. At this altitude the satellites are geosynchronous
—they move at the same speed as the rotation of Earth, so they actually appear to be stationary, hanging over our heads at the same longitude.

One of the people credited with popularizing the idea of geostationary satellite communication is British science fiction writer Arthur Clarke. In
1945 he published an article titled Extra-Terrestrial Relays, where he outlined a method by which a satellite would be put 36,000 km above ground
into geostationary orbit, making it revolve at the same speed as the Earth and thus remaining in the same position. Today the orbit, which is
often referred to as the Clarke belt, contains over 400 active satellites.

Isn’t the outer space getting crowded? It might seem that outer space is getting more crowded. That is most certainly true, but collisions
are still rare. “So far we had one major accidental collision in 2009 when thousands of pieces of debris were generated in space,” says McDowell.
“The reason why it doesn’t happen more often is because space is really really big.” The most recent but by no means the only example of space
danger was when India destroyed one of its own satellites (March 27th, 2019 ‒ Mission Shakti), creating 400 pieces of space debris and potentially
putting the crew on the International Space Station in danger.

Do satellites stay in space forever?

Satellites have thrusters to ensure that their positions in an orbit can be adjusted if necessary, as satellites can remain in space for decades. The
longest-lived satellite is Vanguard-I which has entered its seventh decade in space after its launch on March 18th, 1958. ISS—a habitable satellite
that can be occupied by up to 10 people—has been operating continuously for the past 20 years.

Once a satellite completes its goals it has two ways to go: back down or higher up. Smaller satellites in lower orbits are usually lowered down
until they enter the Earth’s atmosphere. There, slowly, almost imperceptibly, the satellite continues its descent until it is finally met with so much
friction that it burns up, creating a glorious streak of light across the sky. Large satellites in low orbits are lowered down into the Spacecraft
Cemetery—a lonely place in the South Pacific, according to Business Insider. Satellites in higher orbits have a graveyard of their own—an orbit
almost 22,400 miles above Earth.

Conclusion
We put satellites in space to overcome the various limitations of Earth's geography—it helps us step outside our Earth-bound lives. If you want to
make a phone call from the North Pole, you can fire a signal into space and back down again, using a communications satellite as a mirror to
bounce the signal back to Earth and its destination. If you want to survey crops or ocean temperatures, you could do it from a plane, but a
satellite can capture more data more quickly because it's higher up and further away. Similarly, if you want to drive somewhere you've never
been before, you could study maps or ask random strangers for directions, or you could use signals from satellites to guide you instead.
Satellites, in short, help us live within Earth's limits precisely because they themselves sit outside them.

https://www.electronicshub.org/wireless-communication-introduction-types-applications/ wifi, Mobile Telephone System (Cellular Communication)

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 CELL PHONE
A cellular phone is a telecommunication device that uses radio waves over a networked area (cells) and is served through a cell site or base
station at a fixed location, enabling calls to transmit wirelessly over a wide range, to a fixed landline or via the Internet. In this networked system,
the cellular phone is identified as a mobile system consisting of the equipment and SIM card that actually assigns the mobile telephone number.

The cell phone was invented by Dr. Martin Cooper, along with his team of developers at Motorola. The first cell phone weighed 2.4-pounds and
was 9-inches long. Dr. Cooper also made the first cell phone call at Motorola on April 3, 1973.

It enables a user to communicate almost anywhere in the world. In the Cell Phone Activities 2012 Report, The Pew Research Center (2012)
elaborated on usage trends. The study noted that 85 % of Americans had access to cellular phones. Younger individuals are more likely to use
cellular phones. Listed among the top cell phone activities were taking pictures and texting.

Evolution and Revolution of Cell Phone

The cell phone has changed drastically from when the original cell phone was released. New cell phones are much lighter than the old brick cell
phones, smaller, and have large screens to display contacts and phone settings.

Over the past 25 years the way the world communicates truly has changed. There are now more wireless phones than wired ones. As of 2012,
CTIA reports that there are more cellular phones than people in many parts of the world. Not only are more people communicating via cellular
phones than by any other mode, but more people are using the phones to access the internet than personal computers. CTIA also states that, in
2012 there were 321.7 million wireless subscribers in the United States. This figure is particularly significant in that there are now more cell
phones than people in America! The number of wireless subscribers increases every day.

Capabilities
Today, cell phones are called smart phones and capable of doing almost anything a computer can do. Below are a few examples of what some
of the new cell phones are capable of doing.
 Take and make calls to any other person with a phone.
 Send and receive text messages.
 Take, view, and store pictures and videos using a built-in camera.
 Access the Internet, e-mail, chat, and even download apps for the phone.
 Play games and access common programs, such as a calculator, contacts, calendar, clock, to-do list, etc.
 Remotely control other devices connected to the Internet or connected via Bluetooth.
 Store and run files.
 Play music and watch movies.

The Seventh Media

Different media have evolved throughout history. They all are related to each other, and have certain characteristics in common. As mobile
emerges as a medium the same rules apply. Not only does mobile utilize the same formats as previous media, but it also serves to redistribute
the content of other media. Mobile uses words, pictures, music, and sound like other media. Entire content segments of radio stations, television
station, or musical recordings can be redistributed via cellular phones. Other media have done this in the past. News has transitioned from print
to radio to television to internet, for example. Music has progressed from live bands playing in person, to studio performances at radio stations,
to recordings, to digital data transfers. Media content continues to be sought by consumers. The mobile medium allows the distribution to be
faster, more enhanced, and more convenient than previous methods.

First Mass Media Channel Print

Second Mass Media Channel Recordings
Third Mass Media Channel Cinema
Fourth Mass Media Channel Radio
Fifth Mass Media Channel Television
Sixth Mass Media Channel Internet
Seventh Mass Media Channel Mobile

Advantages
The cell phone has become an important communication tool that is used by people all over the world to keep in contact with each other at any
time. Although they started off as quite bulky devices they are now very sleek, small and portable, comfortably fitting in a user’s pocket and
surviving for hours on end thanks to a rechargeable battery.

 Cell phone designs are constantly evolving to incorporate the new needs and desires of users. Some of these new functions include
space for memory cards, flip screens, cameras, touch screens, USB ports etc.

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  Applications that cell phone owners can take advantage of include word processing, calendars, mobile banking, web surfing, alarms,
memos, video streaming, games and much more. Applications have exploded in popularity in recent times thank to the iPhone App
Store which allows iPhone users the ability to download a wide variety of third party apps.
 Mobile is wireless — The fact that cellular phones are wireless means that they are extremely portable. They go where we go. Our
phones are always with us. As networks go global, phones will continue to develop true global access.
 Mobile is convenient — One of the reasons for the staggering growth of cellular phones has been the convenience. Now
everything comes to the user. A consumer watches television, listens to music, downloads content, and utilizes services all on his or her
schedule.
 Mobile is immediate — Communication occurs instantly through connecting directly to someone’s personal communication
device. Texting, instant messaging and web searches are designed to occur immediately.
 Mobile is personal — Your cellular phone is your personal communication device. A phone keeps your schedule, remembers your
contacts, and can be personalized to suit you. With its unique set of characteristics, mobile serves the consumer like no other medium.

Disadvantages
 Despite all the positive benefits of cell phones, there are also some negative side effects which include the dangers of cell phones being
used while driving, cell phones being used for harassment and students cheating on tests by using their cell phone to access
information. Cell phones are often banned in classrooms or other school locations due to the distractions they can cause.

 With the advent of cellular telephones and the integration of other functions into what has become a multifunctional device, this
device offers many opportunities to support the commission of a high-technology crime as the target or “victim,” and is a tool to be
used by miscreants to commit high-technology crimes.
 Cellular phone-related crimes cannot be eliminated, but they can be reduced if some simple steps are taken.
 Ensure cellular phones are adequately justified.
 Establish and enforce good security policies and procedures.
 Don't make a call if suspicious people are near you.
 Use encryption when possible to protect sensitive information.
 Actively monitor the billings and verify the legitimacy of the calls.

How Cell Phone Works

In the most basic form, a cell phone is essentially a two-way radio, consisting of a radio transmitter and a radio receiver. When you chat with
your friend on your cell phone, your phone converts your voice into an electrical signal, which is then transmitted via radio waves to the nearest
cell tower. The network of cell towers then relays the radio wave to your friend’s cell phone, which converts it to an electrical signal and then
back to sound again. In the basic form, a cell phone works just like a walkie-talkie.

Radio Waves – Cell phones use radio waves to communicate. Radio waves transport digitized voice or data in the form of oscillating electric
and magnetic fields, called the electromagnetic field (EMF). The rate of oscillation is called frequency. Radio waves carry the information and
travel in air at the speed of light.

Cell phones transmit radio waves in all directions. The waves can be absorbed and reflected by surrounding objects before they reach the
nearest cell tower. For example, when the phone is placed next to your head during a call, a significant portion (over half in many cases) of the
emitted energy is absorbed into your head and body. In this event, much of the cell phone’s EMF energy is wasted and no longer available for
communication.

Antenna – Cell phones contain at least one radio antenna in order to transmit or receive radio signals. An antenna converts an electric signal
to the radio wave (transmitter) and vice versa (receiver). Some cell phones use one antenna as the transmitter and receiver while others, such as
the iPhone 5, have multiple transmitting or receiving antennas. Many modern smart phones also contain more than one type of antenna. In
addition to the cellular antenna, they may also have Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and/or GPS antennas.

Connectivity – As mentioned earlier, a cell phone is a two-way wireless communication device and needs both the inbound signal (reception)
and the outbound signal (transmission) to work. The magnitude of the received signal from the cell tower is called the “ signal strength”, which is
commonly indicated by the “bars” on your phone. The connectivity between a cell phone and its cellular network depends on both signals and is
affected by many factors, such as the distance between the phone and the nearest cell tower, the number of impediments between them and
the wireless technology (e.g. GSM vs. CDMA). A poor reception (fewer bars) normally indicates a long distance and/or much signal interruption
between the cell phone and the cell tower.

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In order to conserve battery life, a cell phone will vary the strength of its transmitted signal and use only the minimum necessary to
communicate with the nearest cell tower. When your cell phone has poor connectivity, it transmits a stronger signal in order to connect to the
tower, and as a result your battery drains faster. That’s why good connectivity not only reduces dropped calls, but also saves battery life.
https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/cell-phone5.htm

SURVEILLANCE
Surveillance is the monitoring of the behaviour, activities, or other changing information, usually of people for the purpose of influencing,
managing, directing, or protecting them and include observation from a distance by means of electronic equipment (such as CCTV cameras). The
word surveillance comes from a French phrase for "watching over" ("sur" means "from above" and "veiller" means "to watch).

Surveillance is used by governments for intelligence gathering, the prevention of crime the protection of a process, person, group or object, or
for the investigation of crime. It is also used by criminal organizations to plan and commit crimes such as robbery and kidnapping, by businesses
to gather intelligence, and by private investigators.

Surveillance is often a violation of privacy, and is opposed by various civil liberties group and activists. Liberal democracies have laws which
restrict domestic government and private us of surveillance, usually limiting it to circumstances where public safety is at risk. Authoritarian
government seldom has any domestic restrictions; and international espionage is common among all types of countries. While there are several
types of technologies that can be e perform communications surveillance, we will focus on four categories internet monitoring, mobile phone
monitoring, fixed line interception, and intrusion technology

Internet Monitoring – Internet monitoring is the act of capturing data as it travels across the internet toward its intended destination. It can
take place across any point of the physical or electronic systems that comprise the internet.

Mobile Phone Monitoring – Mobile phone monitoring technologies capture information transmitted over mobile networks.

Fixed Line Interception – Fixed line interception entails the capture of information as it travels across public switched telephone networks
(PSTN), which forms the backbone of our international communication networks. Modern surveillance technologies of PSTN fundamentally
operate in such a way that a physical probe is placed on the phone network which allows for the interception of phone calls.

Intrusion Technology – Intrusion technologies clandestinely deploy malicious software (malware) on mobile phones and computers. The
malware, or Trojan, allows operators to take complete control over the target's device by embedding itself in all system functions. Intrusion
technologies are some of the most invasive forms of surveillance available. The user's device becomes spy in itself, capturing information
around the individual including conversations with others and monitoring his or her online and offline activities.

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