ASNT_Level_iii_study_guide_magnetic_particle_testing_testing_method

MT SG Level III Cover final to IPC_Layout 1 4/10/13 8:52 AM Page 1
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Second Edition
ASNT
LEVEL III
S T U DYG U I D E
Magnetic
Particle
Testing
The American Society for

Nondestructive Testing, Inc. @seismicisolation
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MTLIII_SG_4_10_13_SG 6/13/14 3:19 PM Page ii
Copyright © 2013 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing.
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (ASNT) is not responsible for the authenticity or accuracy of information
herein. Published opinions and statements do not necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or services that are advertised
or mentioned do not carry the endorsement or recommendation of ASNT.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, by means electronic or mechanical including photo-
copying, recording or otherwise, without the expressed prior written permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Test-
ing, Inc.
IRRSP, NDT Handbook, The NDT Technician and www.asnt.org are trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing,
Inc. ACCP, ASNT, Level III Study Guide, Materials Evaluation, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Research in Nondestructive Evalu-
ation and RNDE are registered trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
first printing 2001

second printing with revision 01/06
third printing 10/08
fourth printing 04/11
fifth printing with revision 01/12
sixth printing 08/12
seventh printing with revision 04/13
ebook 06/14
Errata, if available for this printing, may be obtained from ASNT’s web site, www.asnt.org.
ISBN-13: 978-1-57117-239-6 (print)

ISBN-13: 978-1-57117-247-1 (ebook)
Printed in the United States of America
Published by:
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
1711 Arlingate Lane
Columbus, OH 43228-0518
www.asnt.org
Edited by: Cynthia M. Leeman, Educational Materials Supervisor

Assisted by: Bob Conklin, Educational Materials Editor
Tim Jones, Senior Manager of Publications
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Fenton, John D., 1927-

ASNT level III study guide magnetic particle testing method / by
John D. Fenton.— 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 1-57117-070-7
1. Magnetic testing. I. Title.
TA417.3 .F46 2001
620.1’1278—dc21
2001002594
ASNT Mission Statement:

ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testing.
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Recommended References
Foreword
Purpose
This Study Guide is intended to aid individuals preparing to take the ASNT NDT Level III examination for
magnetic particle testing.
The material in this Study Guide addresses the body of knowledge included in ANSI/ASNT CP-105: ASNT
Standard Topical Outlines for Qualification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel.
The ASNT NDT Level III certification program is a service, offered by the American Society for Nonde-
structive Testing, Inc., that gives NDT personnel an opportunity to have their familiarity with the principles
and practices of NDT assessed by an independent body. The program uses an independent body to review
credentials and uses comprehensive written examinations to identify those who meet the criteria for becoming
an ASNT NDT Level III.
How to Use the Study Guide

Read through the text of the Study Guide and if the discussion covers unfamiliar material, the references
should also be studied. The review questions at the end of each chapter should be answered. Successfully
answering the questions will help determine if more concentrated study in particular areas is needed. Those
familiar with some of the topics may wish to go directly to the review questions. If the questions can be
answered confidently and correctly, additional study may be optional.
This Study Guide is designed to assist in the preparation for the ASNT NDT Level III examination. It is not
intended to be the only source of preparation. The Study Guide provides a general overview of subject matter
covered by the examination so that students can identify those areas of the body of knowledge in which they
need further study.
For simplicity, many equations in this book use 25 mm equals 1 in.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. is grateful for the volunteer contributions, technical
expertise, knowledge and dedication of the following individuals who have helped make this work possible.
Martin T. Anderson – Alaska Technical Training, Inc.

David L. Culbertson – NDT Technical Services, Inc.
Randy L. Duvall – Sandia National Laboratories
David G. Moore – Sandia National Laboratories
Ciji Nelson – Sandia National Laboratories
Luis Payano – The Port Authority of NY & NJ
Robert F. Plumstead – Consultant
William C. Plumstead, Sr. – Plumstead Quality & Training Services
Roderic K. Stanley – NDE Information Consultants
Mark Stowers – Star Pipe Service Inc.
Bahman Zoofan – Amerapex Corporation
The Publications Review Committee includes:
Glenn M. Light, Chair – Southwest Research Institute

L. Terry Clausing – Drysdale & Associates, Inc.
Joe Mackin – IOS
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Recommended References
The following references were used to develop this Study Guide.
Moore, David G., technical editor, Patrick O. Moore, editor. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition,
Volume 8, Magnetic Particle Testing. Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc., 2008.
Betz, Carl. Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing. Chicago, IL: Magnaflux Corp. 2008.
ASTM E 1444 / E 1444 M Standard Practice for Magnetic Particle Examination, ASTM Book of Standards,
Vol. 03.03. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM. Latest Edition.
ASTM E 1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examination, ASTM Book of Standards, Vol. 03.03.
West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM. Latest Edition.
ASTM E 709 Standard Guide for Magnetic Particle Examination. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
Latest Edition.
Additional References
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 03.03, Nondestructive Testing. West Conshohocken, PA:
ASTM. Latest Edition.
Mix, P.E. Introduction to Nondestructive Testing: A Training Guide, second edition. New York:
John Wiley & Sons. 2005.
Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control: ASM Handbook, Volume 17. Metals Park, OH:
ASM International. 1989.
Smith. G. Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book (PTP Series). Columbus, OH. American
Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 2004.
Welding Handbook, Volume 1. Miami, FL: American Welding Society. Latest edition.
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Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iv
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .v
Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii
Chapter 1: Introduction to Magnetic Particle Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Typical Magnetic Particle Testing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Magnetic Particle Testing Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Magnetic Flux Leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Chapter 2: Materials and the Theory of Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Material Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Diamagnetic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Paramagnetic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Ferromagnetic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Magnetic Field Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Electric Currents and Magnetic Fields in Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Magnetic Hysteresis Curve – Induction by Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Magnetic Field – Induction of Ferromagnetic Materials (Hysteresis Curve) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Magnetic Flux and Flux Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Magnetization of Ferromagnetic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Direct Magnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Indirect Magnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Permanent Magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Central Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Coils and Solenoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Chapter 3: Currents Used in the Magnetic Particle Testing Inspection Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Magnetizing Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Alternating Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Direct Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Half-Wave Rectified Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Full-Wave Rectified Current (Single-phase) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Three-Phase Full-Wave Rectified Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Magnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
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Magnetic Particle Testing l contents
Using Permanent Magnets to Induce Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Using Electric Currents to Induce Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Alternating Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Direct Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Half-Wave Direct Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Full-Wave Rectified Single- or Three-Phase Alternating Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Chapter 4 – Field Strength and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Magnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Circular Magnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Longitudinal Magnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Low Fill-Factor Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Cable Wrap or High Fill-Factor Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Intermediate Fill-Factor Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Calculating the Length-to-Diameter Ratio for a Hollow or Cylindrical Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Permanent Magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Alternating Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Direct Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Solid and Hollow Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Nonmagnetic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Central Conductor Carrying Direct Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Field Distribution for Alternating Current Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Other Symmetrical Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Chapter 5 – Magnetic Field Direction and Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Direction and Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
External Magnetic Field Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Field Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Pie Gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Shims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Hall Effect/Tesla Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Other Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Chapter 6 – Magnetic Particle Testing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Portable Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Permanent Magnet Yokes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Electromagnetic Yokes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Prods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
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Other Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Portable Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Mobile Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Ancillary Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Heavy Duty Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Bench Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Multidirectional Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Automatic Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Special Purpose Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Ultraviolet Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Visible Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Ambient Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Extraneous Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Chapter 7 – Magnetic Particle Testing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

Inspection Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Magnetic Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Dry Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Wet Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Pastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Concentrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Characteristics and Control of Magnetic Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Contrast and Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Magnetic Permeability and Retentivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Characteristics and Control of Petroleum Suspensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Flammability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Odor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Fluorescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Reactive Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Characteristics and Control of Water Suspensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Characteristics and Control of Rubber Suspensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
ix
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Chapter 8 – Magnetic Particle Testing Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

Magnetic Particle Test Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
Dry Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
Wet Suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Magnetic Rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Residual Magnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Continuous Magnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Choice of Magnetic Field Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Circular Magnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Longitudinal Magnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Combination and Variable Magnetic Field Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Levels of Flux Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Choice of Equipment and Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Permanent Magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Yokes and Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Portable Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Mobile Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Stationary Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Demagnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Reasons for Demagnetizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Methods of Demagnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Controlling and Measuring Demagnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Effects of Test Object Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Geometric Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Surface Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Surface Condition and Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Chapter 9 – Indications and Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Geometric and Section Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Improper Surface Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Excessive Magnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Magnetic Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Permeability Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Residual and External Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Metallurgical Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Surface Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Inadequate Penetration of the Weld Root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Porosity or Pin Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Slag Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Undercutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Arc Strikes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Grinding Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Weld Spatter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
x
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Subsurface Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Incomplete Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Slag Inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Effects of Discontinuities on Serviceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Determination of Discontinuity Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Metallurgical Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Recording Indications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Interpretation and Evaluation of Test Indications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Chapter 10 – Probability of Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75

Detectability Versus Probability of Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Probability of Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Human Factors that Affect Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Reproducibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Chapter 11 – Process and Equipment Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79

Control and Verification of Equipment Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Electrical System and Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Maximum Unit Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Short Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Ammeter Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Quick Break Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Shot Timer Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
System Performance Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Other Machine Checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Suspension Control Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Particle Concentration Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Particle Condition Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Particle Contamination Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Vehicle (Carrier) Contamination Check For Fluorescent Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Particle Brightness Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Magnetic Properties Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Water Break Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Viscosity Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Light Intensity and Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Measurement of Ultraviolet Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Measurement of Visible Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Measurement of Ambient Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
xi
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Chapter 12 – Specifications, Procedures, Techniques and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
Acceptance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Sample Magnetic Particle Testing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Other Types of Controlling Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Chapter 13 – Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Ultraviolet Lamp Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
Appendix 1 – Test Procedure Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
Appendix 2 – Magnetization Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
Appendix 3 – Materials Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
Appendix 4 – Discontinuities Found Using Magnetic Particle Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
Appendix 5 – Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
Appendix 6 – Figure Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
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Chapter 1
Introduction to Magnetic Particle Testing
History
equipment, selection of particles and solutions,
Around 2000 BC, plentiful deposits of a mineral selection of the proper technique, magnetization of
called magnetite (Fe3O4), a type of hard ferrite, parts, application of particles, and the location, inter-
were found in the district of Magnesia in Asia Minor. pretation and evaluation of indications.
These stones were unique because they naturally In order for ASNT NDT Level IIIs to safely and
attracted iron. The first permanent magnets were properly apply this process, they must have a basic
made by rubbing a sliver of iron against magnetite. understanding of magnetic fields and the reaction of
Magnetite was the only known source of magnet- materials to these fields.
ism until the nineteenth century. In the 1400s, mag-
netite was used in the compasses of early navigators. Magnetic Particle Testing
In 1600, William Gilbert published DeMagnete, the Fundamentals
first scientific study on magnetism though the laws
of electricity and magnetism were not formulated If a bar magnet with a north and a south pole is bro-
until the 18th and 19th centuries. ken into two pieces, two complete bar magnets will
In 1819, Hans Christian Oersted observed that result, each having a north and south pole. This
an electric current in a wire affected a magnetic process of breaking can go on until there are any
compass needle, thus establishing the link between number of separate complete magnets.
electricity and magnetism. Later, contributions by If a magnet is cracked, but not broken completely
Michael Faraday, James Clerk Maxwell, Heinrich into two pieces, a somewhat similar result occurs. A
Hertz and others resulted in the science of magnet- north and south pole will form at opposite faces of
ism being born. Their work demonstrated that mag- the crack, just as if the break were complete. The
netism and electricity are so intimately connected strength of the magnetic field at these poles will be
that no intelligent study can be made of one subject different from that of the fully broken pieces and the
without knowledge of the other. strength is related to the physical dimensions (depth,
In 1900, Paul Drude suggested that electrons length and width) of the crack, the material charac-
were the agents that conducted electricity. By this teristics and the strength of the applied field.
time considerable theory and mathematics were so The fields in the air space in and above cracks or
ingrained in the scientific community that today at other physical or magnetic discontinuities on the
equations and theory show current flowing in the surface of a magnetized part are called leakage fields.
opposite direction than it actually flows. Figure 1.1 shows the leakage field flux lines leaving
Modern magnetic particle testing equipment and the material on one side of the crack, expanding in
techniques were first developed in 1928 by A.V.
deForest and F.B. Doane. Magnetic fields and fine
iron particles have been used to form indications of Leakage field
permeability changes in certain magnetizable alloys
for several years. The process has developed into a
common nondestructive testing method for steel
and other ferromagnetic materials. Flux lines
Typical Magnetic Particle Testing

Process
The magnetic particle testing process involves the Figure 1.1: Leakage field at air gap in longitudinally magnetized
review of specifications and procedures, selection of part.
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Magnetic Particle Testing l Chapter 1
Small particles of soft iron with high magnetic

Particle buildup at leakage field
permeability and low retentivity are attracted to very
small leakage fields. As more and more particles are
attracted, they pile up, providing a metallic path of
low magnetic reluctance that bridges the crack. The
bridge of particles can be visually detected and is
Flux lines
called an indication. An indication is not a defect
unless it exceeds the tolerances contained in a speci-
fication or standard.
(a) Surface crack
The leakage field strength is controlled by the
material’s permeability, the depth and width of the
discontinuity and the relative strength of the applied
Particle buildup at leakage field
magnetic flux. The size and shape of the indication
approximate the relative size of the discontinuity. A
surface discontinuity is distinguishable from a sub-
surface discontinuity because a surface crack forms a
Flux lines
narrow, sharp indication [Figure 1.2(a)], whereas a
subsurface discontinuity such as a slag inclusion will
exhibit a broad, fuzzy indication [Figure 1.2(b)].
(b) Subsurface crack Similarly, relatively thin coatings of paint or plating
on the surface can cause a surface crack to have the
appearance of a subsurface indication [Figure
1.2(c)]. Thicker coatings could mask a discontinuity
Particle buildup at leakage field Paint or plating
leaving it undetected. Coating thickness limits for
general applications are defined in ASTM E 1444 /
E 1444 M.
Flux lines
Magnetic Flux Leakage
Magnetic flux leakage is a nondestructive test
(c) Crack under paint method that also requires the saturation of a mag-
netic field in a ferromagnetic material, but does not
require the use of particles for an indication. Once
Figure 1.2: Magnetic particles attracted by leakage field. the test piece is saturated with a flux field a
sensing(s) device, such as a coil or hall effect probe,
is placed in close proximity to detect changes in the
material and thus behavior in the flux field.
air and re-entering the material on the other side. Various displays can be incorporated to allow
The flux from the two poles of opposite polarity interpretation according to the need. Magnetic flux
form a bridge over the crack. Magnetic flux always leakage is primarily a qualitative inspection, detect-
finds the path of least resistance. Air at the crack has ing changes in volume. It has many uses such as tank
a high reluctance for the passage of magnetic flux. floor scanning, in-line inspection of pipe lines (ILI
However, when a small piece of soft iron is brought pigs), wire rope, coil tubing and rail inspection to
close to the leakage field, the magnetic flux will name but a few.
attract it because it provides much less resistance to
the flow of magnetic flux than air. (Figure 1.2)
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Chapter 2
Materials and the Theory of Magnetism
Introduction Paramagnetic Materials
All matter is composed of atoms having positively When the internal magnetic field of a material is
charged protons in the nuclei and negatively charged aligned in the same direction as the applied external
electrons in continual motion around the nuclei. It is field, and the material has a small positive suscepti-
this motion that generates microscopic electric cur- bility and a positive relative permeability that is
rents within an atom. An electron moving in orbit slightly more than one, the material is called para-
around a nucleus is an electric current and generates magnetic. Magnetism does not persist after the
a magnetic field exactly as does a current (electron) applied field is removed. Paramagnetism occurs in
flowing in a conductor. The strength of the electric all atoms and molecules that have unpaired electrons
current generated by the orbiting electron is meas- (some rare earth and transition elements). It can also
ured by its magnetic moment. All electrons in occur in other substances, such as those metals of
motion create a current with an associated magnetic magnetic moments associated with the spins of con-
field. These fields respond to the presence of an elec- ducting electrons. Examples of paramagnetic materi-
tric current flowing through the material, or to an als include aluminum, platinum, copper sulfate and
external magnetic field, in different ways based on wood.
the chemistry and physical condition of each
material. Ferromagnetic Materials
When the internal magnetic field of the material is
Material Characteristics aligned in the same direction as the applied external
field, and the material has high positive susceptibili-
When matter is placed within an external magnetic ty and high positive permeability that is much
field, the magnetic moments of that material’s elec- greater than one, the material is called ferromagnetic.
trons may become reoriented. When this occurs, the Ferromagnetic materials consist of a large number of
material produces its own macroscopic magnetic small areas called domains, magnetized to saturation
field. This is known as Faraday’s law of magnetic and dispersed in a random fashion so that the net
induction. When under the influence of the external macroscopic magnetization is essentially 0. There
magnetic field, the material exhibits specific magnet- may be several domains in a grain or they may
ic behavior (characteristics). The three most com- extend over several grains.
monly encountered are: diamagnetism, paramagnet- When an external field is applied to ferromagnet-
ism and ferromagnetism. For magnetic particle ic materials, these magnetic domains align parallel to
testing, ferromagnetism is the most important. the applied fields. The domains are approximately
10–4 m to 10–7 m. It is the interchange action between
Diamagnetic Materials ions and the superposition of atomic domains that
Any material with a negative relative permeability are the cause of the vastly increased flux density. If
that is slightly less than one is diamagnetic. When the sample has been prepared without the influence
such materials are placed in a strong magnetic field, of any external magnetic field, the domains will be
their induced magnetism is in a direction opposite randomly aligned in discrete steps with no net mag-
to that of iron. This very weak form of magnetism is netic field. In unmagnetized ferromagnetic material,
normally masked by other stronger influences and the magnetic domains exhibit random orientation.
does not persist after the applied field is removed. When an external magnetic field is applied, some of
Some examples of diamagnetic materials are mercu- the domains are aligned with the field and increase
ry, gold, bismuth and zinc. in size at the expense of the others. As the magnetic
field intensity is steadily increased, additional
domains are aligned. A further increase aligns
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additional domains. This step magnetization of fer- continuous field, they are used for visualization and
romagnetic material is known as the barkhausen mathematical purposes only. In a permanent magnet
effect or barkhausen steps. Eventually all of the more of the magnetic domains remain aligned than
domains are aligned with the applied field and the are randomly oriented.
material is said to be saturated. Some magnetization All magnets have two poles, north and south. A
persists after the applied field is removed. permanent bar magnet exhibits polarity; if freely
The only elements that are strongly attracted to suspended, one end of the bar will point toward the
magnetic fields are iron, cobalt, nickel and gadolini- earth’s magnetic north pole. This north-seeking end
um. (Even though not an engineering material, of the magnet is called the south pole; the opposite
gadolinium is added to most lists of ferromagnetic end is the north pole.
materials since it is strongly ferromagnetic at lower If a bar magnet is U-shaped (horseshoe), the
temperatures.) These are called ferromagnetic ele- polarity remains but the magnetic field and the lines
ments. Many alloys and oxides of these elements are of force are more concentrated in the gap between
also ferromagnetic. There are also alloys of copper, the ends of the bar. If the magnetized bar is formed
manganese and aluminum that are ferromagnetic, as into a closed or fused loop, the magnetic field is fully
well as various ferrite ceramics. Materials such as contained within a closed circuit in the magnetic
iron, which have relative permeability much greater material and no external magnetic field exists.
than one, are called ferromagnetic materials. Appen- Magnetic lines of force have the following
dix 3 lists magnetic properties for a few common properties:
materials. l. They form closed loops.
2. They do not cross one another.
Magnetic Field Characteristics 3. They seek paths of least magnetic resistance.
4. Their density decreases as distance from the
When magnetic domains remain aligned or extend- poles increases.
ed after the influence of a magnetic field is removed, 5. They are considered to have direction by
the material is said to be magnetized. This residual convention, from north to south external to the
field is called remanence or a residual magnetic field. magnet.
The ability of materials to retain magnetism after
the magnetizing force has been removed is called When two magnets are moved into close proxim-
retentivity. ity to each other, a reaction occurs. The like poles
Although described as magnetic lines, the mag- repel each other and unlike poles attract one anoth-
netic field within and surrounding magnetized er, as shown in Figure 2.2.
materials is continuous. When a paper is placed over
a magnet and fine iron particles are sprinkled on the
paper, the iron particles align with the magnetic field
in distinct lines of equipotential magnetic intensity N S S N
and appear to form lines. Therefore, the magnetic Repels
field is referred to as lines or lines of force. Figure 2.1
illustrates this effect for a bar magnet. Although N S N S
these terms seem to contradict the definition of a Attracts
Figure 2.2: Magnetic repulsion and attraction.
Electric Currents and Magnetic Fields in

Conductors
Magnetic fields exist in and around electrical con-
ductors in which electrical current is flowing (Fig-
ure 2.3). The French physicist Andre-Marie Ampere
formulated the fundamental laws of the magnetic
Figure 2.1: Magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet. effects of electric currents. He theorized that electric
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current is a positive charge and flows from positive

to negative in a conductor. Direction of magnetic field
Modern theory has shown the negatively charged Conductor
electron being responsible for electric current, not
Ampere’s positive charge. When it was discovered in
1900 that the electron was responsible for electric
current, no attempt was made to change two cen-
turies of theory and equations therefore, Ampere’s Direction of
current flow
concept still exists in modern science.
The nuclei of atoms in metals hold their outer-
most orbital electrons so loosely that these electrons Figure 2.3: Current versus magnetic field.
can drift from band to band. The negatively charged
electron, moving from the negative to the positive
direction through the metal is exactly equivalent to a
corresponding positively charged ion, moving from
the positive to the negative direction. A current mov- Magnetic
ing through metal will be 1019 times greater than a field
current moving through glass (operating at room
temperature and under the same conditions).
Dislodging of the outer electrons leaves positive
ions in the metal; however, there is no flow of posi-
tive ions in metals as there is in gases and liquids. Current
The direction of a magnetic field surrounding a
Figure 2.4: Magnetic field in a coil.
straight current-carrying conductor is circular,
encircling and perpendicular to the conductor. More
important is the concept that the direction of the Saturation
magnetic field has a perpendicular relationship to (Flux density) B+ a
the direction of current flow. This concept is defined μ1
B1
as the right-hand rule. Retentitivity
The magnetic field surrounding a conductor b
exists as long as electric current flows in the conduc-
Coercivity
tor; however, for a ferromagnetic material, the field
will continue to exist but will be less intense when c
H- H+
the current is removed. The intensity of the magnetic f H1
Magnetizing
field is linear along the length of the conductor (if force
the material is uniform and homogeneous), is in
e
direct proportion to the current (amperes) and
diminishes inversely with increasing distance from
the conductor. (Figure 2.3) d
When a straight conductor is formed into a loop Saturation of
opposite polarity B- (Flux density)
or coil (Figure 2.4) and electric current flows
through it, the direction of the magnetic field is per-
pendicular to the plane of the coil. Because lines of Figure 2.5: Hysteresis curve.
force form closed loops, the coil’s magnetic field out-
side the coil forms a toroid. In Figure 2.5, the flux density B that results from
variations in the magnetizing force H is plotted. B is
Magnetic Hysteresis Curve — the vertical axis and H the horizontal axis. H is the
Induction by Coil magnetomotive force per unit length of a magnetic
path having a constant cross-sectional area that uses
In magnetic particle testing technology, only ferromag- the same material throughout. For coils, H is meas-
netic materials are of interest. Most of the magnetic ured in ampere turns per meter. If the magnetomo-
properties of materials of concern can be described by tive force is given in amperes, then H is shown in
examining the magnetic hysteresis loop or curve. amperes per meter. B is normally shown in teslas.
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Magnetic Field — Induction of increased to d, the flux density again reaches satura-
Ferromagnetic Materials (Hysteresis Curve) tion, but in the opposite direction and following the
Starting with a ferromagnetic material that has not path c, d. The magnetizing force field is again
been previously magnetized, or a material that has reduced to 0 and the flux density is reduced follow-
been fully demagnetized, as the magnetizing force H ing the path d, e. When the magnetizing force reaches
is increased from 0 to point a, the flux density B 0 at point e, there is a residual field remaining in the
increases to point a and along the curved dashed part. The value of this residual field, 0, e, will be the
line. (Figure 2.5) At point a, almost all of the mag- same as the value, 0, b, but in the opposite direction.
netic domains are aligned with the field. A further The magnetizing field is again reversed and
increase in the magnetizing force produces very little increased to a. The flux density does not follow the
change in B. The material is said to be magnetically path from 0 to a (dashed curve); it follows the path
saturated or saturated. As the magnetizing force H is from e to a. This closed curve (path a, b, c, d, e, f, a) is
decreased to 0, for curve a, b (normally referred to as called the hysteresis curve or hysteresis loop. If the
the field removal portion of the curve) the magnetic magnetizing force is decreased, reversed and
domains begin to change orientation (direction). increased as previously discussed, the value of the
The flux density values in the material follow the flux density will follow the same path.
path a to b. However, when the magnetizing force Materials with closed loops, very small b, e
reaches 0, the flux density is only reduced to b, the (retentivity) and small c, f (coercive force), such as
material still has a net, or residual, magnetic flux, manufactured ferrites and magnetic particles, are
0, b. This magnetic flux is called the remanence or used in electronic equipment and cores for coils in
residual field and is the result of magnetic domains eddy current probes, etc. These materials have very
still aligned in the magnetized direction that have low retentivity and very high permeability. Materials
not all been reversed. The magnetizing force is now with very open loops, very high values for b, e and c,
reversed and gradually increased. When it has been f, such as alnico, are used for permanent magnets.
increased to c, the residual magnetic field, or rema- These materials have very high retentivity and
nence, is 0. The material has no net magnetic field; permeability.
there are simply as many domains aligned in one
direction as the other, leaving a net flux density of Permeability
0 for the part. As stated previously, magnetic lines of force
The magnetizing force energy, 0, c, required to follow the path of least magnetic resistance. They
reduce the remanence flux density (b, 0) to 0 is concentrate more in a piece of iron placed between
called the coercive force, or coercivity of the material. the poles of a magnet, or within a magnetic field,
The material is not completely demagnetized,and than they do in air or in a nonmagnetic material
will not be until heated above the curie point and (Figure 2.6).
becoming diamagnetic (the domains are again Permeability has been characterized as the ease
randomly oriented). As the magnetizing force is with which a material can be magnetized. The rela-
tionship between permeability, µ, magnetic flux den-
sity, B, and magnetizing force, H, will be evaluated
through the hysteresis curve. In Figure 2.7, each
point along the curve 0, b represents a different value
for the permeability of that material and is depend-
ent on the intensity of the applied force H.
Permeability can be expressed as:
B
(Eq. 1) µ=
H
Uniform magnetic Combined field of where:

field bar and coil bar and coil H = the magnetizing force,
B = the flux density produced within the
Figure 2.6: Ferromagnetic materials in a uniform magnetic field. material by H.
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where:
slope = µmax µ0 = 4p x 10–7(Hm–1) in SI units, permeability of
free space.
B1 b
slope = µint
B (Tesla)
In the above example, the relative permeability at

point µ1 is given by:
µ1
(Eq. 3) µ r1 =
µ0
0
0 H1 5000 10 000
(a) H(A/m)
Different ferromagnetic materials (elements and
alloys) have widely differing values of permeability.
In Figure 2.5, µ = µint before any external field is
µmax applied and µr = 1 the instant the external field is
applied when B = H. At any point, µ is equal to B/H
µ (Tesla/Wb/m2)
(the slope of the curve at that point).

The permeability normally given in texts, tables
and other references is maximum permeability, µmax.
The maximum permeability is the point at which
the curve is its steepest, where it has its greatest
µint
slope. Another value sometimes given is the initial
0 permeability, µint. These relationships are shown in
(b) 0 5000 10 000 Figure 2.7.
H(A/m)
Other terms relating to the magnetic properties
of materials are sometimes encountered. Reluctivity
Figure 2.7: Permeability: (a) initial magnetization
is the reciprocal of permeability. The curie point or
curve for a steel having relatively low permeabili-
curie temperature is the temperature above which
ty; (b) plot of the permeability of the steel as a
magnetized material becomes completely demagnet-
function of H.
ized and remains demagnetized if it is cooled from
temperatures above the curie point, uninfluenced by
magnetic fields during cooldown. Appendix 3 pro-
Therefore, permeability µ is defined as the slope vides the curie points of some common ferromag-
of the curve at any point on the curve and varies netic materials.
continuously along the curve. (Figure 2.7) The value
of B1 and H1 at point µ1 is defined as µmax. The vari-
able µmax is determined by drawing a line from the Magnetic Flux and Flux Density
origin, 0, to a point tangential to the curve, repre- Previously, the phrase lines of force was used to
sented by the dashed line. The point of intersection describe magnetic fields. In a strict technical sense,
of the dashed line and the curve is the maximum lines of force are imaginary lines of equal magnetic
permeability of the material. Therefore, the perme- intensity that enable visualization of the direction
ability at µ1, per Equation 1, is given by: and general shape of the field. The term flux sug-
gests flow; however, with respect to magnetic
B1 fields, nothing should be thought of as flowing.
µ1 =
H1 Flux is the term used to indicate the number of
lines of force associated with a magnetic field at a
specific point or within a defined area. Total flux is
Relative permeability is defined as: rarely of any practical concern. Flux density, or the
number of lines of flux transverse (perpendicular)
µ to an area, is of greater practical importance.
(Eq. 2) µr =
µ0 Because magnetic field strength varies throughout
the space influenced by a magnetic field, the rela-
tive strength of the field in various regions of the
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affected space is more significant. Thus, flux density ferromagnetic materials with heads, prods, clamps or
is defined as the number of lines of flux intercepting other forms of electrical contacts.
an area perpendicular to the flux. It is calculated When using direct magnetization techniques,
using precautions must be taken to ensure good electrical
contact, which prevents arcing and/or burning of the
Φ material.
(Eq. 4) B=
A Indirect Magnetization
Indirect (induced) magnetism results when a ferro-
where: magnetic material is influenced by an external mag-
F = magnetic flux in webers (1 Wb = 108 lines netic field. The external field can be created by a per-
of flux), manent magnet or electromagnetic devices such as
A = area perpendicular to the flux in square central conductors, coils and yokes.
meters (m2),
B = flux density in Wb/m2 (1 Wb/m2 = 1 T). Permanent Magnets
Permanent magnets can magnetize ferromagnetic
materials that are brought into close proximity to, or
Magnetization of Ferromagnetic into direct physical contact with, the magnet. If a bar
Material magnet is used, an opposite magnetic pole is estab-
lished in the material being magnetized. At the point
Ferromagnetic materials can be magnetized using of contact or at the point of nearest approach, the
any technique that produces a magnetic field in the induced lines of force will seek to close with the pole
part. These techniques can be collectively classified at the opposite end of the inducing magnet. Hence,
as either direct or indirect (induced) magnetization. the field direction is considered longitudinal (paral-
lel to the axis of the part) if the material being mag-
Direct Magnetization netized is bar shaped. If one end of a bar magnet
In direct magnetization, an electric current is passed (single pole) is used to magnetize a plate or similarly
through the part; the part is the conductor of the large area, the field will be radial away from the mag-
electric current. net’s pole.
When the electric current is flowing through a More commonly, permanent magnets used for
conductor, such as a rod, wire or portions of a magnetic induction are U-shaped and referred to as
complex-shaped part, an encircling magnetic field is horseshoe magnets. The induced field is essentially
established both within and outside the conductor. If straight between the two poles. Permanent magnets
the conductor is of uniform cross section and made from neodymium-boron-iron are often now
straight, the field (the number of magnetic lines of used to provide magnetic saturation in steel coiled
force) will be uniform along its length. Externally, tubing, tank floors and wire rope.
the force decreases with increasing radial distance
from the conductor. The external strength of the Central Conductors
field is directly proportional to the current flow (that A circular magnetic field can be induced into a hol-
is, the number of amperes) and inversely propor- low cylinder by placing a current-carrying conduc-
tional to the distance perpendicular to the axis of the tor inside the cylinder. The circular magnetic field
conductor. The lines of force assume concentric cir- around the conductor induces a circular field in the
cular paths both within and around the conductor. magnetic material of the cylinder. The strength of
Thus, the field is circular and aligned, normally at the magnetic field is controlled by adjusting the elec-
90° to the axis of the conductor or direction of cur- trical current in the conductor. The entire volume of
rent flow. (Figure 2.3) the cylinder can be magnetized by this technique.
When the conductor is a ferromagnetic material,
the high µr tends to concentrate the magnetic flux Coils and Solenoids
within the conductor. (Figure 2.6) The magnetic Coils are conductors formed by a number of loops.
field in the conductor is called a circular field Solenoids are coils where the length is greater than
because it circulates around the axis of the conduc- the diameter. The magnetic fields around each turn
tor. A magnetizing current can be applied directly to of a coil combine, or link, to form a unified field,
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as shown in Figure 2.4. The magnetic field within the magnetic field produced by a coil induces a
coil is essentially parallel to the axis of the coil and longitudinal field into a bar of magnetic material
strongest on the inside surface of the coil. Parts that is placed within the coil and parallel to the cen-
placed within the coil are magnetized in a direction ter line of the coil (indirect magnetization). This field
parallel to the coil’s magnetic field. Parts are normal- is essentially perpendicular to the circular field pro-
ly placed in the coil so that the longitudinal axis of duced by passing the current directly through the
the part is parallel to the axis of the coil, hence the part (direct magnetization).
term longitudinal magnetization. A longitudinal
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Review Questions
1. A permanent magnet is a material with magnetic 6. The magnetic field surrounding an electromagnet
domains that: containing a ferromagnetic test part is the strongest:
a. are held in fixed positions with directions that a. immediately after the current ceases to flow.
cancel out. b. when the magnetizing current is flowing.
b. are in fixed positions with a preponderance of the c. at the time the magnetic particles are applied to
magnetic domains aligned in one direction. the part.
c. fluctuate in random positions so that they are d. just before current reversal.
aligned to attract a magnetic material.
d. reverse polarity with each reversal of applied 7. In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic domains are:
current.
a. aligned with the magnetizing field.
2. All bar magnets have: b. aligned only when the magnetizing current is
flowing.
a. two poles. c. randomly oriented at all times.
b. circular flux lines within the material only. d. always aligned perpendicular to the magnetizing
c. little or no external magnetic field. field.
d. a totally external magnetic field.
8. The magnetic field in a coil or solenoid is greatest:
3. Magnetic lines of force do NOT:
a. when the current is first turned on.
a. form closed loops that do not cross. b. on the immediate outer surface of the coil.
b. increase in density as the distance from the poles c. on the inside of the coil and adjacent to the inner
of a permanent magnet increases. surface.
c. have direction. d. at the center of the coil.
d. seek paths of least magnetic resistance or least
reluctance. 9. Permeability is:
4. If the like poles of two magnets are brought into close a. a fixed value depending on the type of material.
proximity, the magnets will: b. between 1 and 100 for all ferromagnetic materials.
c. the ease with which a material can be magnetized.
a. attract one another. d. dependent on the amount of magnetizing force
b. change polarity. necessary to overcome saturation.
c. repel one another.
d. not be affected.
5. A solenoid is a coiled conductor that:
a. contains up to one loop.

b. contains a nonmagnetic metal core.
c. is used to induce circular magnetism inside the
coil.
d. contains a number of loops.
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10. The coercive force of the magnetic material whose 15. Magnetic flux is:
hysteresis loop is shown in Figure 2.5 is given by the:
a. the direction of current flow in an electromagnet.
a. value of B at point d. b. the number of lines of force associated with a
b. value of B at point e. magnetic field.
c. product of B and H at point f. c. the manner by which magnetism flows.
d. negative value of H at point c. d. found in permanent magnets only.
11. When H is reduced, the associated values of B follow 16. Flux density is defined as:
the curve a to b in Figure 2.5. The field at b is called
the: a. 108 lines of flux (1 Wb).
b. the number of lines of force associated with a
a. remnant flux density. magnetic field.
b. saturation. c. the number of lines of flux that intercept an area
c. hysteresis. that is parallel with the flux.
d. characteristic permeability. d. the number of lines of flux that intercept an area
that is perpendicular to the flux.
12. In magnetic particle testing, the materials that can be
tested are: 17. Magnetism applied to a ferromagnetic part by a
permanent magnet is called:
a. ferromagnetic.
b. paramagnetic. a. direct magnetization.
c. diamagnetic. b. direct current magnetization.
d. ferrimagnetic. c. induced magnetization.
d. reversed polarity magnetization.
13. When considering the hysteresis curve (See
Figure 2.5.):
a. H is the flux density.

b. B is the magnetizing force.
c. both B and H are constant for a specific material.
d. saturation occurs at points a and d.
14. The term retentivity is the characteristic of a material

that allows it to:
a. be magnetized.
b. form an external magnetic field.
c. retain magnetism after the current has been
removed.
d. be demagnetized.
ANSWERS
1b 2a 3b 4c 5d 6b 7a 8c 9c 10d 11a 12a
13d 14c 15b 16d 17c
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Chapter 3
Currents Used in the Magnetic Particle Testing
Inspection Process
Magnetizing Current Wave form (AC)

Current
Several types of current are used to produce mag- 1 Cycle
(+) B
netic fields within ferromagnetic materials: alternat-
ing current, direct current, half-wave rectified cur-
rent, full-wave rectified current and three-phase
0 A C E
full-wave rectified current.
Alternating Current
(–)
Using alternating current is very desirable from a
practical standpoint because alternating current is Time D
supplied directly to homes and factories through
power lines. In the United States, commercially sup- Figure 3.1: Single-phase alternating current wave form.
plied alternating current reverses its polarity
60 times per second (60 Hz). The inductive effect of
current reversal tends to produce a high density of useful for magnetization because the current flows
electric current near the surface of a ferromagnetic continuously in one direction at a constant voltage,
conductor. This characteristic is called the skin effect. which establishes strong magnetic fields in the
Because alternating current follows the surface and conductors and coils. Direct current passed
the contours of the part, this is an excellent method through the test part produces a magnetic field in a
for detecting fatigue cracks. Direct current does not solid ferromagnetic conductor that ranges from 0
have this effect. Alternating current flows from 0 to flux at the center to a maximum at the surface.
positive maximum voltage, then returns to 0, pro- Direct current can be provided by using rectifiers
ceeds to a negative voltage peak (opposite polarity to convert alternating current to direct current, by
and equal value) and then returns to 0 voltage. This batteries or by direct current generators. Rectified
process completes one cycle. Figure 3.1 illustrates the current is normally used as half-wave rectified, full-
current cycle curve commonly referred to as a sine wave rectified or three-phase full-wave rectified.
wave. The primary advantage of alternating current
is its availability. Its primary disadvantage is its limit- Half-Wave Rectified Current
ed depth of penetration. Figure 3.1
A half-wave rectifier will clip off all of the negative
voltage peaks and leave only the positive peaks as
Direct Current shown in Figure 3.2. These peaks provide a pulsed
Alternating current is also used to make direct cur- direct current that has the advantages of direct
rent through the use of rectifiers. Direct current is current.
+ +
0
0
– –
Single-phase alternating Rectifier Half-wave direct
current input current output
Figure 3.2: Rectification of alternating current to half-wave direct current.
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Previous: Figure 1.5

+ +
0 0
Full-wave rectified
Rectifier/Filter +
–
0
Single-phase alternating Bridge rectifier and filter Full-wave rectified and filtered
current input
Figure 3.3: Full-wave direct current.
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 +
0
+ Each phase individually
Full-wave rectified three-phase
rectified with a
single-phase rectifier
0
+
–
0
Three-phase alternating current input Rectifier and filter Full-wave rectified three-phase and filtered
Figure 3.4: Three-phase alternating current rectified to full-wave direct current.
Full-Wave Rectified Current (Single-Phase) Using Permanent Magnets to Induce

Full-wave direct current rectification inverts the neg- Magnetic Fields
ative current to positive current. This rectification In magnetic particle testing, applications involving
leaves some ripple. The current is then filtered to permanent magnets are limited, mainly because the
remove most or all of the ripple, as shown in strength of the field that can be induced is relatively
Figure 3.3. low. Some permanent magnet yokes have adjustable
legs that allow the induced flux level to be varied by
Three-Phase Full-Wave Rectified Current changing the distance between the contacts. The pri-
Alternating current is also available in three-phase mary value of permanent magnets is in their porta-
current. This provides three currents superimposed bility with no need for external power. They are usu-
that follow each other at intervals at a phase angle of ally used to test small areas of parts where fatigue
60°. When this current is full-wave rectified, a very cracks frequently occur. The induced field is longitu-
smooth direct current is obtained. This current can dinal because the magnet is positioned so the field
be filtered to eliminate any ripple, as shown in between the magnet’s poles is perpendicular to the
Figure 3.4. direction of the discontinuities.
The magnetic particles used with permanent
Magnetization magnets should be suspended in an approved liquid
carrier because a permanent magnet provides a stat-
ASNT NDT Level III personnel are responsible for ic magnetic field; the flow of the solution provides
selecting the type of equipment used to induce mag- mobility to particles. Dry particles require pulsed,
netism. This is an important responsibility because a changing or alternating fields to become mobile.
proper inspection is highly dependent on the type, For maximum visibility of an indication, it
direction and strength of the electric current used to should be located in the area between the two pole
produce magnetic fields in test items. pieces of the magnet. The long axis of the indication
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Currents Used in the Magnetic Particle Testing Inspection Process
should be positioned 90° ± 45° with a line between Using dry plate rectifiers to obtain direct current
the poles. The flux is stronger nearer to the poles directly from alternating current power proved
than it is in the center of the gap. Maxi-mum contact much more practical because alternating current is
between the pole and the test surface should be always available as line power furnished by a utility
maintained. company. Direct current power supplies for magnet-
ic particle testing are available with outputs up to
Using Electric Currents to Induce Magnetic 20 000 A; 6000 A is standard for stationary equip-
Fields ment where three-phase alternating current power
When making recommendations for the procure- is available. However, up to 5000 A direct current is
ment of costly inspection equipment, the ASNT available from single-phase alternating current.
NDT Level III must consider the advantages of dif- Direct current is feasible in low current yokes
ferent power supplies, the power available at inspec- because small solidstate diodes are available. These
tion sites, the need for portability and a projection of yokes and prewrapped coils need only 120 V alter-
the power required for future production. The type nating current sources.
of power required influences each of the above con- A major advantage of direct current for magneti-
siderations. A detailed understanding of the advan- zation is its deep penetrating ability in metal, which
tages and disadvantages of different magnetizing enables subsurface discontinuities to be revealed.
currents is very important. Direct current from batteries or full-wave rectified
alternating current is used with the wet particle tech-
Alternating Current nique because full-wave direct current does not pro-
Alternating current is the power source supplied by vide mobility for dry powder. Another primary
utility companies and much of the direct current is advantage of direct current magnetization is that it
derived from it. No rectifiers are required so the leaves residual magnetism that holds an indication
weight of the equipment is reduced. Alternating longer, allowing more time for the inspector to
current is also used for demagnetizers. Autotrans- detect and evaluate indications.
formers and saturable rectifiers transform alternat-
ing current into a wide selection of current Half-Wave Direct Current
requirements. Because transformers are not needed Half-wave direct current results from rectification
in alternating current equipment, the equipment is of single-phase alternating current by clipping off
lighter and less expensive than most other power the negative voltage peaks of the wave. (Figure 3.2)
supplies. Half-wave direct current has the penetrating char-
As previously shown, alternating current does acteristics of direct current with the added advan-
not penetrate deeply into metal. This limitation is tage that the pulsing current provides good mobili-
actually an advantage when inspecting inservice ty for dry magnetic particle powder. Portable
parts: the skin effect of alternating current empha- half-wave direct current power sources are avail-
sizes fatigue cracks, which always start at the sur- able for low current applications because current
face. Irrelevant subsurface variations, which may can be obtained from one dry plate rectifier or
distract the inspector, are not detected by the mini- from solidstate diodes. Half-wave direct current
mally penetrating current. However, if deeper pen- can also be used with a wet particle suspension to
etration is desired, alternating current is not a provide good sensitivity for revealing fine surface
good choice. cracks. For detecting subsurface discontinuities,
half-wave direct current used with dry powder is
Direct Current considered to be the best combination. For this
Direct current has always been the primary type of reason, half-wave direct current is a primary power
power used for magnetization for magnetic particle source for weld and casting inspection. Because
testing. Initially, production inspection equipment half-wave direct current leaves a part in a partially
used wet-cell batteries connected in parallel to fulfill magnetized state, most half-wave direct current
the high current requirements. Because batteries equipment provides demagnetization options,
require constant maintenance to ensure they are ade- either alternating current, reversing direct current
quately charged, their frequent replacement was a or both. Up to 1500 A output is readily available in
continuing expense. The advantage of battery- portable units and 6000 A in mobile units.
powered inspection equipment was that it could be
operated on low current line battery chargers.
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Full-Wave Rectified Single- or Three-Phase half cycle. Most full-wave rectified alternating cur-
Alternating Current rent equipment also uses three-phase power. The
Full-wave rectified alternating current provides the three phases provide very low ripple direct current
most efficient conversion of alternating current that closely matches the direct current output of a
power to direct current. (Figures 3.3 and 3.4) battery.
Full-wave rectifiers are dry plate rectifiers set up in a Three-phase full-wave rectified alternating cur-
bridge circuit. Instead of clipping off the negative rent is normally used in units that provide from
half cycle, the bridge rectifier converts it to a positive 3000 A to 10 000 A of current.
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Currents Used in the Magnetic Particle Testing Inspection Process
Review Questions
1. The source that is commonly obtained from batteries, 5. An advantage of direct current from batteries is that:
rectifying alternating current, and generators where in
the current flows continuously in one direction at a a. batteries require little maintenance.
consistent voltage is: b. demagnetization is accomplished by simply
reversing polarity.
a. alternating current. c. batteries never require replacement.
b. direct current. d. batteries can operate on line voltage to a charger
c. half-wave rectified current. and provide a high current output.
d. full-wave rectified current.
6. Half-wave direct current is obtained from:
2. The source that supplies the most power for
magnetizing is: a. batteries.
b. single-phase alternating current power.
a. three-phase alternating current, full-wave c. a full-wave rectifier.
rectified. d. three-phase direct current power.
b. single-phase alternating current, full-wave
rectified. 7. Half-wave direct current:
c. alternating current unrectified.
d. single-phase alternating current, half-wave a. superimposes currents that follow at intervals.
rectified. b. reverses its polarity 60 times per second (60 Hz).
c. inverts the negative current to positive current.
3. An advantage of alternating current is that it: d. clips off all the negative peaks and leaves only the
positive peaks.
a. restricts particle mobility.
b. enables subsurface discontinuities to be revealed. 8. Full-wave, three-phase rectified alternating current:
c. is readily available.
d. leaves high levels of residual magnetism. a. produces low-ripple direct current.
b. uses a single bridge rectifier.
4. A disadvantage of alternating current is that it: c. is used in low current equipment.
d. is not practical as a source of magnetizing current.
a. cannot be used with dry powder.
b. has poor penetrating power.
c. can only provide low flux densities.
d. can be used only for residual magnetic particle
testing.
ANSWERS
1b 2a 3c 4b 5d 6b 7d 8a
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Chapter 4
Field Strength and Distribution
Magnetization
Current
With the exception of the few instances when perma- Magnetic field
nent magnets are used, any of the forms of electric
current discussed in Chapter 3 may be used to mag-
netize parts. Battery-powered equipment has not
been manufactured for many years and will not be
discussed. Specialized techniques, such as multidi-
rectional, will not be covered.
Parts can be magnetized using circular or longi- Figure 4.1: Relationship of current to magnetic field.
tudinal magnetization. Circular magnetization is
produced either by passing a current directly
through the part (direct magnetization) or by pass-
ing current through a central conductor running
through a hollow part (indirect magnetization). Magnetic field
Head
\ Central conductor
Longitudinal magnetism uses an external magnetic (copper bar)
field to produce (induce) magnetism (indirect mag-
netization). Alternating current or direct current can
be used for either technique depending on factors Current
discussed in Chapter 3 and diagrammed in Test article Head
Appendix 2.
Circular Magnetization
Circular fields are produced by passing current
through the part as shown in Figure 4.1 or by pass-
ing current through a central conductor as shown in Figure 4.2: Field produced by using a central conductor.
Figure 4.2. A circular field exists in and around the
conductor. It should be noted that the field is per-
pendicular (90°) to the current flow for simple parts
such as rods, nuts, bolts, etc. While the current is Recommended values for circular magnetization
flowing there is a much stronger field inside a ferro- vary. A general rule of thumb is to use 800 A to
magnetic conductor than inside a nonferromagnetic 1000 A per 25 mm (1 in.) of diameter or cross sec-
conductor; however, the fields surrounding these two tion with direct current and 500 A to 600 A per
conductors are the same. 25 mm (1 in.) with alternating current.
If a central conductor is used to induce a circular
field in a hollow cylinder, as in Figure 4.2, the place- Longitudinal Magnetization
ment of the conductor becomes important. The field Longitudinal magnetization can be performed in a
around the cylinder is symmetrical if the conductor coil, as shown in Figure 4.3. The strongest magnetic
is in the center; however, if the conductor is placed field is near the inside surface of the coil and the flux
adjacent to the inner circumference, the field density decreases toward the center of the coil.
strength is much stronger at the cylinder wall nearest If a part is relatively uniform in permeability and
to the conductor. Depending on the diameter, rotat- cross section, it can be assumed that the flux density
ing the part and evaluating several sections of the will be uniform over the cross section except at each
length may be necessary per ASTM E 1444 / end of the part. However, for complex parts the flux
E 1444 M. density will not be uniform. The quick-break feature
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These equations assume the part placed in the coil

Magnetic field with the longitudinal axes parallel to the field of the
Coil
coil, the length-to-diameter ratio and the permeabil-
ity within the limits previously specified.
Current direction These equations are for low fill-factor coils, cable
Test article
wrap or high fill-factor coils and intermediate fill-
factor coils.
Low Fill-Factor Coils

When the cross-sectional area of the coil is 10 or
more times the cross-sectional area of the part being
inspected, the product of the number of coil turns N
and the current in amperes through the coil I shall
Longitudinal magnetic field
be as follows.
For parts positioned to the side of the coil:
Figure 4.3: Coil showing relationship of current, magnetizing
field and induced field.
K
(Eq. 6) NI = ( ±10%)
L/D
was designed to help compensate for the decreased
flux density at the ends of the part.
When using coils and calculating amperages, the where:
number of turns in the coil, the location of the part K = 45 000 ampere turns,
within the coil (edge or center), the length and L = length of the part, and
diameter (cross section diagonal) of the part, the D = diameter of the part (measured in the same
radius of the coil and a fill-factor constant must be units as the length).
considered.
Several empirical equations were developed to For parts positioned in the center of the coil:
determine the current values for magnetization.
These rule-of-thumb relationships must be used 2 to 15, inclusive
with caution and should be backed up with another
device such as the hall effect meter. They do not take KR
(Eq. 7) NI = ( ±10%)
into consideration the permeability, part configura- ( D) − 5
6 L /
tions and other factors.
The rule-of-thumb Equation 5 was reduced by
experiment to: where:
R = radius of the coil in millimeters (or inches),
45000 K = 1690 ampere turns per millimeter
(Eq. 5) NI = ( ±10%) (43 000 ampere turns per inch if R is
L/D
measured in inches),
where: L = length of the part, and
N = the number of turns in the coil, D = diameter of the part (measured in the same
I = the current (given in amperes), and units as the length).
L/D = the length-to-diameter ratio of the part to
be magnetized. If the part has hollow portions, replace D with
Deff as in Equations 10 and 11. These formulas hold
Equation 5 can be used to determine ampere only if L/D is 2 to 15 inclusive. If L/D is less than 2,
turns needed for longitudinal magnetization using pole pieces (pieces of ferromagnetic material with
an encircling coil with the part adjacent to the inside the same diameter as the part being inspected) are
surface of the coil. placed on each end of the part to effectively increase
Other equations specified in ASTM E 1444 / L/D to 2 or greater. If L/D is greater than 15, the
E 1444 M are also rule-of-thumb equations. value of 15 shall be substituted for L/D.
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Cable Wrap or High Fill-Factor Coils Calculating the Length-to-Diameter Ratio for a
When the cross-sectional area of the coil is less than Hollow or Cylindrical Part
twice the cross-sectional area (including hollow por- When calculating the length-to-diameter ratio for a
tions) of the part under testing, the product of the hollow or cylindrical part, D shall be replaced with
number of coil turns N and the current in amperes an effective diameter Deff calculated using the
through the coil I shall be as follows: following:
 ( A − Ah ) 
1/2
K
(Eq. 8) NI = ( +10%) (Eq. 10) Deff = 2  t 
(L / D + 2)  π 
where: where:
K = 35 000 ampere turns, At = total cross-sectional area of the part, and
L = length of the part, Ah = cross-sectional area of the hollow portions
D = diameter of the part (measured in the same of the part.
units as the length).
For cylindrical parts, this is equal to the
If the part has hollow portions, replace D with following:
Deff as in Equations 10 and 11. These formulas hold 1/ 2
Deff = ( OD ) − ( ID ) 
2 2
only if L/D is greater than 2 and less than 15. If L/D (Eq. 11)
is less than 2, pole pieces (pieces of ferromagnetic
material with the same diameter as the part being
inspected) shall be placed on each end of the part to where:
effectively increase the L/D to 2 or greater. If the L/D OD = outside diameter of the cylinder, and
is greater than 15, the value of 15 shall be substituted ID = inside diameter of the cylinder.
for L/D.
Intermediate Fill-Factor Coils Permanent Magnets
When the cross-sectional area of the coil is between Permanent magnets are rarely used because the
2 and 10 times the cross-sectional area of the part magnetic field cannot be turned off and on. This
being inspected, the product of the number of turns makes them difficult to properly place and remove,
N and the current through the coil I shall be as especially when high-strength magnets are used.
follows: Also, to obtain the equivalent field strength of an
electromagnet, the permanent magnet would be
 10 − r   r − 2 very heavy and awkward to handle. The placement
NI = ( NI )h   + ( NI )l 
 8 
(Eq. 9)
 8  and use of permanent magnets is the same as
that for alternating current or direct current
yokes. Permanent magnets are used in magnetic
where: flux leakage.
(NI)l = value of NI calculated for low fill-factor
coils, Alternating Current
(NI)h = value of NI calculated for high fill-factor Alternating current is used primarily to detect sur-
coils, and face discontinuities because the depth of penetration
r = ratio of the cross-sectional area of the coil of the magnetic field is very shallow, as illustrated in
to the cross-sectional area of the part. Figures 4.4 and 4.5. Alternating current power is
For example, if the coil is 254 mm (10 in.) excellent for locating fatigue cracks because they
in diameter and the part is a rod 127 mm are always open to the metal’s surface. Note that in
(5 in.) in diameter Figures 4.4 and 4.5 the field at the center of the solid
conductor and at the inside surface of the hollow
r=
(π × 5 )
2
=4 conductor is very low and rises sharply, nonlinearily,

(π × 2.5 ) 2
from the inside of the metal to near the surface.
Near the surface the field rises very rapidly. The field
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strength at the outer surface of the conductor Direct Current

(hollow or solid) is about the same. Direct current is used in stationary units, large
There is no field inside of the hollow conductor. portable units and most yokes, and is used for appli-
The external magnetic field is greatest at the outer cations with prods, clamps, leeches, coils, etc. As
surface and decays with distance from the surface. noted in Chapter 3, direct current can be half-wave
rectified, full-wave rectified or three-phase full-wave
rectified.
B
Solid and Hollow Cylinders
R = Radius
B1 = Maximum field strength When passing current through a part to be magnet-
B2 = Field strength at surface
ized, the magnetic field will be at 90° to the direction
of the current path. The length of the part does not
Field Strength
affect the strength of the circular field, but a larger

B1
diameter will decrease the field strength at the sur-
face; therefore, to maintain the same flux density at
surface, higher current must be used as the diameter
B2 or cross section is increased. The current density J in
r a conductor is equal to the amperage I divided by
R the cross-sectional area of the part (section being
Distance
magnetized). If the cross-sectional area is increased,
current density decreases and magnetic flux density
decreases. To maintain a constant flux density, the
amperage must be increased as the cross-sectional
area is increased.
Because of the field-concentrating effects of
Figure 4.4: Magnetic field distribution in ferromagnetic permeability, the field strength is much
magnetic material using alternating current greater within a magnetic conductor carrying
(solid material). current as compared to a nonmagnetic conductor.
B
R = Radius
B = Field strength at surface
Bs/2 = Field strength at 2R, etc.
R = Radius
Field Strength
Field Strength
B1 = Maximum field strength

B2 = Field strength at surface
B1
Bs/2
B2 Bs Bs/3
r
R Distance
r
R 2R 3R
Distance
Figure 4.5: Magnetic field distribution in ferro- Figure 4.6: Field distribution in and around a
magnetic material using alternating current solid magnetic conductor carrying direct current.
(hollow material). 2R from the center of the field will be B/2, etc.
22
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B
R = Radius B
Field strength at surface (B)
Field Strength
Field Strength
Bs/2
Bs/3
B/2
B B/3 r
R 2R 3R
r
Distance
2R 3R
R R = Radius
Distance
B2/2 = Field strength at 2R, etc.
Figure 4.7: Field distribution in and around a hol- Figure 4.8: Field distribution in and around a
low magnetic conductor carrying direct current. solid nonmagnetic conductor carrying direct
2R from the center of the field will be B/2. current.
Figures 4.6 and 4.7 represent the field strength in

B
solid and hollow magnetic conductors carrying
direct current. Remember that the field strength out-
side the conductor is the same for both solid and Field strength at surface (B)
Field Strength
hollow cylinders, and it will also be the same as the

field strength outside nonmagnetic conductors. The
field strength will be 0 at the center of the solid con- Bs/2
ductor and at the inside surface of the hollow con- Bs/3
ductor. There is no field inside the hollow area of the
conductor. r
2R 3R
R
Nonmagnetic Material Distance
Figures 4.8 and 4.9 represent the field distribution in
R = Radius
and around solid and hollow nonmagnetic conduc- B = Field strength at surface
tors. Nonmagnetic conductors are used as central B2/2 = Field strength at 2R, etc.
conductors for some hollow parts and, therefore, the
external field is of primary importance. The external
field will be the same for both solid and hollow con- Figure 4.9: Field distribution in and around a
ductors, but in both cases the field must be calculat- hollow nonmagnetic conductor carrying direct
ed from the center of the cylinder. If the radius of the current.
bar is R and the field at the surface is B, then the field
at a distance 2R from the center will be B/2, as
shown. space between the central conductor and the part, a,
b. If the part were not present, the field of the central
Central Conductor Carrying Direct Current conductor would follow the path b, c, d. However,
As shown in Figure 4.10, a magnetic field in the cen- with a part surrounding the central conductor, the
tral conductor will rise from 0 at the center on the field will rise sharply to a maximum at e, at the
conductor to a maximum, a, at the outer surface of inside surface of the part. The field will then drop
the central conductor. It will drop slightly in the through the part to an intensity of f. Immediately
23
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R = Radius
B e B1 = Field at surface of conductor
B2 = Field at outer surface of specimen
B
Peak flux density at
f bar surface
Direct current flux density

Field Strength
Field Strength
inside solid bar
a
b Alternating current flux

distribution inside solid bar
c
B1
B2
d
0
0 2R 3R Distance from center of bar = r
Test R r R
specimen Distance P
I= × 1000
π Steel bar
Central conductor
Figure 4.10: Field distribution in and around a Figure 4.11: Field distribution in and around a
hollow magnetic cylinder with central conductor solid magnetic conductor carrying alternating
carrying direct current when perfectly centered. current.
outside the part surface the intensity will drop

sharply to c. From this point the field external to the
part will follow the same path of the central conduc- B
tor field if the part were not present, c to d. The path
Peak flux density at
0, a, b, c, d in Figure 4.10 is similar to Figure 4.8. bar surface
In Figure 4.10, the path f, c, d, is similar to the path
outside the part in Figure 4.6. Direct current flux density
Field Strength
inside hollow bar

Field Distribution for Alternating Current
Conductors Alternating current flux
Up to this point, all field strength and distribution distribution inside hollow
bar
curves shown have been for either alternating cur-
rent or direct current. Most of these rules will not
hold true for both types of magnetizing current.
Alternating current tends to flow near the surface of
Distance from center of bar = r
a conductor, which is a phenomenon known as the R
skin effect. The field distribution curves for solid and
hollow magnetic conductors carrying both alternat- Steel bar
ing current and direct current are shown in Figures
4.11 and 4.12. Alternating current provides a much
greater field density in the outer layers of the con-
ductor, but the field strength outside the conductor
is exactly the same as when direct current is used as Figure 4.12: Field distribution in and around a
the magnetizing force. The difference is that the hollow magnetic conductor carrying alternating
alternating current is constantly varying, both in current.
strength and direction.
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Other Symmetrical Shapes

Field strength at center
The direction of a magnetic field is quite predictable of each face = B
Field strength at
as long as the item being magnetized is constant and corner = B/2
symmetrical in cross section, such as a square, a ring
or a disk. When magnetizing shapes other than solid
rent rt
or hollow round objects, configuration and cross t cur of pa
Direc l e ngth
section must be considered. For example, a magnetic g h
throu
particle testing inspection on a square bar will
require more amperage than the same test on a X mm (in.)
round bar. The magnetic field in the square bar is
greatest along the center of the face and drops to
about half that value on the long corner. The field
distribution is uniform on the curved surface of the X mm (in.)
round bar. Because of this, the diameter of the part is
taken as the greatest distance between any two
points on the outside circumference of the part, as rent t
c t cur f par
shown in Figure 4.13. D i r e
l e n gth o
gh
Also, as shapes become more complex, it may be throu
extremely difficult or impossible to predict the field
intensity in specific areas. For complex-shaped parts,
measuring devices are used to determine the mag- Field strength on entire
netic field intensity in specific areas. curved surface = B
If the square bar in Figure 4.13 is 50 mm (2 in.)
per side, the diagonal dimension is 71 mm (2.82 in.).
Figure 4.13: Field strength versus current. The diameter of the
If the square bar is circularly magnetized with direct
part is taken as the greatest distance between any two points
current, the 1000 A per 25 mm (1 in.) rule would on the outside circumference of the part.
require 2820 A to magnetize a 50 mm (2 in.) square
bar with a 71 mm (2.82 in.) diagonal. A 50 mm
(2 in.) round bar would require only 2000 A for
magnetization because its diagonal is 50 mm (2 in.).
Another approach to determining the current surface-oriented condition, as Figures 4.4 through
needed for magnetizing irregularly shaped bars 4.12 show; therefore, if the surface for the same
requires the comparison of the perimeter of the cross-sectional area is doubled, the surface magnetic
cross section of the bar with a bar having the same field (and hence the magnetizing current) should be
diameter. If the cross-sectional perimeter of the bar in the same ratio.
in Figure 4.13 is 483 mm (19 in.) the diameter of a The study that yielded this approach included
round bar with a 483 mm (19 in.) circumference is surface flux density measurements that closely
483 mm (19 in.)/3.1416 = 154 mm (6 in). This sug- approximated the expected flux. Using this
gests that a 5000 A current is adequate. Using the approach, Equation 12 gives an approximation of the
perimeter approach, the equivalent diameter for current required for direct contact magnetization of
a 50 mm (2 in.) square bar would be 200 mm oddly shaped uniform cross sections:
(8 in.)/3.1416 = 64 mm (2.5 in.), which is reasonably
P
close to the 72 mm (2.8 in.) diagonal. A flat bar (Eq. 12) I= × 1000
having the same area of 100 mm2 (4 in.2) could be π
13 mm × 200 mm (0.5 in. × 8 in.). The perimeter of where:
this bar is 432 mm (17 in.). The diameter of a round I = magnetizing current, in amperes direct
bar with a 432 mm (17 in.) circumference is current,
432 mm (17 in.)/ 3.1416 = 137 mm (5.4 in.). Thus, P = perimeter of cross section, in inches,
to magnetize a square bar with a 100 mm2 (4 in.2) p = 3.1416.
cross-sectional area would require about 2500 A,
whereas a flat bar with the same cross-sectional area A single part with multiple sections of different
could require more than twice that current. This diameters requires that different magnetizing current
approach is based on the fact that magnetism is a levels be selected for each section. The section
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requiring the least amperage should be magnetized Rings

and evaluated first. The section requiring the next A ring is another symmetrical shape that can be
highest amperage should be magnetized and evalu- magnetized both in the circular direction and in the
ated next and so on. If the highest amperage section longitudinal direction. The directions of flux for
is magnetized and evaluated first, all smaller sections rings reflect a different concept than for a bar. Con-
requiring less amperage would be overmagnetized, ceptually, a ring is a bar bent into a circle. The longi-
resulting in false indications and other problems. If tudinal flux along the length of the bar now travels
the largest section must be magnetized first, the part around the bent bar to form the circle.
must be demagnetized between magnetizing opera- Another concept is that the ring is a slice cut
tions. This can be very time consuming and can from a hollow cylinder, as shown in Figure 4.14. The
cause problems in other areas. longitudinal flux in a ring flows around the circle in
the same direction as the circular field flows in the
cylinder. Therefore, to produce longitudinal magne-
tization in a ring, it is magnetized using a through
central conductor. This can be used for nuts, bearing
races, washers, etc.
Central Test articles It is often desirable to have a longitudinal field in
conductor a large ring; however, because of size and weight it is
not feasible to use a central conductor. One alternate
technique is to place it in a coil with the ring in a
plane perpendicular to the plane of the coil. As
shown in Figure 4.15, the field will flow along two
sides of the ring in a longitudinal direction. In this
Magnetic field
Central
conductor Test
articles
Figure 4.14: A ring as a slice of a cylinder.

Magnetizing
Defects current
Coil
Figure 4.16: Direct technique for magnetizing
Current rings.
Magnetic field
Circular
discontinuities Magnetic
field
Radial
discontinuities
Current
flow
direction
Test
article
Figure 4.15: A ring magnetized in a coil. Figure 4.17: Longitudinal magnetization of rings.
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Primary magnetic
instance, the ring must be rotated 90° to evaluate the field
other two quadrants. A 60° rotation and three sepa- Magnetizing coil
rate inspections is preferred. Induced eddy
One technique for obtaining a circular field in a currents
ring is by the direct magnetizing method of flow-
ing the current through the ring as a conductor.
Figure 4.16 shows a ring clamped between two Defects
in parts
contacts with the current flowing around each side
of the ring. For complete magnetization, the ring
should be rotated at least 90°. Two additional mag-
Toroidal magnetic field
netizations (three total), rotating the part 60° for Magnetizing
each subsequent magnetization, are recommended. current Iron core
One way to induce a longitudinal field into a
Figure 4.18: Induced current technique of magnetizing
large ring is to wrap a cable coil around the ring.
ring-shaped parts.
This allows a high flux density to be created in the
ring, because the cable coil can have a number of
turns. Figure 4.17 shows the flow of the current and Head
flux in a ring with a wrapped coil. This technique is
often applied on large ring forgings. Several magne-
tizations are required to completely magnetize and Bath
test the ring.
Field
Rings also can be magnetized in the circular
Current
direction by induced magnetism. Figure 4.18 shows
this technique, using a toroidal magnetic field. This
allows the complete ring to be magnetized in one
operation, depending on the diameter of the ring
and the size of the bar, instead of the two steps Discontinuity
required by the direct contact technique illustrated (a)
in Figure 4.16, which is very susceptible to burns.
Disks
Field
The disk is another symmetrical shape often found Discontinuity
in machinery components such as wheels, gears
and circular saw blades. Conceptually, the disk is
similar to a round flat plate. The through central
conductor, Figure 4.19(a), provides a flux in the
circumferential direction around the disk to locate
radial discontinuities. Using the disk as a conduc- Current
tor, as shown in Figures 4.19(b) and 4.19(c), a flux (b)
is provided across the disk to detect discontinuities
that are generally perpendicular to the radius or
circumferential. For complete magnetization and Field Discontinuity
inspection, the disk must be rotated 90° after the
first shot is inspected, as shown in Figure 4.19(c).
Therefore, the disk would be magnetized
[Figure 4.19(b)], inspected and then rotated 90°
from its original position [Figure 4.19(c)], magnet-
ized and inspected again. The flux crosses the
opposite part (quadrants) of the disk. The toroidal Current
magnetic field can be used for saw blades where Turn
through 90°
contact cannot be made with the saw teeth. Cau- (c)
tion must be exercised to ensure that the bottom
side is wetted with the bath and tested. Figure 4.19: Disk inspection.
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As the cross section or shape of a part becomes on various projections of the part to ensure the
more complex, it becomes increasingly more proper field direction at all locations. To avoid
difficult to predict the probable path of the mag- false indications on parts that have varying
netic field. Complicated shapes may require diameters, the lowest current value should be
experimentation and separate coil magnetization applied first.
13 mm (0.5 in.)
X
C
a b
B 50 mm q f
50 mm
(2 in.) (2 in.)
g h
50 mm 50 mm
(2 in.) 50 mm (2 in.)
c (2 in.) d
152 mm
(6 in.)
A rrent
00
60 ct cu
e
dir
Figure 4.20: Varying field directions. Figure 4.21: Shapes of varying cross sections.
Current Prods
Yoke
Current
Weld
Magnetic
field
(a) (c) Weld
Current Prods
Yoke
Current
Weld
Magnetic
field
(b) (d) Weld
Figure 4.22: Use of yokes and prods.
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In a part shaped like the one in Figure 4.20 that is As the size of the part being magnetized increas-
magnetized in a coil, a longitudinal field will flow es, the simple rules of thumb governing magnetiza-
out into the upset portion of the magnetized bar. tion often become impractical. Rules of thumb
The field will tend to become radial along the sur- should only be used on objects of uniform cylindri-
face B, C. This varying field direction provides cal shape.
advantages and disadvantages in locating disconti- Prods or yokes, as shown in Figure 4.22, are often
nuities. The probable path should always be consid- used to secure high-strength fields without the need
ered when magnetizing an irregularly shaped part. for extremely high currents. For example, to test a
Where the cross section of a part varies greatly, as weld, it is not necessary to magnetize the whole
in Figure 4.21, the 1000 A per 25 mm (1 in.) rule will weldment. The magnetic field set up by a yoke is
not be practical. If the 1000 A rule were used to circu- essentially longitudinal to a line drawn between the
larly magnetize the part in Figure 4.21, the recom- contact points. The magnetic field set up by a pair of
mended current would be unrealistically high. Assum- prods is essentially circular, or perpendicular to a
ing that the distribution of the magnetizing current is line drawn between the contact points, as shown in
uniform over the cross section, the resultant magnetic Figure 4.22.
field distribution will not be uniform. However, using With the yoke positioned as shown in
the 1000 A rule, each 13 mm (0.5 in.) cross-sectional Figure 4.22(a), the magnetic field is perpendicular to
element of the web shown in Figure 4.21 would the axis of the weld. The field set up by the yoke in
require somewhat more than 500 A for proper current Figure 4.22(b) is essentially longitudinal to the axis
density for a total of somewhat more than 2000 A. of the weld. With the prods positioned as shown in
Because current density is uniform through the cross Figure 4.22(c), the magnetization is circular and par-
section of the part, this would indicate a need for allel to the axis of the weld.
8000 A in each of the 1250 mm2 (2 in.2) sections to Regardless of the technique used for establishing
obtain the same current density. Adding 8000 A for the magnetic field, it is essential to know, as near as
each edge and 2000 A for the web, an unrealistically possible, the intensity of the magnetic field in the
high total current of 18 000 A would be required. area of interest. This is especially true when process-
As shown in Figure 4.21, only 6000 A is actually ing parts with complex shapes. Equations can be
required to adequately perform the test on the used as reasonable estimates for simple shapes; how-
I-shaped part. Because the field distribution is not ever, mechanical or electronic devices are required
uniform in a square or rectangle, the field strength at for complex configurations.
the center of the face (web) is more than adequate.
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Review Questions
1. When using a central conductor, placement of the 5. When comparing the magnetic fields surrounding a
cylinder in the field of the central conductor is critical hollow conductor and a solid conductor of the same
because: size, same diameter and with the same current passing
through them, the external magnetic field
a. the magnetic field from the central conductor is surrounding a solid conductor is:
symmetrical.
b. the strength of the magnetic field is greatest at the a. not comparable to that of the hollow conductor.
center of the conductor. b. greater than that of the hollow conductor because
c. the strength of the magnetic field ends halfway there is more metal.
through the length of the central conductor. c. about the same as the hollow conductor field.
d. the central conductor can only carry direct d. nonlinear.
current.
6. The type of magnetization in which current is passed
2. Direct current: directly through the part, thereby setting up a
magnetic field at right angles to the current flow, is
a. cannot be rectified. called:
b. is only available from batteries.
c. cannot be used with the wet particle technique. a. longitudinal magnetization.
d. is used in most stationary units, large portable b. coil magnetization.
units and yokes. c. central conductor magnetization.
d. direct magnetization.
3. When the current is passed through a part, the
magnetic field: 7. Which of the following is false concerning a magnetic
field in and around a hollow conductor as compared
a. is perpendicular to the current flow. to that of a solid conductor of the same outside
b. is uniform for all sections of the part. diameter when both are of the same magnetic
c. current density is uniform in all sections of the material and when the applied current is the same?
part.
d. is parallel to the current flow. a. The field immediately outside the outer surface of
the hollow conductor is greater.
4. The lines of flux or force in a circularly magnetized b. The field gradient inside the hollow conductor is
ferromagnetic bar: steeper.
c. The fields outside the conductors are the same.
a. are aligned through the piece from the south to d. The fields are the same at the center.
the north pole.
b. are aligned through the piece from the north to
the south pole.
c. leave the south pole and enter the north pole.
d. are contained within and around the part.
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8. The field in a section of ferromagnetic pipe that is 13. When a square bar is circularly magnetized, the field
magnetized by a central conductor is strongest at the: strength:
a. ends of the pipe. a. remains uniform through the cross section of the
b. outer surface of the pipe. part.
c. inside surface of the pipe. b. will be greater at the corners, causing false
d. middle of the pipe wall. indications.
c. will be greater at the center of the face on each side
9. When magnetizing a 38 mm (1.5 in.) outside diameter of the square.
tube with a 3 mm (0.13 in.) wall thickness using direct d. is relatively unimportant when selecting the
conduction and direct current at 1500 A, the field proper current.
strength at the internal diameter is:
14. The 1000 A per 25 mm (1 in.) diameter rule can be
a. 0. applied:
b. the same as at the outside diameter.
c. 50 percent of the theoretical field strength. a. only to parts that are to be longitudinally or
d. 100 percent of the theoretical field strength. circularly magnetized.
b. only to solid cylindrical parts that are to be
circularly magnetized.
10. The external magnetic field surrounding a c. only to hollow cylindrical parts that are to be
ferromagnetic conductor is _______ the field circularly magnetized.
surrounding a nonferrous conductor of the same size d. to round, square, rectangular or other shaped
and with the same current. parts if the diagonal dimension is considered.
a. about the same as 15. When calculating the amperage for odd-shaped,
b. greater than (because there is more metal) nonsymmetrical parts, consideration must be made
c. not comparable to for:
d. nonlinear to
a. cross section and length.
11. The magnetic field at the surface of a conductor b. cross section and configuration.
carrying alternating current is _______ the field in a c. configuration and past magnetic history.
conductor carrying direct current. d. past magnetic history of the part.
a. about the same as 16. In Figure 4.17 the magnetic flux in the 75 mm (3 in.)
b. greater than diameter bar forming the ring is being magnetized
c. not comparable to in the:
d. nonlinear to
a. longitudinal direction.
12. A cylindrical part is to be inspected using circular b. circular direction.
magnetization. The part has three different diameters c. clockwise direction.
along its length. A rule of thumb for current values for d. counterclockwise direction.
each diameter provides three current levels. The
current value that should be applied first: 17. When a yoke is used, as in Figure 4.22(a), the resulting
magnetic field is:
a. is the highest value.
b. is the median value. a. a circular field.
c. is the lowest value. b. a longitudinal field.
d. does not matter. c. dependent on placement of the contacts.
d. direct magnetization.
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Figure 4.23: Ring magnetization. Figure 4.24: Disk magnetization.
18. A bar that is 50 mm (2 in.) by 100 mm (4 in.) by 22. In Figure 4.24, a disk is being magnetized. The disk is
305 mm (12 in.) is being magnetized in the circular made of a plate 25 mm (1 in.) thick and the diameter
direction. The amperage required using the perimeter is 133 mm (5.3 in.). The amount of current required
approach is: for circular magnetization is:
a. 2200 A.
a. 6000 A.
b. 4500 A. b. 4000 A.
c. 3800 A. c. 8000 A.
d. 5300 A. d. 2000 A.
19. Figure 4.23 shows a ring formed from 75 mm (3 in.) 23. When conceptualizing a ring as a slice cut from a
diameter bar stock. The ring is 419 mm (16.5 in.) in hollow cylinder and a central conductor is used, the:
diameter. The current required to magnetize the ring
is (use equations in Chapter 4): a. longitudinal flux in a ring flows around the circle
in the same direction as the longitudinal field
a. 1000 A. flows in the cylinder.
b. 3000 A. b. circular flux in a ring flows around the circle in the
c. 5500 A. same direction as the circular field flows in the
d. 16 500 A. cylinder.
c. longitudinal flux in a ring flows around the circle
20. In Figure 4.23, the type of magnetism being applied to in the same direction as the circular field flows in
the ring is: the cylinder.
d. circular flux in a ring flows around the circle in the
a. direct circular. same direction as the longitudinal field flows in
b. indirect circular. the cylinder.
c. direct longitudinal.
d. indirect longitudinal. 24. The recommended amperage range per
25 mm (1 in.) of diameter generally used for circular
21. One disadvantage of using a permanent magnet for magnetization of parts using a direct current source
magnetic particle testing inspections is that: is:
a. permanent magnets of practical size provide a. 500 to 700 A.

relatively low magnetic flux levels. b. 800 to 1000 A.
b. permanent magnets are portable and handy to c. 1200 to 1400 A.
use. d. the maximum available to ensure total
c. permanent magnets require no electrical power. magnetization.
d. permanent magnets can induce flux fields with
easily controlled flux densities.
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25. How many turns of a coil will be needed to establish a 27. A five-turn coil will be used on a part that is 457 mm
longitudinal field in a steel shaft that is 229 mm (9 in.) (18 in.) long and 38 mm (1.5 in.) in diameter. What is
long with 75 mm the length-to-diameter ratio of the part if 5000 A of
(3 in.) diameter? A magnetizing current of 3000 A is magnetizing current is used?
available and it is desired to magnetize the part in
accordance with the formula NI = 45 000/(L/D). a. 90
b. 12
a. 1 c. 16.5
b. 3 d. 1.8
c. 5
d. 7 28. The best type of current for detecting fatigue cracks
is:
26. How many ampere turns are required to
magnetize a part that is 406 mm (16 in.) long and 50 a. half-wave direct current.
mm (2 in.) in diameter? b. alternating current.
c. direct current.
a. 9000 ampere turns d. permanent magnet.
b. 5625 ampere turns
c. 2812 ampere turns
d. 40 ampere turns
ANSWERS
1a 2d 3a 4d 5c 6d 7a 8c 9a 10a 11a 12c
13c 14d 15b 16a 17b 18c 19c 20a 21a 22b 23c 24b
25c 26b 27b 28b
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Chapter 5
Magnetic Field Direction and Intensity
Direction and Intensity Pie Gages
The direction and intensity of a magnetic field are The pie gage was developed in Germany to indicate
very important in determining if discontinuities can the direction of a magnetic field; it is not a good
be detected. If the field intensity is too low or the quantitative indicator of field strength. The actual
direction is incorrect, indications will not be formed. residual field in ferromagnetic material will be less
If the field intensity is too high, nonrelevant indica- than when the current is flowing. In nonferromag-
tions may be formed that could mask relevant indi- netic parts the magnetic field is 0 when the current is
cations and increase the examination time needed to not flowing. In both instances an indication will
evaluate the nonrelevant indications. Because there is show on the pie gage.
no practical way to measure the actual strength or The pie gage is fabricated from eight pieces of
direction of the internal magnetic field (the magnet- very low-retentitivity ferrous material that are
ic field within the part), it is necessary to evaluate shaped like pie slices. The pieces are brazed together
the features of the external magnetic field. Any and attached to a handle as shown in Figure 5.1. The
device inserted into the part to measure the internal braze lines are discontinuities between the wedge
field produces a discontinuity and the field meas- sections. When the pie gage is placed against a part
ured is essentially an external field in a gap. There- being magnetized, indications are formed on the
fore, all devices used to determine internal field copper plating or shim. The brazed section showing
strength measure the external field. Of all the devices the strongest indication is the one that is most per-
available, the hall effect device comes the closest to pendicular to the magnetic flux.
measuring the actual internal field.
External Magnetic Field Eight low-carbon steel pie sections

furnace-brazed together and copper plated
Measurement
External fields produced by a magnetized part are
evaluated by one of the following devices: field indi-
cators, pie gages, shims, hall effect meters or other
19.1 to 25.4 mm
devices. Because these devices are affected solely by
(0.75 in. to 1 in.)
the external field surrounding the magnetized
object, ferromagnetic and nonferromagnetic fields
are indicated as the current is flowing. These devices
are used extensively when developing technique
cards and sparingly for verification purposes for
each setup. Nonferrous handles of
convenient length and shape
Field Indicators
Field indicators are small handheld devices used to 0.79 mm Nonferrous trunions
measure the external residual field after demagneti- (1/32 in. max)
zation. They normally read in tesla (gauss) and are Copper shim
reasonably accurate to 0.002 T (20 G). Field indica- 3 mm
tors normally read from ±0.001 T (0 to ±10 G) or (0.125 in.)
±0.002 T (0 to ±20 G).
Figure 5.1: Pie gage.
35
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A A B B C C
Section A-A Section B-B Section C-C
Figure 5.2: Basic shim configuration (AS 5371).
Pie gages are placed flat on the section of the Hall Effect/Tesla Meter
part being magnetized. The current and solution In the early 1900s, Edwin Hall noticed that some
are applied in the normal manner and the indica- materials developed a potential difference VH at right
tions formed at the junction between the pie sec- angles to both the current I passing through the
tions are observed. The field direction is roughly material and an externally applied magnetic field B
90° to the strongest indications. The residual field (Figure 5.3). This production of an electromotive
in the pie gage is not a measure of the residual field force within a conductor or semiconductor through
in the part, nor is it a measure of the part’s field which a current is flowing when there is a strong trans-
intensity. The pie gage must be demagnetized fol- verse magnetic field is the hall effect. An element react-
lowing each use. ing in this manner is the heart of the hall effect probe
or tesla meter (previously known as a gauss meter).
Shims The hall device is a very effective technique for
These devices are thin, low-retentivity ferromagnetic measuring the tangential or normal field direction
indicators that have been widely used in Japan for and intensity when magnetizing a part. However,
some time. Use of the shim is growing in the United only tangential or normal field direction and intensi-
States as a result of new fabrication technology, an ty should be measured when determining if the field
impetus for more accurate, easier-to-apply tech- intensity meets the 0.003 T to 0.006 T (30 G to 60 G)
niques and the quest for a more universal indicator. required. The probe is placed on the part perpendi-
Figure 5.2 illustrates three basic notch configura- cular to the part surface. (See ASTM E 1444 / E 1444
tions. The notches illustrated are controlled by Soci- M Annex X3.) It should be understood that this
ety of Automotive Engineers specification AS5371 device measures only the external field that passes
and usage is specified in ASTM E 1444 / E 1444 M. through the element.
The shims are normally bonded or glued to the The relationship of the external field and the
part, with the notches facing the part. Depending voltage generated is given by:
on the method of attachment and the care with
Rh IB3
which they are removed, they may be used more (Eq. 13) VH =
than once. Shims can be used on any part configu- b
ration as long as they can be placed in contact with where:
the surface of the part being magnetized. Several VH = potential difference,
shims can be used at the same time on various sec- I = applied direct current,
tions of the part. These devices are a relatively B = component of applied field at right angle to
good indicator of field strength and a good indica- current (Wb/m2),
tor of direction. b = thickness of hall element in field direction,
Rh = hall coefficient.
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Magnetic Field Direction and Intensity
It can be seen from Figure 5.3 that the face of the

probe must be perpendicular to the field being
VH B B
measured. Positioning is critical. Care must be exer- -
cised when using these devices to ensure that the Volt
probe (element) is perpendicular to the magnetic meter
B
flux of the part and on the surface of the part. This f
may require repositioning the probe to ensure prop- +I -
er field orientation and a strength of 0.003 T to v
0.006 T (30 G to 60 G).
Other Devices E + Semiconductor
element
Other devices that can be used to measure external
+ -
fields are similarly configured parts with discontinu-
ities in critical locations, other shim configurations,
Battery
magnetometers and flux meters. None are common-
ly used. Figure 5.3: Hall effect circuit that detects magnetic field strength
intensity and field direction.
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Review Questions
1. An estimate of the direction and intensity of the 4. A hall effect meter is used to:
magnetic field is NOT determined by:
a. show the direction of current flow.
a. the pie gage. b. show field direction and intensity.
b. shims. c. set the unit’s timing device.
c. hall effect meter (tesla meter). d. show that the particle concentration level is
d. a field indicator. acceptable.
2. The pie gage: 5. Shims are to be used:
a. was developed by Edward Hall and measures a. with the smooth side adjacent to the part.
potential voltage differences. b. with the grooved side adjacent to the part.
b. provides an indication of the direction for a c. with either the smooth or the grooved side
magnetic field. adjacent to the part.
c. provides a good indcation of field strength. d. when all other devices will not work.
d. is fabricated with high-retentitivety ferrous
material.
3. Shims are small, thin devices used to:
a. ensure good contact between the head plates and

the part.
b. separate parts on a central conductor to keep them
from touching the conductor.
c. determine if particles are still acceptable.
d. indicate field direction and strength.
ANSWERS
1a 2b 3d 4b 5b
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Chapter 6
Magnetic Particle Testing Equipment
Introduction
inspections where there is no available electric power
The best source of data about specific test equipment and in explosive environments where only special
is from the equipment supplier. Data also can be electrical equipment can be used. A wet technique
obtained from equipment shows, industry specifica- with a squeeze bottle or spray can of particles is gen-
tions and military specifications. The ASNT NDT erally used in conjunction with permanent magnets.
Level III should evaluate specification sheets careful- Yokes are normally used on small localized areas
ly to determine what equipment is needed to satisfy and are not recommended for general inspection
the employer’s quality requirements. applications.
Portable Equipment Electromagnetic Yokes
Portable power supplies are manufactured as small The electromagnetic yoke is a practical item with
units that can be carried by hand and as larger units many applications. Its use is rapidly expanding,
(mobile units) that are normally attached to wheels especially for field inspections and where small areas
and pushed or towed from place to place. of large parts are inspected. Yokes create a field pri-
Stationary and portable power supplies (except marily along a line between the poles (Figure 4.22).
for permanent magnets) are designed to produce They are safe for use on heat-treated parts because
low voltage and high current. Ohm’s law shows the they will not burn the test surface. Yokes provide
relationship of current and voltage, as follows: either alternating current or alternating current/half-
wave direct current output from 120 V or 240 V
alternating current single-phase. The direct current
(Eq. 14) V = IR
yoke is useful for weld inspection because it provides
adequate penetration with either half-wave direct
where: current or pulsed direct current. Electromagnetic
I = current (amperes), yokes can be used with either dry or wet particle
V = voltage (volts), techniques. Most yokes are also equipped with alter-
R = resistance (ohms). nating current, which can be used for either demag-
netization with dry particle techniques or for alter-
Therefore, the total circuit resistance—cables, nating current inspection. Some yokes have
connectors, etc.—must be very low. External cables articulated legs that can be adjusted to change the
act as resistors and cause line voltage drop, which is distance between the legs, which varies the flux den-
measured in ohms per meter (feet). The longer the sity. Such articulation also provides an adjustment to
cable, the more resistance that exists and less amper- fit complex shapes. For maximum effectiveness the
age is available for magnetizing the part. Alternating legs must be in good contact with the part.
current coiled and crossed cables act as inductors An auxiliary unit that is sometimes used with
and further reduce current flow. Therefore, it is yokes is a preformed coil molded in rubber. The
advisable to keep the cable as short as practical. At yoke and coil are supplied either individually or in a
low resistance levels, all terminals must be clean and kit, which includes a carrying case with room for
tight. spray cans, dry powder, towels and other small, use-
ful items.
Permanent Magnet Yokes
Permanent magnet yokes are infrequently used dur- Prods
ing magnetic particle testing inspections. Their field Prods that apply current to the metal surface are typ-
strength is low when compared to that of an electro- ically 19 mm (0.75 in.) diameter copper bars that are
magnetic yoke. They are valuable for performing 152 mm to 203 mm (6 in. to 8 in.) long to which a
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handle and cable are fastened. One prod has a trig- alternating current output is used, the cables should
ger switch that applies the current. Materials that are be kept at least 457 mm (18 in.) apart to minimize
heat treated to high strength and materials with very impedance losses resulting from mutual induction.
smooth or bright finishes should not be inspected The cables should not form loops or coils because
with prods because of the possibility of arcing or large drops in line voltage will occur due to imped-
burning. ance losses.
The surface of the prod tip should be inspected The small portable power supply can be carried
frequently and all scale and pits should be removed by hand and operates on either 120 V or 240 V cir-
with a file. The tips should always be bright, which cuits. Depending on the model, these units provide
reduces arcing to a minimum and provides a maxi- up to 1500 A of half-wave direct current or alternat-
mum, low-resistance contacting area. Dual prods, in ing current magnetizing power. Output of the small-
which both prods are mounted on a single handle, er units are normally rated with 4.5 m (15 ft) of 0000
are also available. A dual prod allows the inspector to cable. Longer or smaller diameter cables are more
hold both prods with one hand while the other is resistive and, therefore, reduce the amperage avail-
free to apply powder or wet suspension. The dual able for magnetizing the part.
prod is most frequently used on weld inspections. These portable units can be handled by one per-
son climbing up a ladder and will fit through a U.S.
Coils Navy specification manhole. They are designed to be
Coils are cables wrapped around the test part. They used with flexible cables attached to prods, clamps,
can be preformed or made with flexible cables. Wet central conductors or preformed coils. Also, the
horizontal magnetic units normally have a pre- portable power supplies can be used with a small
formed, copper bar enclosed with a nonferromag- bench to provide an inexpensive horizontal unit that
netic material. These coils are normally five turns. can be used with either wet or dry particles.
Cables wrapped around the part are made with the
number of turns required to produce the proper flux Mobile Power Supplies
density while using a minimum amount of cable. Because of their weight, the larger mobile units are
Amperage is normally expressed in amperes or mounted on wheels and are towed or rolled where
ampere turns. Ampere turns is the magnetizing cur- needed. These units normally operate on 240 V or
rent as shown on the amp meter, times the number 480 V alternating current circuits and provide both
of turns. For example, 3000 ampere turns can be alternating current and half-wave direct current out-
obtained with a three-turn coil carrying 1000 A or a put up to 6000 A. Mobile units are rated for their
five-turn coil carrying 600 A. Normally the wraps maximum output using, normally, 9 m (30 ft) of
are kept as close together as possible. 0000 cable. Longer or smaller diameter cables are
more resistive and reduce the amperage available
Other Devices for magnetizing the part. These units can be used
Current is also applied using other devices such as with modular bench units, but it is not a common
magnetic contacts (leeches) and spring or screw practice.
clamps, when an edge is available. These devices are Where mobile power supplies are to be used, a
used for special applications and are usually used survey of the power receptacles throughout the facili-
with a portable or mobile power supply. ty should be made to ensure they are properly located,
adequate in size and all of a standard configuration.
Portable Power Supplies
Portable power supplies require cables and contact Ancillary Equipment
devices to apply the power for magnetization. The Portable kits include spray cans of magnetic particle
cables used are normally 00 (2/0) extra flexible and aerosol suspensions, powder blower bulbs and dry
0000 (4/0) extra flexible cable with connectors cov- powder. Solvents and other cleaning materials are
ered with rubber. The 0000 cables are recommended also included in most portable kits.
to carry the current from the machine to the inspec- Magnetic rubber kits are commercially available.
tion area; 00 cables can then be used to form coils or In addition to all of the necessary supplies and
be attached to the prods. Generally, a maximum of equipment, they contain molding clay for making
about 9 m (30 ft) of cable length can be used with a dams around a test area, and magnetizing yokes with
power supply and still provide current within 100 A adjustable current input.
to 150 A of its maximum rated output. When
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Heavy-Duty Equipment alternating current, half-wave direct current or full-

Stationary equipment is usually referred to as heavy wave direct current. Demagnetizers are provided on
duty because of its size and output capabilities. all units (either standard or optional) and may be
Power supplies, bench equipment, multidirectional alternating current, reversing direct current or both,
units, automatic units and special purpose units are depending on the model. These units may also have
all manufactured in heavy-duty styles. magnetizing capability using contact heads, coils
and proprietary circuits for both conventional and
Power Supplies multidirectional magnetization.
A large range of heavy-duty power supplies that gen- The switch gear provides for quick changes from
erate up to 20 000 A full-wave direct current output alternating current to direct current, from magnetize
can be purchased. These types of units have an input to demagnetize and from contact to coil. The shot
of 240/480 V three-phase alternating current power timer is typically adjustable from 0.5 s to 1.0 s,
with an input current of 100 A per phase or more. though it is usually set between 0.6 s and 0.9 s. Be-
They can be used for cable inspection in the normal cause the timing device used to calibrate the timer
manner and provide a basic power supply that can has an accuracy of ±0.1 s, it is bypassed when a prod
be shared with a number of automatic units or spe- control switch is plugged into the remote control
cial application magnetizers. These units are used receptacle.
primarily with large stationary and special equip- Some magnetizing controls provide multiposi-
ment designed to test large, heavy parts. tion switches to taps on the autotransformer (tap
Personnel with the responsibility to purchase a switch). Others have a continuous control system
large power supply should be sure that the proposed (rheostat) that uses saturable reactors. Cables can be
work area has a sufficient power source with the used with stationary equipment by placing a non-
proper phase, voltage and capacity. conductive spreader between the head contact plates,
and bolting cables to copper contacts on each end of
Bench Equipment the spreader. Most stationary machines are equipped
Bench machines are designed to be used primarily with a receptacle into which a remote switch can be
as wet, general purpose equipment. They are rugged plugged. The remote switch circuit bypasses the shot
production machines that are especially useful for timer and provides continuous operation as long as
batch lots where a fully automatic machine is not the switch is closed.
economical. The bench machine consists of a tank
that collects and holds the magnetic suspension and Multidirectional Units
a pump that recirculates the suspension and delivers Multidirectional units are basically wet horizontal
it to a hose at bench level. Down the center of the units that are specially designed to produce circular
table top is a double rail that supports the movable and longitudinal fields in the part at the same time.
tailstock and a prewrapped coil. The tailstock can be Because magnetization is critical, the fields must be
locked at any location. The headstock is usually air- balanced and, normally, special coils are used. Multi-
operated to provide a solid contact between the directional units use full-wave direct current, half-
electrodes and the part. Either a bar mounted on wave direct current and alternating current and are
the front of the unit or a foot switch is provided to equipped with reversing, decaying direct current and
operate the headstock. This frees the operator’s decaying alternating current for demagnetization.
hands to hold parts as they are clamped between Output ranges up to 20 000 A are available for stan-
the heads. The coils on the bench machine usually dard units and higher amperage is available for spe-
have five turns and can be purchased in a variety cial units.
of sizes. To accommodate a variety of test objects,
the coil can be positioned anywhere along the Automatic Units
center track. Automatic magnetic particle testing units are
The electrical system of the bench machine is special purpose machines designed for the mass
also very versatile with many options that can be inspection of identical items. Some automatic
selected. Input power required is 220 V or 440 V units can be adjusted to handle similar items of
alternating current and either single-phase or three- different dimensions. One of the most important
phase depending on the model. These units may reasons for using an automatic machine is that it
require 100 A or more per phase, depending on the will provide the correct test in a reproducible
desired output. For magnetizing, the output can be fashion.
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Before an automatic machine is ordered, the The electromagnetic spectrum defines radiant
configuration of the part should be available in the energy by wavelengths from several meters long
final design stage. The type of material and the (very long) to waves millionths of a millimeter long
critical, high-stress areas must be known and the (very short). For convenience, this spectrum is
manufacturing technique determined. A prototype divided into several regions including long and short
part is necessary for a demonstration of the radio waves, microwaves (radar waves), infrared
machine. waves, visible waves, ultraviolet waves, long and short
The visual inspection for magnetic particle X-rays, gamma rays and cosmic rays as shown in
testing indications obtained with automatic Figure 6.1.
machines is still primarily accomplished by inspec- The term light normally refers to the small por-
tors. There are some machines that have been tion of the electromagnetic spectrum that includes
developed for special applications that provide infrared (below red), visible and ultraviolet (above
fully automated inspections, including analyses of violet). The human eye can detect only the visible
the detected indications. These systems use differ- portion of the spectrum—red through violet.
ent lighting and viewing systems that incorporate Infrared and ultraviolet are included in the light
photocells connected to scanning mirrors. Where spectrum because electromagnetic frequencies in
very small discontinuities are to be detected, some these regions react primarily the same to optical
scanners use a laser for illumination. devices as visible light. Longer frequencies (micro-
Maintenance of automatic machines is an impor- waves and radio waves) do not react in the same
tant consideration. While the magnetizing units are manner to transparent optical devices. Shorter fre-
quite rugged, automatic mechanisms require special- quencies (X-rays and gamma rays) penetrate these
ized maintenance. If at all possible, an inhouse main- devices without reaction. Radiation in infrared, visi-
tenance capability is desirable because the automatic ble and ultraviolet ranges are normally measured in
system is usually a unique machine. Inspection per- nanometers.
sonnel rely on automatic systems to handle high Frequencies at the bottom end of red are about
production volumes and when automatic systems 720 nm and the upper end of violet is about 400 nm.
become inoperative, total production capability can Ultraviolet ranges from about 290 nm to 400 nm,
be lost. which is a much longer region than visible light.
The ultraviolet region, divided according its
Special Purpose Units effect on the skin includes: near field, 320 nm to
Special purpose units may be manual, automatic or 400 nm (UV-A); intermediate field, 290 nm to
semiautomatic machines. They are designed for one 320 nm (UV-B); and far field, 230 nm to 290 nm
specific part or a class of items. The magnetizing sys- (UV-C). The portion of the ultraviolet range that
tem and handling devices are designed for specific inspection lights transmit is the near field (UV-A).
material or part configurations. Magnetizing features Though this range is not considered harmful to the
are designed to minimize the handling of large or eyes or skin, and is used clinically to treat vitamin D
heavy parts and provide for sufficient localized flux deficiencies, psoriasis and other skin conditions, it is
density to ensure that critical discontinuities of certain recommended that exposure be limited, especially to
types and sizes are detected. Specialized machines can the eyes.
be designed to control the method and reproducibility
level of the test at specific quality levels. Ultraviolet Light
Ultraviolet lights are used in conjunction with fluo-
Light rescent particles. Ultraviolet lights normally consist
of a high-pressure mercury-vapor lamp, a filter and
Light is of primary importance to the magnetic par- a transformer. The lamp provides high-intensity
ticle testing inspector during the testing process. The light with a wide spectral range that includes several
types of light include visible light, ambient light and spectral lines in the ultravoilet region that peaks at
ultraviolet light. Ultraviolet light and visible light (as 365 nm. The filter limits the light to 320 nm to
applicable) are used during the testing/inspection 400 nm. The transformer supplies power to the lamp.
process. Visible light is used during the evaluation New UV excitation sources are being developed for
process, if needed; ambient and extraneous light are the inspection industry.
undesirable visible light during the inspection The human eye cannot detect radiation in this
process. range. Lamps producing light in this region are
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Figure 6.1: The electromagnetic spectrum.
commonly referred to as fluorescent lights. Some 381 mm (15 in.) from the part surface. The tubular
tubular fluorescent lights produce light in this range lamps used at wash stations do not supply sufficient
and have a uniform intensity. energy.
Fluorescent magnetic particle testing systems The intensity to be used is determined by code
require an ultraviolet light source in the above range or specification. The referencing document is
when using particles with a dye coating that absorbs required to determine correct intensity. Many speci-
light in this region and emits visible light. The dye fications require a minimum intensity of
on the fluorescent magnetic particles readily absorbs 1200 µW/cm2 at the test surface, whereas MIL-
ultraviolet light in the 365 nm range and emits visi- Handbook-333 USAF recommends 1500 µW/cm2.
ble light in the green-yellow range of the visible These recommendations have an economical advan-
spectrum (520 nm to 550 nm). tage because an aging light that is losing its intensity
While the frequency of the exciting source and may be held closer than 381 mm (15 in.) to the test
the emitted light determines the color of the parti- surface and will still produce the proper lighting.
cles, another important consideration involves the With regard to the data in specifications and some
brightness or intensity of the energy radiated by the publications, most inspectors hold the light less than
lamp. The intensity of the emitted light is a function 381 mm (15 in.) from the part for inspections. The
of the intensity of the ultraviolet source. The intensi- intensity of a good ultraviolet light at 127 mm (5 in.)
ty of ultraviolet light is not specified in terms of lux can exceed 5000 µW/cm2 in a dark area.
(footcandles) like visible light and the intensity can- All specifications require a daily inspection of
not be measured with visible light meters because of the filter for cleanliness and integrity (cracks, chips,
the spectral response of the meters. The intensity of etc.). This is an important requirement because
visible light is compared to the light produced by cracked and/or chipped filters may leak visible light
one candle, whereas the intensity of ultraviolet light and dilute the integrity of the evaluation.
is measured in terms of energy. It is also important that the ultraviolet light does
Ultraviolet light meters are calibrated in not emit an excessive amount of visible light. Some
microwatts per square centimeter (µW/cm2). The companies require that the visible light emitted by
radiation-sensing device in both the visible and an ultraviolet light be measured, and limits have
ultraviolet light sensors is basically the same—the been established.
difference is the spectral response. According to The 100 W mercury-vapor lamp bulb used for
ASTM E 1444 / E 1444 M, the intensity level that is inspection is a prefocused spot bulb with a medium
typically used for purchasing and monitoring ultra- screw base. A transformer must be used with this
violet lights used in MT is 1000 µW/cm2 minimum at bulb to provide the proper voltage. A 400 W
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ultraviolet light is available and is good for illuminat- Ambient Light

ing the entire inspection booth to an acceptable Ambient light (background light) should be as low
intensity level. as possible. The maximum acceptable ambient light
for most specifications is 20 lx (2 ftc) at the test sur-
Visible Light face, measured with the ultraviolet light on. A hood-
When using visible dye particles (red, black, etc.) the ed booth in a shop area should have no light leaks
light intensity must be bright enough to see the indi- that would distract the inspector or otherwise inter-
cation but not so bright that glare from the test sur- fere with the inspection process. A small amount of
face or reflections from nearby objects or structures light in the inspector’s line of sight could adversely
interfere with results. Per ASTM E 1444 / E 1444 M, affect the inspector’s eyes or be a distraction.
the normally accepted minimum intensity is 1000 lx
(100 ftc). There is no established maximum. Extraneous Light
Also per E 1444, visible light (1000 lx[100 ftc]) is Light from sources such as reflections, holes in cur-
required in the area to aid in the evaluation of indi- tains or walls and other sources, must be kept to a
cations when using fluorescent particles. minimum and under no circumstances should they
interfere with the inspection or distract the inspector.
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Review Questions
1. ASNT NDT Level III personnel should be capable of 5. A portable 220 V power supply and a cable wrap
evaluating magnetic particle test equipment for the provide 3000 ampere turns. To provide the same
capabilities that meet their requirements. The best amount of magnetism, a prewound coil with an
source for this data about specific test equipment is output of 120 V at 6 A would require:
from:
a. 27 turns.
a. coworkers. b. 36 turns.
b. the equipment supplier. c. 500 turns.
c. industry specification. d. 720 turns.
d. military specifications.
6. It is normal procedure to use three cable wraps with
2. The primary advantage of a permanent magnet yoke alternating current/direct current portable and mobile
is that it: power supplies for longitudinal magnetization. A 1000
A output machine can provide 5000 ampere turns
a. needs no power. with five wraps using direct current. This capability is
b. is portable. not used because:
c. can be used with the wet continuous method.
d. can be used with the dry continuous method. a. standard practices dictate a maximum of three
turns.
3. Alternating current/direct current yokes designed for b. the cable is usually too short for more than three
6 A on alternating current will require how much turns.
current on direct current? c. the same machine could not be used to
demagnetize the part because the impedance due
a. 6A to the self-induction of a five-turn coil would limit
b. 12 A the alternating current to less than 1000 A.
c. 60 A d. it is not true that a five-turn coil can produce 5000
d. 120 A ampere turns with 1000 A direct current.
4. Some yokes have flexible legs and no input or output 7. Metal that has been heat treated to a high strength
current control. The flux density in the metal being condition and material with a smooth finish should
magnetized with such yokes: NOT be inspected with:
a. cannot be determined by any means. a. cables.

b. depends on the distance between the poles. b. coils.
c. depends on whether the flux density is expressed c. electromagnetic yokes.
in tesla or gauss. d. prods.
d. cannot be changed because the yoke always puts
out the same amount of flux. 8. Heavy-duty power supplies are normally used with:
a. ultraviolet lights.
b. yokes.
c. special purpose equipment.
d. prods.
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9. One of the problems in the use of power supplies and 14. Bench units are designed to be used primarily as:
cables is the line drop produced by the cables. The
resistance of the cables can be minimized by: a. portable units.
b. automated units.
a. coiling the cables to make them shorter. c. wet units.
b. removing all coils and keeping them at least 457 d. 120 V units.
mm (18 in.) apart if alternating current is used.
c. spacing the prods closer together. 15. Automated equipment is designed:
d. using larger coils.
a. for similar parts of different dimensions.
10. Which statement is correct? b. to inspect intermixed multiple configurations.
c. to reduce costs by eliminating an operator.
a. “Shot” refers to the use of a current with high d. for the inspection of noncritical parts.
voltage for a very short period of time.
b. The timer on a bench should have an accuracy of 16. Multidirectional equipment:
± 0.1 seconds.
c. A bench is only using for magnetization of test a. requires the part to be tested between longitudinal
parts. and circular magnetization.
d. A bench can produce only one type of current for b. does not require separate testing between
magnetization. longitudinal and circular magnetization.
c. uses half-wave direct current and full-wave direct
11. The glass filter used with mercury-vapor ultraviolet current only.
lights provides peak transmission nearest: d. cannot be used for demagnetization of parts that
have been magnetized in both directions.
a. 256 nm.
b. 356 nm. 17. When magnetizing with multidirectional equipment:
c. 365 nm.
d. 555 nm. a. the current is applied in both directions at the
same time.
12. For detecting small indications, per ASTM E 1444 / E b. the current must be balanced for both the
1444 M, the commonly recommended minimum longitudinal and the circular magnetizations.
ultraviolet light intensity at the test surface is: c. it is not critical that the fields be balanced.
d. the current must be on when the particles are
a. 900 µW/cm2. applied.
b. 1000 µW/cm2.
c. 2000 µW/cm2. 18. When using an ultraviolet light, ambient light must be
d. 3000 µW/cm2. maintained at:
13. ASTM E 1444 / E 1444 M requires that the white light a. 10 lx (1 ftc) or less.
intensity for testing with visible magnetic particles at b. 20 lx (2 ftc) or less.
the test surface be: c. 0 lx (3 ftc) or less.
d. 40 lx (4 ftc) or less.
a. 900 lx (90 ftc).
b. 1000 lx (100 ftc).
c. 1250 lx (125 ftc).
d. 2000 lx (200 ftc).
ANSWERS
1b 2a 3a 4b 5c 6c 7d 8c 9b 10b 11c 12b 13b
14c 15a 16b 17b 18b
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Chapter 7
Magnetic Particle Testing Materials
Inspection Materials particles must also be used. If the particles are too
Magnetic particle inspection materials consist of the fine they cause false indications or too much back-
particles and, for wet applications, the suspension ground, masking indications. If they are too large,
liquid. Both are critical, must be controlled and must the leakage fields will not hold the particle. In actual
meet the requirements specified in the Aerospace application, the fine globular particles link together
Materials Specifications documents listed in ASTM E to form elongated chains. The best means for pro-
1444 / E 1444 M. They are used dry or mixed in a viding mobility to dry powders is to use pulsating
carrier to form a suspension (carrier plus particles). magnetic fields such as half-wave direct current.
Magnetic Particles Wet Particles
Magnetic particles are very fine ferromagnetic parti- Wet particles should have the same basic properties
cles with low retentivity, low coercive force and as as dry particles, but because they are suspended in a
high a permeability as practical. They are specially light oil, water or other suitable and approved carri-
prepared and dyed to increase contrast and visibility. er, they can be made of even finer powders. The
Multicolored particles are used under visible light smaller particles still link up in chains because of
whereas fluorescent-colored particles are used under their magnetic properties.
ultraviolet light. Particles are supplied in dry powder
form for dry applications. For wet applications, par- Pastes
ticles are mixed in a carrier from a paste or in con- In the past, magnetic particles were milled in oil to
centrates. The properties of magnetic particles that get the proper size and consistency. It was difficult to
affect their ability to form indications are: size break this paste down and work it into a heavy slur-
(dimension), shape (elongated or globular), density ry (without lumps) that could be mixed with the
(weight per unit volume) and magnetic characteris- light distillate carrier. Since the development of dry
tics (permeability and retentivity). powder concentrates, many suppliers no longer pro-
Magnetic particles are just as important as the duce pastes.
proper magnetizing equipment and magnetizing
techniques. Powders that are not sensitive enough Concentrates
are too mobile and will not properly form indica- Magnetic particles used in concentrates are coated
tions. Excessive clumping prevents the magnetic par- with wetting agents that allow them to combine
ticles from moving readily to leakage fields and readily with the carrier. The particles are received in
forming indications. powder form and can be poured directly into the
The advantages and disadvantages of each must tank of the machine at the pump inlet without pre-
be considered depending on the application. The mixing. Some particles can be used in both oil and
ASNT NDT Level III must understand these vari- water if a wetting agent, usually a type of detergent,
ables, be able to choose suitable particles and ensure is added to the water.
that they are providing the desired sensitivity and
reliability. Characteristics and Control of
Dry Particles Magnetic Particles
Dry magnetic particles are required to have the nec- The basic characteristics of magnetic particles are
essary magnetic properties and must be light and size, shape, density, contrast and visibility, and per-
mobile. If powder consists only of elongated parti- meability and retentivity.
cles, it will not be free flowing; therefore, globular
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Size light. When used in a darkened area, it produces very

Magnetic particles are produced in a range of sizes high contrast. The background will not be totally
so they will be attracted to different leakage field dark because the particles suspended in a slurry pro-
strengths, remain in the leakage field and not cause vide a general low level background fluorescence.
false indications. Magnetic particles used in wet sys- This is relatively dim when compared with the
tems range in size from 60 µm to 40 µm (about brightness of an indication. Fluorescent dyes pro-
0.0025 in. to 0.0015 in.). They can be as fine as duce low level background fluorescence because:
0.125 µm (0.000005 in.). 1. The background is covered with a thin coating of
particles that provides a brightness level near the
Shape brightness threshold of the human eye. Higher
The shape of the particle is important. Elongated particle concentrations provide a brighter
particles can have length-to-distance ratios sufficient background.
enough to result in magnetic polarization. Globular 2. The single photon of light from one atom of dye
or spherically shaped particles do not tend to clump can cause other nearby atoms of dye to fluoresce
together because definite poles are not formed and and boost the overall brightness. In a slurry, the
sustained. A mixture of spherical and elongated magnetic particles are relatively farther apart
particles provides adequate mobility and the ability than when clinging to a leakage field, minimizing
to bridge small leakage fields, thus forming visible the boosting effect of proximity.
indications.
Magnetic Permeability and Retentivity
Density The two main characteristics of all ferromagnetic
The density of magnetic particles affects mobility. materials are permeability and retentivity. Permeabil-
The metallic and oxide types of powder are about ity is the ease with which a material can be magnet-
seven times as dense as water; therefore, in water and ized and retentivity is the ability of the material to
oil baths, the particles will settle out if not agitated. If retain residual magnetization.
the viscosity of the carrier is too high the mobility of The hysteresis curves of bulk powder pressed
the particles may be inhibited. Therefore, the combi- into tubular holders is similar to the curve discussed
nation of size, shape and density of the particles in Figure 2.6, Chapter 2, except the loop is almost
combined with the viscosity of the suspending carri- closed. Particles with high retentivity (identified by
er must be considered, as well as the type of magne- open curves) are easily magnetized. Low retentivity
tization used. Light oil carriers are quite compatible (identified by an almost closed loop) allows the par-
with 60 cycle alternating current and the 0.5 s and ticles to be easily removed from the test object
1.0 s interval of the stationary magnetizers. On the because very little magnetization is retained. A dis-
other hand, magnetic rubber, because of its high vis- advantage of low-retentivity particles is that an
cosity, may require 10 min to 30 min of magnetizing indication might slide off a test surface. This is
time. Air-suspended powders can form indications especially true with alternating current magnetiza-
almost immediately because their mobility in air is tion, which leaves so little residual magnetism that
practically uninhibited. strong indications may not be held. To counteract
these conditions, inspections should be performed
Contrast and Visibility during the magnetizing cycle. Sometimes a long
Conditions of high contrast provide the best visibili- magnetizing time is required to complete the
ty for the human eye. Black print against a white inspection.
page is an example of a high contrast system. White Wet red powder builds a larger indication than
and gray powders on the silvery gray of a sand cast- fluorescent powder during the same length of time.
ing are difficult to see, but red powders provide good The slope of the wet red powder hysteresis curve is
contrast. Some forms of iron oxide are naturally steeper than that of fluorescent powder. This indi-
black whereas others are reddish. Some suppliers cates that wet red powder detects magnetic fields
coat their particles with brilliantly colored dyes to faster and has a higher attraction to a leakage field.
provide even better contrast than the natural colors. Also, because the concentration of a visible powder
Particles coated with fluorescent dye provide is about 10 times greater than that of a fluorescent
maximum contrast because the dye, when placed powder, there are 10 times more visible particles
under ultraviolet light, emits visible light. The ultra- near a leakage field that can be attracted to form a
violet light produces very little background visible larger indication.
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The concentration and higher permeability of Color

the visible powder are complementary, which pro- Colors may also be an indication of sulfur content; a
vides a larger indication than is needed for a fluores- Saybolt reading of Plus 25 is recommended for the
cent indication. oil bath.
There is no ultimate magnetic particle testing
method where everything is optimized and the sys- Fluorescence
tem is able to detect a wide range of discontinuities Because most wet suspensions use fluorescent parti-
in steels that have a wide range of magnetic proper- cles and many oils are also naturally fluorescent, an
ties and surface conditions. Magnetic particle testing oil with a low level of natural fluorescence is desir-
requires a combined tradeoff of density, permeabili- able. Oils should be procured in accordance with
ty, retentivity, type of magnetization and magnetiza- AMS 2641, Type I. Type II may be used because the
tion time to develop a workable testing system. only difference in the two is the flashpoint. Type II
A great advantage of the magnetic particle test- has a lower flashpoint and, therefore, burns more
ing process is that techniques can be tailored to meet easily.
a specific set of conditions. Simply by mixing and
matching the different types of magnetic particles, Reactive Constituents
magnetizing techniques and procedures, the inspec- The wet suspension must not react with the materi-
tion capabilities of the method are changed. als being inspected. At the present time, this is not a
great problem with magnetic particle testing.
Characteristics and Control of Contamination
Petroleum Suspensions
Wet suspensions become contaminated with dirt, lint
Oil is the most desirable liquid in which to suspend and oil that is washed off of test parts. The contami-
magnetic particles because it provides good wetting nants are then pumped onto subsequent test parts
for metal parts. However, other characteristics that where they can cause false indications, resulting in
must be considered when using oil are viscosity, increased inspection time. The contaminants can
flammability, odor, color, fluorescence, reactive con- settle out in the settling test, sometimes making it
stituents and contamination. hard to read the exact level of the sediment. Oil con-
taminants can raise the fluorescence of the oil and
Viscosity provide a high background fluorescence during the
For new oil the kinematic viscosity at 38 °C (100 °F) test.
should not exceed 3 mm2/s (3 centistokes) as speci- The oil contaminants can increase the viscosity
fied in AMS 2641. This would provide about of the oil above 3 mm2/s (3 centistokes) at 38 °C
5 mm2/s (5 centistokes) at room temperature which (100 °F).
is the maximum viscosity for good particle mobility.
Flammability Characteristics and Control of
Water Suspensions
Oil suspensions are flowed openly over parts, col-
lected in shallow pans and drained into the mostly Water has become a popular suspension for magnetic
open tanks of stationary magnetizing equipment particles because of the flammability of open tanks
typically used in shop areas. Distillates having a of oil. Even though the development of high flash-
minimum closed cup flashpoint of 57 °C (135 °F) are point materials has greatly reduced this problem,
desirable to provide the lowest practical flammabili- water has remained a popular suspension. When
ty threshold for oils of the desired viscosity. Oils that water was first used as a suspension, it was treated
flash below this minimum also have a low vapor with a detergent that enhanced the surface wetting of
pressure and evaporate more rapidly, which requires the metal and broke down remnant shop oil on the
more frequent replenishment of the oil. surface. An antifoam agent was added to reduce
foaming during pumping. Rust inhibitors were also
Odor incorporated to inhibit corrosion of the test objects
Odorous oils are objectionable to many operators and tanks of the magnetizing equipment.
who must work over the open oil bath all day. Odors Obviously, water suspensions must be used only
can also be an indication of undesirable contami- when the temperature is above freezing. The equip-
nants, such as sulfur. ment must be well grounded because water is a good
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Characteristics and Control of

electrical conductor. Water also evaporates much
faster than suitable oils and should therefore be
Rubber Suspensions
checked daily. A water break test should also be per- Magnetic rubber consists of a two-part synthetic
formed, at least daily, to ensure there is sufficient rubber system. The particles are premixed in the
wetting agent in the suspension. Particles settle out rubber component of the system. Fine black parti-
of water faster than oil primarily because of differ- cles are most commonly used. The directions for
ences in viscosity of the two carriers. mixing the rubber and activator show what propor-
Water suspensions are not necessarily less expen- tions are needed to control the curing time of the
sive than oil suspensions because the additives and rubber. Ambient temperature and humidity can also
constant checking of the water suspension increase affect the curing time of the rubber, so it is difficult
the cost. to determine the exact time needed for curing.
Magnetic rubber is used only one time, so there
is no maintenance of the system. Because the rubber
constituent ages in the can, a large supply should not
be stocked.
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Review Questions
1. Magnetic particles should have: 5. The viscosity of the suspension oil should be as low as
possible to provide mobility to the particles. The
a. asymmetric hysteresis. suspension should be discarded when:
b. low permeability.
c. high retentivity. a. the viscosity equals 3 mm2/s (3 centistokes) at
d. low retentivity. 38 °C (100 °F).
b. the viscosity exceeds 3 mm2/s (3 centistokes) by
2. Which of the following is NOT true? the closed cup test.
c. the viscosity exceeds 5 mm2/s (5 centistokes) at
a. Magnetic particles can be too sensitive. 38 °C (100 °F).
b. Excessive clumping reduces the ability of particles d. it has a reddish color.
to form indications.
c. Particles are available in colors to improve 6. An oil suspension with a high flashpoint is desirable to
contrast. provide:
d. All particles are elongated to keep them from
rolling off the part. a. low flammability.
b. high flammability.
3. The particle content of magnetic rubber is: c. good mobility.
d. a pleasant odor.
a. checked by a settling test.
b. premixed to the proper proportions. 7. When compared with dry particles, wet particles
c. variable, depending on how often the spray can is should:
shaken.
d. checked with a centrifuge. a. have considerably different properties.
b. have basically the same properties.
4. Fluorescent magnetic particle testing is preferred over c. have opposite properties.
visible magnetic particles: d. have some equal properties.
a. when parts are big and bulky. 8. More red or black powder must be applied during the
b. to take advantage of the fluorescent lights that are inspection process than fluorescent particles because:
normally used in plants.
c. if the parts are for railroad applications. a. fluorescent particles do not have to build as large
d. to increase the contrast of detecting very small of an indication to be seen, as they provide greater
discontinuities. contrast.
b. red and black powders do not have as high of a
permeability as fluorescent particles.
c. red and black powders have higher contrast than
fluorescent particles.
d. red and black powders have a higher density than
fluorescent particles.
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MTLIII_SG_4_10_13_SG 6/13/14 3:18 PM Page 52
9. The primary reason for using water as a suspension is 12. A property of magnetic particles is that particles are:
that:
a. less dense than water and oil.
a. water is cheaper than oil. b. made in various sizes.
b. a water suspension is easier to remove from the c. made in only one shape.
part. d. made to have low contrast with their background.
c. water is not as flammable as oil.
d. water wets the test surface better. 13. Magnetic particles settle in water ________ than in
oil.
10. A disadvantage of using water suspensions is that:
a. faster
a. water is less evaporative than oil. b. slower
b. particles settle out of water slower than oil. c. about the same
c. the tanks of the machine must be treated to reduce d. about seven times faster
rust.
d. water suspensions do not require wetting agents 14. The curing time for magnetic rubber is least affected
(surfactants). by the:
11. Concentrates are: a. temperature of its environment.

b. percentage of activator used in the mixture.
a. particles that are highly concentrated in slurry. c. ambient humidity.
b. particles that have been pressed together for d. amount of magnetism that is applied.
shipping purposes.
c. particles that are coated with a wetting agent.
d. particles in a wet paste.
Answers
1d 2d 3b 4d 5a 6a 7b 8a 9c 10c 11d 12b 13a 14d
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Chapter 8
Magnetic Particle Testing Practices
Magnetic Particle Test

applied magnetic flux. The size and shape of the
Fundamentals magnetic particle indication can approximate the
If a bar magnet having two poles, north and south at relative size of the discontinuity. Whether the discon-
opposite ends, is broken at some place along its tinuity breaks the surface of the magnetized metal or
length, two complete bar magnets will result, each not often can be determined —a surface crack forms
having a north and south pole. This process of a narrow, sharp indication [Figure 1.2(a)] whereas a
breaking can go on until there are four, eight or any subsurface discontinuity in the material, such as a
other number of separate complete magnets. slag inclusion, will show a broad, fuzzy indication,
If the magnet is cracked but not broken com- Figure 1.2(b). Similarly, relatively thin coatings of
pletely in two pieces, a somewhat similar result paint or plating on the surface can cause a surface
occurs. A north and a south pole will form at oppo- crack to have the appearance of a subsurface indica-
site sides of the crack, just as though the break had tion, Figure 1.2(c). Thicker coatings could mask a
been complete. The strength of the magnetic field at discontinuity. Some parts may be inspected using
these poles will be different from that of the fully magnetic particle testing after a coating is applied,
broken pieces and will be a function of the depth whereas others must be inspected before coating.
and width of the crack at the surface. Sometimes parts are inspected both before and after
The fields set up at cracks or at other physical coating, depending on the type and thickness of the
discontinuities in the surface of a magnetized part coating.
are called leakage fields.
Figure 1.1 shows the leakage field flux lines leav- Dry Particles
ing the crack arching over the air gap and reentering Dry powder magnetic particles are dusted onto the
the material on the opposite side of the crack. The surface of the test item as the item is magnetized. An
flux from the two poles of opposite polarity form a alternating magnetic field must be used to create a
magnetic field bridge over the crack. vibrating surface, which provides mobility to the
Magnetic flux will always try to find the path of particles to enhance an indication.
least resistance. Air at the crack has a high reluctance Dry particles are used primarily with portable or
and very low permeability; therefore, it resists the mobile magnetizing equipment during the inspec-
passage of magnetic flux more than the ferromag- tion of rough surfaces. While dry particles drift into
netic material. If a small piece of soft iron is brought the roughness of the surface like wet suspensions,
close to the leakage field, the magnetic flux will they provide much greater sensitivity for subsurface
attract it because the iron provides much less resist- discontinuities. The primary applications for dry
ance to the flow of magnetic flux than air. Small, particles are unground welds and raw sand castings.
high-magnetic permeability particles of soft iron are A disadvantage of dry particles is that when used
attracted to quite small leakage fields. As more and outdoors, breezes can cause the powder to blow
more particles are attracted, they pile up on one around.
another, providing a metallic path of low magnetic Dry powders are primarily used to detect sub-
reluctance to bridge the crack, Figure 1.2(a). The surface cracks with half-wave direct current. This is
bridge of particles visually detected is called an indi- also the best magnetic particle testing approach for
cation. It must be remembered that an indication is the detection of lack-of-root penetration in welds.
not a defect unless it exceeds the specification or For large castings that must be inspected on the
standard. The leakage field strength is controlled by foundry floor for hot tears, cracks or shrinks, half-
the materials’ permeability, the depth and width of wave direct current with prods and dry particles is a
the discontinuity, and the relative strength of the frequent application.
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Wet Suspension rubber followed by the application of a magnetic

Magnetic particles can be suspended in a light, field to the area. After the rubber cures, it is removed
petroleum-based distillate or in water with a wetting from the part and inspected visually, sometimes with
agent additive. The wet method has many advan- a microscope if very small cracks are to be detected.
tages over the dry particle method and is the pri- The rubber conforms to the surface contour, pro-
mary technique used in industry. The wet suspen- vides a replica of the surface condition and provides
sion can be applied on any surface and it is easy to a permanent record of the inspection. A paper or
determine that the surface has been covered. While metal tag can be cast into the rubber to permanently
wet suspensions can be applied on rough surfaces, identify the specimen.
they are not as effective as dry powder. Wet suspen- The disadvantages of magnetic rubber are that it
sions are best for detecting very small discontinu- is a slow process, it is impractical for large areas and
ities. Small leakage fields require time to attract it requires control and precision that is difficult to
enough particles to form an indication. Wet suspen- obtain under many conditions.
sions hold the particles on the surface and allow the
particles to float to small leakage fields. Residual Magnetization
Wet-suspended particles can be pumped through The residual magnetization technique is the applica-
a hose, applied by hand or applied by automatic tion of current (magnetization) followed by the
machines. Wet suspensions can be used to apply flu- application of magnetic particles. High carbon steels
orescent particles in nonfluorescing oils. Suspensions that have been heat treated and have relatively high
can be applied as sprays and are available as pre- retentivity can be evaluated adequately using this
mixed solutions in spray cans. Spray cans are used technique. The pace of the inspecting process can be
primarily in field applications in conjunction with increased considerably if only one magnetizing unit
portable or mobile magnetizing units. is used to magnetize parts. The parts containing
Wet-particle suspension can be used to perform a residual magnetism are suspended in a well agitated
residual magnetization inspection. The suspension magnetic particle bath or passed through a spray
helps to hold the particles on the part and the sus- station on a conveyor before arriving at the inspec-
pension provides some mobility. tion booth. The entire process can be automated and
closely controlled to provide good reproducibility
Magnetic Rubber and reliability. The residual technique is used prima-
Magnetic rubber was introduced in 1970 as a tech- rily on bolts, piston pins, bearing races and similar
nique for detecting very fine cracks in critical steel items produced in large quantities.
aircraft components. The plugs can be removed and
examined under ideal conditions and magnification Continuous Magnetization
optics can be used to locate smaller indications. In the continuous magnetization technique, current
In this technique, magnetic particles are sus- is applied (magnetization) while the suspension is
pended in an uncured (liquid state) silicon-type on the part. For wet particle using stationary equip-
rubber. The rubber that cures at room temperature ment, magnetism is applied in a short pulse or shot
contains low volatiles and noncorrosive activators. (typically 0.5 s to 1 s in duration), as the suspension
The viscosity of liquid rubber is much higher than is applied. Two or three more shots are made imme-
that of typical light oil suspensions. The mixture of diately after the application of the suspension. For
rubber, activator and magnetic particles is applied parts being magnetized by yokes or prods using
directly to the area where a crack is suspected or has alternating current or half-wave direct current, the
been ground out, such as in a bolt hole or other criti- magnetizing current is turned on, the suspension is
cal area of the structure. An energized electromag- applied and the inspection is made before the cur-
netic yoke is applied across the puddle until the rub- rent is turned off.
ber is partially cured. This takes from 10 min to Continuous magnetization provides the most
30 min, depending on the type of rubber used and sensitivity because the flux density is the greatest
the way that the rubber and activator are mixed. while the current is being applied. Continuous mag-
In some instances, a dam of modeling clay is netization is used with both wet and dry particle
made around the area to be inspected and the liquid techniques and is essential for the magnetic rubber
rubber is poured into the mold. Drilled holes and technique.
even threaded holes can be filled with magnetic
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Choice of Magnetic Field Direction With the direct method of passing current
Determining the proper direction for the magnetic through the part, or the indirect method of magneti-
field is critical for the successful development of a zation using a central conductor, the flux density is
magnetic particle testing technique. The flux direc- proportional to the current. Both alternating current
tion is important because discontinuities with prin- and direct current can be used to produce circular
cipal dimensions relatively transverse (perpendicu- magnetization using either wet or dry particles.
lar) within ±45° to the magnetic field are reliably
detected. The configuration of the part, knowledge Longitudinal Magnetization
of past failures or knowledge of the stress levels in Longitudinal magnetization is applied by electro-
different areas of the part is helpful when determin- magnetic induction using coils, cable wraps and
ing the appropriate direction of the magnetic field. yokes. The magnetic field is directed parallel to the
Complete magnetic particle inspection coverage axis of the coil (Chapter 2) and, therefore, the
requires at least two directions of the magnetic field induced field is parallel to the coil’s axis. Cracks in a
oriented at right angles or approximately 0° and 90° direction within ±45° of the coil’s axis are reliably
apart. For direct (circular) magnetization, the mag- detectable, those perpendicular to the coil’s axis are
netic field is 90° to the current flow and is parallel to most readily detectable.
the applied magnetic field for indirect (longitudinal) The flux density resulting from longitudinal
magnetization. magnetization is controlled by the current, the num-
ber of turns in the coil, the air gap between the coil
Circular Magnetization and the part, and other factors. (Most coils on com-
In circular magnetization, the magnetic field is mercially supplied stationary magnetic particle test-
directed around the circumference of the part. Cir- ing machines have five turns.) Because of these
cular magnetization is applied by passing the current parameters, procedures should specify the orienta-
through the part using heads, clamps and prods or tion and position of the part with respect to the coil.
with central conductors. Circular magnetization is The amount of current needed as a function of
used to detect stringers and seams in bars (round, the length-to-diameter ratio and the manner in
square and rectangular) and other similar stock and which various shapes are magnetized was discussed
parts (Figures 8.1 and 8.2). It is also used to deter- in Chapter 4. The length-to-diameter ratio guide-
mine the cleanliness of steel forging stock in accor- lines must be considered; however, a part with a
dance with nationally recognized standards. shorter length-to-diameter ratio, <2, for example,
Rings, nuts and other angular items are mag- can be magnetized in a coil at very high flux densi-
netized on central conductors to detect transverse ties by increasing its magnetic length.
discontinuities (discontinuities parallel to the axis The magnetic length of a part can be increased by
of the central conductor). Bolt holes, other types of adding ferromagnetic end pieces of approximately the
fastener holes and bearing bosses for cross shafts same diameter or thickness to increase the length-to-
are critical high-stress areas where fatigue cracks diameter ratio enabling the production of the
initiate on inservice parts. These holes are best desired direction of flux in this special application.
inspected using central conductors to detect
radial cracks.
Figure 8.1: Seam indication caused by lengthening Figure 8.2: Seam indication with fluorescent particles detected
of surface crack found in parent material. using circular magnetization.
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from a heavy area that requires high flux will not

Field direction Part mask indications in fillets or other adjacent areas of
(Longitudinal)
lesser cross section.
Indication Levels of Flux Density

The level of flux density is critical in magnetic parti-
cle testing applications. Serious part failures can be
the result of not finding an anomaly because of an
improper level of magnetic flux density. There are
some inexpensive, simple devices that are placed on
the surface of a part to determine the approximate
Extension qualitative flux density and/or direction.
A very practical procedure for determining rela-
tive flux density was prepared by an aircraft engine
Figure 8.3: Longitudinal magnetization with a flux collector to manufacturer for use by its overhaul agencies. The
increase the length of the part. manufacturer made a set of rings from AISI 4340
steel that was heat treated to a specific hardness
(Figure 8.3) Longitudinal magnetization is the prin- characteristic of certain engine parts. The rings were
cipal technique used for detecting fatigue cracks the same thickness and width as the actual engine
because fatigue cracks are usually formed transverse parts. Notches of differing orientations and depths
to the centerline of a part, which is often in the most were machined into the inside diameter of the ring.
critical alignment. The rings were placed on a copper central conductor
and the current control on the magnetic particle
Combination and Variable Magnetic Field testing machine was raised in small increments until
Applications the notch of that ring would just barely produce an
Multidirectional units can combine circular and lon- indication. For each engine part and each area of the
gitudinal magnetism to continuously vary the direc- part to be magnetized, the inspection standard spec-
tion of the magnetic field while magnetizing a part. ified which ring to use to set the current for that test.
The circular and longitudinal fields are induced into The advantage of such a procedure is the uniformity
the part in rapid sequence. Automatic equipment is and reproducibility that are achieved on the same
required for these techniques. part by different inspection facilities.
Special magnetization equipment is designed to A simple device used to determine the flux direc-
magnetize parts with complex configurations. These tion is the pie gage. A pie gage consists of triangular
machines are very complicated and expensive, but if segments of soft iron brazed into a single bar. A slice
the part quality is critical or if a large quantity must cut from the end of the bar looks like a sliced pie.
be inspected, they are worth the cost. When placed in a magnetic field, indications are
Typical wet particle stationary testing equipment formed at the brazed joints, as shown in Figure 8.4.
requires the configuration of a complex part must be The brazed section showing the strongest indication
analyzed to determine the type and location of mag- is the one that is most perpendicular to the magnetic
netization needed to ensure that the flux density is flux. The line at a 45° angle collects fewer particles to
sufficient and that the direction is correct to detect produce a smaller indication. The longitudinal joint
the type of discontinuities that are likely to occur in collects no particles.
the part.
A line drawing of the basic part configuration
should be made. The location of each coil shot and Particles
the required current are noted for each location. The
location of each inspection area using direct circular Direction of flux
magnetization should be noted and the current
requirement indicated. If cable wraps, central con-
ductors, prods or other devices will be used to Indicator
ensure that the flux has the proper direction and
magnitude, special notes should be made on the Test part
drawing. Complex parts may also require a specific
sequence of operations to ensure that leakage fields Figure 8.4: Flux direction indicator.
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Pie gages should not be used as flux density indi- is desirable so that the maximum contact between
cators because they are affected not only by fluxes in the pole and the test surface can be maintained.
the metal being inspected, but also by external fluxes.
Magnetic field indicators, with small permanent Yokes and Coils
magnets constrained with a spring, can give a crude Permanent magnets, 120 V alternating current elec-
relative measure of field strength near the surface tromagnetic yokes and prewound coils are the most
during magnetization. Some magnetic field indica- portable types of magnetic particle testing equip-
tors have a coil that contacts the surface and pro- ment. Yokes are shaped like a U or a C. Some have
vides a relative measure of the magnetic field flexible legs (articulating) that provide contact with
strength but not the flux density. These coil-style complex shapes. They provide an induced longitudi-
instruments can also be used to determine flux nal magnetic field between the pole pieces. Some
direction. Hall effect meters use a very small conduc- yokes provide both half-wave direct current and
tor or semiconductor element to provide a measure alternating current, thus providing both deep pene-
of the field near the surface and show direction. tration and demagnetization capabilities. They can
These meters and indicators can be useful tools be used with dry powder or wet-suspended parti-
by using comparisons with parts that are known to cles. Prewound coils that operate on 120 V alternat-
be adequately magnetized. The ideal technique of ing current are circular and perform better on cylin-
measuring flux density would permit measurement drical objects such as spindles and shafts. These
of the flux density within the metal. However, any yokes and coils are available in portable kits and may
technique for attempting internal measurements contain dry powder or pressurized cans of suspend-
produces variations in permeability that affect the ed magnetic particles.
relationship of H and B in that area during
magnetization. Portable Power Supplies
Portable power supplies are available with outputs
Choice of Equipment and from 100 A to 1000 A with an input of 120 V single-
Application phase alternating current. A 120 V alternating cur-
rent unit with outputs from 100 A to 700 A is also
In the development of testing procedures, an ASNT available and provides both alternating current and
NDT Level III must have a comprehensive knowl- half-wave direct current outputs. The output power
edge of the types of equipment available and the rec- can also be applied to prods with heavy cables for
ommended uses. weld inspection, as well as for other applications
where a localized field is desired. Because arc burns
Permanent Magnets often occur where the prod tips contact the surface
In magnetic particle testing, applications involving of the test object, the prods should be periodically
permanent magnets are limited mainly because the dressed with a file to remove pits and burned copper.
strength of the field that can be induced is relatively This is especially important when inspecting highly
low. Some permanent magnet yokes have adjustable heat-treated parts or parts with a finely ground sur-
legs that allow the induced flux level to be varied by face. The cables can also be wrapped around parts
changing the distance between the contacts. The pri- forming a coil to provide longitudinal magnetization.
mary value of permanent magnets is in their porta- Dry powder is normally used with portable
bility with no need for external power. They are usu- equipment because the availability of both pulsed
ally used to inspect small areas of parts where half-wave direct current and alternating current pro-
fatigue cracks frequently occur. Magnetism flows out vides a vibrating surface that enhances dry particle
of its south pole to its north pole in a permanent mobility. Wet suspensions, as provided in pressurized
magnet, which is a longitudinal field. Using two pole spray cans, are also used with this equipment. This
positions at approximately right angles ensures that type of equipment typically weighs from 16 kg to
no linear discontinuity is greater than 45° from per- 34 kg (35 lbs to 75 lbs) and can be handled by one
pendicular to a magnetic field for reliable detection. person.
For maximum visibility of an indication, the
indication should be located in the area between the Mobile Power Supplies
two pole pieces of the magnet. The long axis of the Mobile power supplies are equipped with wheels that
indication should be positioned 90° ± 45° with a line allow mobility; however, they typically cannot be
between the poles. The flux is stronger nearer to the lifted without mechanical assistance. They range in
poles than it is in the center of the gap. A flat surface outputs from a few hundred up to 20 000 A. Units up
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to 6000 A have alternating current and half-wave Direct current can be used for demagnetization
direct current outputs with line power requirements by reversing direction of the current and at the same
of 220/440 V single-phase alternating current. The time reducing its strength.
output power is applied by coils or prods and both
dry powder and wet-suspended particles can be Reasons for Demagnetizing
used. Demagnetization of parts is often needed before the
final component is assembled. Highly magnetized
Stationary Equipment parts can induce fields in adjacent parts and can
Stationary equipment is permanently installed for cause a variety of malfunctions. For example, mag-
use in a shop or laboratory. These machines have netism in engine parts can attract metal particles
headstock and tailstock contacts for circular magne- into bearings, leading to early bearing failure. A high
tization and a prewound coil for longitudinal mag- residual field near an aircraft compass can substan-
netization. They normally use an oil or water sus- tially affect its accuracy.
pension of wet particles contained in a reservoir At one time, demagnetizing parts between longi-
with a tank to collect the run-off of suspension. A tudinal and circular magnetizing cycles was consid-
pump is used to agitate the suspension and to deliver ered to be a necessity; however, experience has
it to a hose or spray nozzle. These machines provide shown that it is not always true. If the indication lies
the necessary instruments and controls to provide in an off-axis orientation, it will be at the inspector’s
from eight to 32 discrete current levels. Some have advantage to not demagnetize the part.
continuous controls so that any desired level of cur- Parts that are to be electric arc welded must be
rent can be obtained. demagnetized because residual magnetic fields can
These machines are designed for high produc- attract the arc and cause it to wander, not following
tion environments. A flip of a switch changes the the joint. This is especially a problem when an auto-
output from alternating current to direct current. matic welding machine is used because it cannot
Direct magnetization is accomplished by clamping compensate for the shift in the arc as a welding oper-
the part between the headstock and tailstock con- ator can during manual welding.
tacts. A switch routes the current from the contacts
to the prewound coil without the need for moving Methods of Demagnetization
the part. Some also have built-in 30-point demag- The most common method of demagnetization uses
netizers that are actuated by pressing a button. A an alternating current coil from which the part is
spreader bar with a cable attached to each end fits removed or, on large parts, a coil that is moved away
between the contacts and allows the cables to be from the part while the power is still on. It is desir-
used externally. able to begin the demagnetization process using a
Specialized production machines and automatic stronger field than that used during the initial mag-
testing equipment are commercially available. netization of the part.
The multiple step-down, reversing-direct-cur-
Demagnetization rent demagnetizer works similarly to the alternat-
ing current step-down system. Because of the diffi-
Metal is magnetized by aligning the negative and culty in reverse switching of direct current, the
positive polarities of its magnetic domains. Demag- equipment is much more complicated than that
netization is the reorientation of this unidirectional used for alternating current and, therefore, is more
orientation of the magnetic domains. Reducing the expensive. The reversing direct current provides
strength of the field to an acceptable level is the pur- deeper penetration than the alternating current
pose of demagnetization. Reversal of the magnetic and thus has an advantage in applications on
field as it is reduced helps to randomize the orienta- thicker parts and for parts that are difficult to
tion of the magnetic domains. demagnetize. Yokes can be used in the alternating
A common technique of demagnetization is to current mode to reduce the magnetism in localized
place the metal in an alternating current coil that areas of large components.
rapidly reverses the polarity. Gradually removing the One advantage of magnetization with alternating
metal from the coil while the coil is still energized has current is that it does not leave a strong residual field
the effect of gradually reducing the induced magnet- in a part. Demagnetization becomes easier.
ism. Another technique is to hold the part stationary
and gradually reduce the current in the coil.
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Controlling and Measuring or the machine may not have enough power to mag-
Demagnetization netize the entire part. For these types of parts, cable
The initial demagnetizing field should be higher wrap techniques will reduce the current require-
than the highest magnetizing current applied during ments and increase the flux density in local areas.
magnetic particle testing. Caution should be taken to
avoid burning the part where direct induction Surface Treatment
demagnetization is being undertaken. Surface coatings, such as plating, paint or cladding,
A magnetic field strength indicator should be can affect the sensitivity of magnetic particle testing.
used to measure the retained magnetism. Small For field inspections, repair and overhaul, hard sur-
meters, the size of a pocket watch, read in relative face oxides, paint or plating up to 0.03 mm
units; they are useful for comparative measurements. (0.001 in.) thick can be tolerated at no increase of
Because magnetic leakage fields are strongest at an amperage over bare metal. Coatings thicker than
edge or corner of a part, these are the best places to 0.03 mm (0.001 in.) may require additional amper-
measure for demagnetization. age for equivalent results over that of bare metal.
Caution must be exercised when thicker coatings
Effects of Test Object Variables are present. They can mask discontinuities. Coatings
cause indications from surface discontinuities to
A surface magnetic field strength indicator is valu- appear as indications from subsurface discontinu-
able because parts of different chemistry and heat ities in uncoated material. Coatings are not permit-
treatment can have significantly different magnetic ted on new parts prior to magnetic particle testing in
properties. Each part to be inspected using magnetic accordance with ASTM E 1444 / E 1444 M except for
particle testing should have a specific technique electroplated coatings. Hot dip plating, such as gal-
established to ensure that the flux density is ade- vanic coating, can be quite thick. If the coating can-
quate. When a magnetic field strength indicator is not be readily removed, the magnetizing current
not available, the part should be magnetized to a should be increased accordingly. Hard chromium
point where the particles start to stand on end on plating on wear surfaces can exceed 0.13 mm
the edges of the part. The magnetizing current (0.005 in.). One problem with hard plated parts is
should then be reduced slightly from this level and that they are sometimes ground after plating. The
the inspection performed. A limitation in this grinding can cause burning of the steel under the
approach during the use of direct induction is that plating. These fine grinding cracks are very tight and
parts can be overheated and burned by too much shallow. Special techniques are necessary to detect
current at the contact points. Ferritic stainless steels these cracks.
can be inspected this way, but much higher currents Because paint is not a conductor, it must be
must be used in comparison with the currents used removed from areas where electrical contact is to be
on carbon steels. made for magnetization.
Geometric Considerations Surface Condition and Cleanliness
Complex parts must be studied to provide sufficient Surface conditions are very important to the proper
flux at about 90° to the expected orientation of dis- application of magnetic particle testing. A smooth
continuities. Various flux densities may be necessary surface allows mobility of the dry and wet particles.
to ensure that a leakage field in a radius does not Oil, grease, scale and other common shop soils will
mask a critical stringer, forging lap or other hold dry particles and prevent them from moving.
discontinuity. Some of these soils are somewhat washed off by oil
A central conductor in holes can detect radial suspensions of magnetic particles, but they contami-
anomalies where overall circular and longitudinal nate the suspension and raise its viscosity beyond
magnetization do not provide sufficient flux or the desirable limits. Rust and paint chips should be
proper direction of flux. Many very large parts with removed as well as welding flux. It is often necessary
openings, such as trusses, weldments, forgings and to use a chipping hammer and a wire brush to
rings, may be too large to fit in a stationary machine remove oxides, slag and heavy soils.
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Review Questions
1. The type of magnetic field that can be induced in 6. A particular field inspection for fatigue cracks
parts using permanent magnet yokes is: requires that a wet particle suspension be used. Wet
particle suspensions can best be applied with a:
a. circular.
b. longitudinal. a. fine camel hair brush.
c. parallel. b. spray can.
d. reversing. c. swab.
d. powder bulb.
2. Paint will not adversely affect the detection of a crack
if the: 7. An advantage of magnetic rubber is that:
a. paint is thick and the discontinuity is subsurface. a. it can be used on nonferromagnetic materials.
b. paint is thin and the crack is parallel to the b. it can be stripped off the surface and examined
direction of magnetization. using magnification.
c. crack is open to the surface and the paint is thin. c. it is a very rapid test technique.
d. paint consists of conductive materials. d. the materials used are less expensive than dry
powder.
3. A crack shows the strongest indication when it is
located: 8. A critical problem was found where fatigue cracks
were initiating from the roots of a threaded hole. To
a. under the yoke. locate similar discontinuities:
b. parallel to a line from prod to yoke.
c. perpendicular to a line from prod to yoke. a. use magnetic rubber and a direct current
d. in the plane of the coil. magnetic yoke.
b. fill the hole with a wet suspension and use a
4. When a magnetic particle testing indication is sharp borescope.
and very fine, the discontinuity is: c. use X-rays.
d. use an eddy current bolt hole probe.
a. a subsurface seam.
b. a shallow, tight surface crack. 9. Continuous magnetization provides the most
c. porosity. sensitivity because:
d. a deep crack.
a. the magnetic particles are present after the part is
5. A piece of bar stock in the yard of a fabricating shop magnetized.
was inspected for inclusions using clamps and cables. b. the magnetic leakage field is greatest while the
The magnetism in the bar was: magnetizing current is on.
c. dry fluorescent particles are always used.
a. induced circular. d. the magnetic flux always saturates the magnetic
b. longitudinal. particles.
c. direct longitudinal.
d. direct circular.
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10. The sensitivity of magnetic particle testing is greatest 15. The current from portable, high amperage units can
when the discontinuity is: be applied to the test object using:
a. parallel to the direction of the magnetic flux lines. a. prods.

b. perpendicular to the flow of the magnetizing b. yokes.
current. c. permanent magnets.
c. perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic d. a central conductor clamped between the head and
flux. tail stocks.
d. perpendicular to the line between prods.
16. Which of the following is not an advantage of mobile
11. Magnetic particle testing is used to determine the magnetic particle testing power units?
number and length of discontinuities in steel forging
stock. The type of magnetization to be used is: a. Their wheels allow them to be used anywhere in a
shop.
a. circular. b. They use single-phase power with high current
b. longitudinal. and voltage.
c. tangential. c. Dry or wet continuous methods can be used.
d. toroidal. d. They can be equipped with an automatic
step-down demagnetizer.
12. To provide reliability and reproducibility in magnetic
particle testing using wet bath, stationary units, 17. A shop has a number of automatic screw machines
written procedures should include: that produce thousands of small pins and other parts
that must be inspected. The best type of demagnetizer
a. the location of the coil and current for each for these parts would be:
magnetization.
b. the requirements for magnetic saturation. a. an alternating current coil.
c. the type and size of the particles. b. an alternating current step-down demagnetizer.
d. a system performance check using a known defect c. an alternating current yoke.
panel with five star cracks. d. a reversing direct current step-down
demagnetizer.
13. Flux density is a measure of the number of magnetic
flux lines perpendicular to a unit area of cross section. 18. The 1000 A per 25 mm (1 in.) rule of thumb should be
If a discontinuity is in the plane of the unit area, the used with caution because this:
largest magnetic particle testing indication will be
formed when the discontinuity is: a. magnetizing force is inadequate.
b. magnetizing force is always sufficient.
a. 45° to the flux lines. c. rule is only adequate for high permeability
b. parallel to the flux lines. materials.
c. 90° to the flux lines. d. magnetizing force may over-magnetize some
d. 135° to the flux lines. materials.
14. Prods are used to magnetize a weld area. When dry 19. A cable wrapping procedure:
powder is dusted onto the surface, there is no mobility
of the particles. The most probable reason for this a. can induce a higher circular field in a part at a
observation is that: lower current.
b. can increase the coil fill factor.
a. the magnetizing current is too strong. c. can conduct the same maximum amount of
b. the flux density is too intense. alternating current as direct current.
c. direct current is being used. d. cannot be used for dry powder
d. no discontinuities are present. inspections.
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20. Circular magnetization at 1000 A per 25 mm (1 in.) 24. A heat-treated bolt was inspected for quench cracks
diameter of cross section: and must be demagnetized. Using the bolt as a
conductor, the demagnetizing current:
a. provides proper flux densities in complex parts.
b. will not provide proper flux direction in complex a. should be high enough to magnetically saturate
parts. the part.
c. is best used on round bar stock. b. need not exceed the magnetizing current.
d. is a rule of thumb for applying current in any c. should somewhat exceed the original magnetizing
application involving circular magnetization. current.
d. is irrelevant because demagnetization is not
21. A large 152 mm (6 in.) diameter shaft of heat-treated, necessary on heat-treated parts.
high alloy steel must be demagnetized. The most
effective results are produced by: 25. Steel components from a helicopter transmission
must be tested for discontinuities at overhaul. The
a. a reverse direct current step-down demagnetizer proper procedure is to:
with a cable wrapped around the shaft for its full
length. a. use the inspection procedure originally suggested
b. placing the shaft north and south in an alternating by the manufacturer.
current coil and tapping it repeatedly with a sledge b. review the part configuration and failure data and
hammer. develop test techniques based on this analysis.
c. using an alternating current step-down c. let the inspector use a standard procedure.
demagnetizer with a cable wrapped around the d. perform only visual inspection with a 10¥
shaft for its full length. magnifier.
d. moving an alternating current coil along the
length and extending it past the ends of the shaft. 26. Hall effect devices that are used to measure flux
density are:
22. From a reliability standpoint, small items should be
demagnetized: a. unreliable.
b. not capable of measuring the H component of
a. with a 30-point demagnetizer. magnetization in air.
b. in a basket using a magnetic coil. c. capable of measuring the B component of
c. in a coil, one at a time. magnetization.
d. by holding the part against the inside surface of d. not affected by permeability variations in the part.
the magnetizing coil and turning off the coil.
23. To determine if parts have been adequately

demagnetized, they should be tested by:
a. bringing a suspended paper clip near the middle

of the part.
b. using a small horseshoe-shaped permanent
magnet.
c. using a small magnetometer held at a corner of the
part.
d. sprinkling some magnetic particles on the part.
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27. Instruments used for flux density measurements: 29. The statement “magnetic particle testing can be
applied to plated and painted parts”:
a. require differential coils.
b. are not commercially available. a. is true regardless of the thickness of the coating.
c. do not require calibration for reliable b. may be true if flux densities are increased to
measurements. compensate for the coating thickness.
d. are less reliable than a magnetic pie gage indicator. c. is true only for circular magnetism.
d. is not true under any circumstances.
28. Instruments used for flux density measurements:
a. measure the B component of magnetization.

b. cannot indicate flux direction.
c. measure the H component of magnetization.
d. cannot provide quantitative flux density
measurements.
ANSWERS
1b 2c 3d 4b 5d 6b 7b 8a 9b 10c 11a 12a 13c
14c 15a 16b 17a 18d 19b 20c 21a 22c 23c 24c 25b 26c
27a 28a 29b
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Chapter 9
Indications and Interpretations
Overview
prevalent on fusion welds and should be removed
Evaluations should be made through logical thought before testing.
processes so that a proper interpretation can be made Patches of paint that are not removed will also
of the condition causing an indication. The first step trap particles and show nonrelevant indications. A
is to determine if the indication is caused by a dis- rough machined or as-cast surface finish on a part
continuity or another condition. If the indication is can also trap particles, cause a high background and
caused by a discontinuity, the next step is to deter- restrict the mobility of the particles. A clean, smooth
mine if the indication is relevant or nonrelevant. surface is essential to obtain the most reliable test.
The inspector should always remember the
grouping of magnetic particles is an indication that Excessive Magnetization
something is different in that area. The indication is Excessive magnetization can cause leakage fields on
a warning to the inspector to evaluate and determine the edges, corners and ends of parts. This is most
its cause and severity with respect to geometric and prevalent with longitudinal magnetization. The indi-
section changes, improper surface preparation, cations that result can mask fatigue cracks that may
excessive magnetization, magnetic writing, perme- start at abrupt section changes. Often, these particle
ability variations, residual and external fields, and buildups at section changes are indicative of exces-
metallurgical changes. sive magnetizing current.
Geometric and Section Changes Magnetic Writing
The most prevalent type of nonrelevant indications When two magnetized parts are rubbed together, a
is caused by geometric or section changes of the local difference in polarity at the points of contact
part. Constrictions such as internal splines, subsur- can form indications called magnetic writing. The
face holes and the space between two holes or key- indications are different in location and shape from
ways are typical examples of changes in cross section the normally expected indications. When this condi-
that cause a leakage field (more flux lines are forced tion is suspected, the parts should be demagnetized
into a thinner section). These indications can be and reinspected. A magnetic writing indication will
very pronounced and, especially in the case of not reappear after demagnetization.
splines and keyways, they can mask fatigue cracks or
other discontinuities that may form at these sharp Permeability Variations
section changes. These indications are repeated on Changes in permeability are a major source of non-
all similar items but cannot be ignored by the relevant indications. The heat-affected zone on each
inspector. Where fatigue cracks are expected in an side of some nickel welds can produce indications as
area of a nonrelevant indication, a lower level of a result of changes in local permeability induced by
magnetization should be used. This reduces the size the heat of welding. A flush ground weld area can
of the nonrelevant indication and still reveals a often be detected by the difference in permeability
crack, if present. between the weld metal and the parent metal. If two
metals having a different chemistry are joined by
Improper Surface Preparation electron beam welding, flash butt welding, friction or
Oil, grease, dirt, scale or other contaminates on the ultrasonic welding, these very narrow fusion lines
surface of a part will hold particles and provide a can be detected because of the differences of perme-
distracting indication that can mask relevant indica- ability in the weld zone. A careful examination must
tions. The difference in permeability between the be made in such areas to differentiate between rele-
scale and base metal will cause a nonrelevant indi- vant and nonrelevant indications.
cation at the edge of the scale. Scale is especially
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Residual and External Fields Cracks

Residual fields are prevalent where prods have been If the welding system or materials (either base metal
used with a high current level. This is common in or electrodes) are inadequate, internal stresses
weld inspection where the prods are cross stepped caused by shrinkage upon cooling of the weld may
along the bead. Similarly, when magnetic yokes are be so great as to produce cracks. In accordance with
used, residual poles may be left where the yoke con- their origins, as hot cracks, cold cracks, and so on,
tacted the surface. These can be confusing to the these discontinuities can be either approximately
inspector because they may or may not show a full parallel or perpendicular to the axis of the weld
recognizable pattern. The only effective technique seam. Cracks in the weld deposit perpendicular to
for eliminating such indications is to demagnetize the weld seam can enter the base metal. Transverse
the area and retest it. cracks are extremely uncommon. Cracks sometimes
occur along the side of the heat-affected zone. Addi-
Metallurgical Changes tionally, stress cracks may form due to inservice
Metallurgical changes produce similar problems in stresses on the weld. In general, magnetic particle
the form of permeability variations. These are com- indications of cracks are never straight lines but
mon in weldments because the weld metal has a dif- often have zigzag or jagged shapes.
ferent metallurgical structure from the heat-affected
zone. Metallurgical changes also include areas where Inadequate Penetration of the Weld Root
the temper is drawn, decarburized areas, strain lines Inadequate penetration may be detected if, during
from cold forming or stretch forming where the magnetic particle testing, the root region of the weld
metal is moved in the plastic range. Other metallur- is accessible (Figure 9.1). The magnetic particle indi-
gical changes that can produce nonrelevant indica- cation will usually appear as a straight line and may
tions are cold working (flowing the metal rather be void of a root bead. In this case, the origin of the
than cutting it), grain boundaries (normally in large- discontinuity should be sought in the form of exces-
grain materials) and flow lines in forgings. Many of sive spacing between the plates or pieces of pipe,
these are only seen at very high levels of magnetism. resulting in deposited filler metal without complete
fusion to the base metal at the root of the weld. Such
a condition can be caused by coarse beveling, such
Discontinuities as with flame cutting, and then welding the pieces
Discontinuities detectable by magnetic particle test- together without grinding the surfaces.
ing are either on the surface or close to the surface.
Surface Discontinuities
Surface indications are characterized by their sharp,
fineline definition. A surface discontinuity has cer-
tain physical characteristics, including depth, width
and length, that cause the formation of the indica-
tion. A tight discontinuity may be so narrow that it
can be seen only with a microscope. A typical dis-
continuity is almost always deeper than it is wide.
Clear indications generally occur when the depth is
five times greater than the width.
The length of the indication, its orientation and
its direction in relation to the way the metal was
Figure 9.1: Inadequate root penetration.
worked and formed are all good indicators of the
cause of the discontinuity. The shape of the indica-
tion (straight, curved or irregular) is also important. Sometimes inadequate penetration can appear as
Examples of surface discontinuities in welds a very narrow straight line along the edge of a weld
include cracks, inadequate penetration, porosity (pin bead. Usually in this case two different thicknesses of
hole), slag lines and undercutting. In addition, other material have been welded together or a misalign-
discontinuities may be formed as a result of ment of the weld bevels has occurred. Even though it
improper welding practices, such as arc strikes, may have a slight indication, this discontinuity might
grinding marks and weld spatter. be very serious in the thickest dimension of the
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welded plate or pipe because shrinkage can draw the continuous in length, with more or less sharp edges
unfused surfaces very close together. paralleling the weld reinforcement. The magnetic
Such a situation might occur with a square butt particle indications of undercutting will appear
weld preparation on thinner materials where bevel- either as straight or jagged lines parallel or perpen-
ing is not required. It should also be noted that with dicular to the axis of the weld seam. The indication
asymmetrical joint weld preparations, such as K- may appear on only one side of the weld or on both
shaped bevel preparations (sometimes used in T sides of the weld.
joints), lack of penetration may not necessarily cor-
respond with the center of the weld seam. Arc Strikes
When the welding arc is started or displaced during
Porosity or Pin Holes welding out onto the base metal surface beside the
Gas may develop during welding for various reasons, weld groove, an irregular deposit of filler metal
including the quality of the base metal, the elec- occurs on the base metal near the weld seam. In
trodes used, poor regulation of the arc current or some cases this deposited metal is accompanied by
operator technique. Excessive gas evolution may pre- an indentation due to melting of the base metal
vent its escape from the molten metal pool before where the arc was struck (Figure 9.3). Unless there
solidification. Gas inclusions usually detected during are other discontinuities associated with the arc
magnetic particle testing are seen as spherical or strike (for example, cracks) usually there will be no
rounded indications. magnetic particle indications detected.
Slag Lines
A particular characteristic of slag inclusions is the
slag line, intermittent or continuous lines (either
straight or jagged) at the edge of the weld groove or
bevel. These discontinuities are caused by insuffi-
cient cleaning of slag between welding passes. If the
prior pass produced a bead that was too convex, it
will be difficult to remove the slag remaining in the
angle between the surface of the groove and the
deposited metal.
Undercutting
During welding of the root bead and/or cover pass,
the exposed upper edges of the weld bevel may tend
Figure 9.3: Surface arc strike. (EPRI)
to melt and run down into the deposited metal in
the weld groove (Figure 9.2). Undercutting occurs
when insufficient filler metal is deposited to fill the
resultant groove at the edges of the weld bead. The Grinding Marks
result is a groove which may be either intermittent or When weld reinforcements are not ground out
smoothly, the resultant thickness varies above and
below that of the base metal. The resultant magnetic
particle indication usually shows as sharp contours
around the edges of the grinding mark.
Weld Spatter
If improper electrodes or long arcs are used, droplets
of molten metal are spattered about the weld region.
These droplets stick to the surface of the metal near
the weld seam and visually appear as rounded spots
of excess metal on the surface. Unless there are other
discontinuities associated with the weld spatter (for
Figure 9.2: Photomacrograph of undercut on the example, cracks) usually there will be no magnetic
outside diameter of a weld. (EPRI) particle indications detected.
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Subsurface Discontinuities
Subsurface discontinuities are detectable if they are

not too deep. The maximum depth cannot be stated
specifically because size and orientation are impor-
tant factors. A procedure using the penetrating capa-
bilities of direct current must be used if subsurface
discontinuities are to be detected. However, using the
same procedure at a high amperage could cause high
overall surface background and mask the presence
of a surface discontinuity.
A subsurface discontinuity is characterized by an
indication that is broader and fuzzier than that of a
surface discontinuity. The features of the two indica-
tions are basically the same except that the indica-
tion details are less distinguishable as the depth of Figure 9.4: Photomacrograph of a slag inclusion in
the discontinuity increases. a weld. (EPRI)
Typical internal weld discontinuities include,
but are not limited to, incomplete fusion and slag
inclusions. condition often associated with a pronounced lack
of fusion between the deposited and base metal. The
Incomplete Fusion sharp edges of such discontinuities produce particu-
As a product of insufficient heat or of the presence of larly unfavorable notch effects, which can be danger-
scale on the fusion face of a weld bevel, the deposited ous under dynamic shock or fatigue loading.
filler metal may remain separated from the base
metal as a very thin layer of oxide. Incomplete side- Effects of Discontinuities on Serviceability
wall fusion (which can be open to the surface in the Discontinuities located during magnetic particle
toe of the weld) occurs at the junction between the testing can be gross enough to directly affect the
face of a weld and the base metal. It has a similar strength of materials and parts; they can also act as
magnetic particle pattern appearance to that of a stress risers that can result in fatigue cracks. A dis-
tight surface fatigue crack. Magnetic particle indica- continuity can produce a notch effect that will allow
tions of incomplete fusion are usually very narrow, its size to grow by fatigue loading. A discontinuity
straight lines, parallel to and displaced to one side of that is subjected to a corrosive environment may
the weld. allow corrosion to propagate in an unexpected man-
ner and cause problems more rapidly than expected.
Slag Inclusions Many serviceable parts are scrapped because the
Slag inclusions are always produced in arc welding effects of discontinuities are misunderstood. Scrap-
and serve to shield the hot metal from atmospheric ping may be the most economical approach where
contaminants. For various reasons, some slag may be the cost of the part is low and where its failure could
trapped in the deposited weld metal during its solid- cause a larger subassembly to fail.
ification, particularly if the metal fails to remain The effect of a discontinuity on strength is based
molten for a sufficient period to permit the slag to on the safety factor used by the designer. If the part
rise to the surface. In multi-pass welding, insufficient is designed overstrength and if the discontinuity is
cleaning between weld passes can leave portions of not in a high-stress area where it can act as a stress
the slag coating in place, thus to be covered by sub- riser, it may be entirely acceptable. Where possible, a
sequent weld passes. Such slag inclusions are often part that is expensive or in short supply may be sal-
characterized by their location at the edges of the vageable by reworking. The design engineering func-
underlying metal deposits, where they often tend to tion provides data on items with critical loading fac-
extend longitudinally along the edges, such as tors that show how deeply an area can be ground
between the weld zone and base metal (Figure 9.4). and in what direction. Grinding out a discontinuity
Slag inclusions generally have irregular shapes with proper filleting to equalize the loading of the
and the sizes follow no definite rules. If a cross sec- area is often used to salvage a part after appropriate
tion of the inclusion is considered, its thickness is engineering analysis. Grinding out discontinuities in
irregular and may diminish to zero at the borders, a castings and repair welding is quite acceptable in
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many cases, however, documentation of such repairs completely. Care must be taken during the reinspec-
is normally required. Repair welding a forged part is tion to use a more sensitive test technique to guaran-
generally not acceptable because the welding is tee the discontinuity is removed. Also, care must be
essentially cast metal and can adversely affect the taken so that the amount of material removed does
strength of the parent forged metal. not reduce the cross section below allowable
Periodic testing and continued operation are tolerances.
standard procedure for aircraft structures. Many
times, a small crack will not grow during inservice Metallurgical Examination
usage. The nondestructive testing programs used by Often, it is important to determine the cause of a
airlines and the U.S. Air Force are indispensable discontinuity. Examination of the discontinuity sur-
maintenance tools that provide a means of checking faces often reveals its cause or source. Using the
critical areas to determine when fatigue has begun magnetic particle testing indication to show the
and then to follow the indication’s growth until it extent of the discontinuity, a technician can cut a
reaches a specific subcritical size. specimen containing the discontinuity from the test
The high cost of an industrial breakdown or object. Saw cuts toward the discontinuity area can be
shutdown caused by a broken part is intolerable in used to reduce the cross-sectional area of the speci-
most cases. In industry, machinery can be main- men. Breaking the specimen at the reduced cross
tained by periodic inservice tests. Because it may section will allow the discontinuity to be seen on the
take months to fabricate critical components, such as fracture face. Examination of the fracture face can
large gears for industrial machinery, periodic inser- reveal much information to the trained failure ana-
vice tests help to eliminate machinery component lyst about the discontinuity’s origin.
failures. A cut across an indication can reveal the cross-
Fracture mechanics, a science that studies how sectional shape of the discontinuity and, in the case
cracks grow, has developed another parameter in of a crack, show its depth. The specimen can be pol-
the strength of materials called fracture toughness. ished and viewed under magnification. The speci-
Fracture mechanics is a great asset to industry men itself can also be remagnetized to show the
because this technique allows engineers to deter- depth of the crack.
mine the size of a crack in a critical part that Sometimes it is important to determine if a
would cause the part to fail. It is not necessary to discontinuity is caused by an improper forging prac-
apply fracture mechanics to all items, but when a tice. The forging can be cut across the discontinuity
critical item is designed, for example, a pressure and deep etched. The deep etch will show the flow
vessel, boiler or cryogenic container, a fracture lines of the metal and often reveal the cause of the
mechanics analysis could be very important during discontinuity.
the design stage. Crack size tolerances are becom-
ing part of the contractual requirements for new Recording Indications
aircraft. These requirements essentially specify that Recording indications for project books or reports is
a critical component must have sufficient tough- often very important. It is also desirable to record
ness that a crack that grows to a detectable size is indications when parts are inspected and retained in
still below the critical crack size. Critical crack size use. If desired, a history of the part can be main-
is the minimum length of a crack that would cause tained to show crack growth. There are a number of
catastrophic failure. techniques that can be used for recording indica-
tions. Tape transfers and lacquer fixing have given
Determination of Discontinuity Depth way to the use of inexpensive digital cameras.
The normal destructive method for determining
crack depth is by filing, chipping or grinding a Interpretation and Evaluation of Test
groove to measure the depth of the indication. There Indications
are electronic instruments available to measure crack Reliable interpretation and evaluation of test indica-
depth nondestructively. Ultrasonic shear waves and tions are affected by human factors. For the interpre-
surface waves can be used in some cases to estimate tation and evaluation process to remain reliable, tests
crack depth, but the part configuration regularly must be reproducible and indications must be
limits the application of such techniques. recorded. See Chapter 10, “Probability of Detection.”
Many times, a discontinuity is ground out and
reinspected to determine that it has been removed
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Review Questions
1. An example of a nonrelevant indication is: 5. The most effective technique to recognize the
presence of fatigue cracks from nonrelevant
a. inadequate root penetration of the weld root. indications is to:
b. magnetic writing.
c. a crack. a. increase the current gradually.
d. incomplete fusion between the face of a weld and b. demagnetize and remagnetize with alternating
the base metal. current.
c. reduce the level of magnetization.
2. An indication was noted during a test using direct d. increase the level of magnetization.
current magnetization. To determine if the
discontinuity is surface or subsurface: 6. Magnetic particle testing of a piece of casting showed
a hazy group of line indications at a thickness change.
a. demagnetize the part and retest it with alternating The probable cause of the indication is:
current.
b. retest the part with surging current. a. surface porosity.
c. increase the voltage. b. undercutting.
d. demagnetize the part and use dry powder. c. a crack.
d. internal shrinkage.
3. To determine whether an indication is a crack or a
nonrelevant indication: 7. An inspection of a forging revealed that some
indications with irregular sharp lines were enclosing
a. remagnetize the part with half-wave direct an area. They could be caused by:
current.
b. wipe off the indication and apply more a. hard scale on the surface.
suspension. b. slag on the surface.
c. demagnetize the part and apply more suspension. c. paint on the surface.
d. use higher magnetizing current. d. porosity.
4. A seam-welded pipe that had the weld ground flush 8. When a part was magnetized, a broad but very distinct
showed broad, fuzzy indications near the toes of the indication was found along the edges. This indication
weld that extended the complete length of the pipe. could be caused by a:
The probable cause of the indication is:
a. subsurface burst.
a. magnetic writing. b. seam on the edge.
b. the geometry of the weld. c. nonrelevant indication caused by excessive
c. a surface crack. current.
d. a permeability change in the base metal at the d. crack.
heat-affected zone.
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9. A group of indications, some sharp and some broad 14. A short, very sharp indication was found in an axle at
and hazy, were found on areas of several small the corner of a spline; it runs at about 45° to the
forgings. Demagnetization and retesting the forgings centerline of the shaft. This discontinuity is most
separately eliminated these indications. The probable likely a:
cause was:
a. fatigue crack.
a. a forging lap. b. plating crack.
b. magnetic writing. c. seam.
c. a change in permeability. d. stringer.
d. a subsurface variation.
15. Magnetic particle testing of the first pass in a
10. An example of nonrelevant magnetic particle U-groove butt weld showed a large, fuzzy indication at
indications due to change in the permeability is: short intervals along the center of the weld. This
discontinuity is most likely:
a. the heat-affected zone.
b. oil on the surface of the part. a. lack of fusion.
c. grinding marks. b. a crater crack.
d. a crack. c. a stringer.
d. lack of root penetration.
11. A surface indication on bar stock is fine and sharp
and runs lengthwise. This is most 16. A star-shaped surface indication is seen on the cover
likely a: pass of a weld. This discontinuity is most likely:
a. fatigue crack. a. a cooling crack.

b. burst. b. a crater crack.
c. stringer. c. slag inclusion.
d. heat-treat crack. d. lack of fusion.
12. A forged and drawn bar shows a number of transverse 17. Two longitudinal subsurface indications are seen
subsurface indications along its length. The condition running side by side along the length of the cover pass
that causes this type of indication is: of a weld. This discontinuity is most likely:
a. heat-treat cracks. a. lack of root penetration.

b. chevron cracks. b. porosity.
c. inclusions. c. cooling cracks.
d. flakes. d. slag inclusions.
13. Magnetic particle testing was used on the edge of a 18. A subsurface indication is located just outside the
plate with prods. A discontinuity was found on the weld in the parent metal. This discontinuity is most
edge of the plate about halfway through the thickness. likely related to:
The discontinuity is probably a:
a. lack of fusion.
a. lamination. b. slag inclusion.
b. stringer. c. the heat-affected zone.
c. seam. d. undercut.
d. burst.
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19. An intermittent subsurface indication at the toe of a 23. A forging die has large cracks in the corners of the die
fillet weld was located along the length of the weld. cavity after it was removed from the forging press.
This discontinuity is most likely: The most likely cause of these cracks is:
a. lack of fusion. a. exposure of the die to excessive heat and pressure

b. slag inclusion. during service.
c. transverse cracks in the heat-affected zone. b. improper heat treatment.
d. heat crack. c. forging laps that enlarged during forging.
d. shrinkage in the casting from which the die was
20. A surface indication is detected along the length of a made.
restrained weld bead in the center of the bead. This
discontinuity is most likely: 24. During magnetic particle testing, a precipitation
hardening steel part appears to be covered with very
a. stress cracking. small, sharp, linear indications. Examination under
b. slag indications. high-power magnification reveals no surface
c. heat-treat cracking. discontinuities. The most likely cause of these
d. lack of fusion. indications is:
21. Multiple surface indications are detected transversely a. improper grinding procedures.
across a weld that had been part of a bridge deck. This b. laminations.
discontinuity is most likely: c. improper machining procedures.
d. a metallurgical microstructure inherent in some
a. flakes. precipitation hardening steels.
b. heat cracks.
c. fatigue cracks. 25. A forging has a surface indication along the edge of
d. linear porosity. the parting line. This indication is typical of:
22. A punch press die was surface ground. The magnetic a. an irrelevant indication.
particle testing conducted before heat treatment b. a stringer.
showed short, very fine cracks on the ground surface c. a seam.
of the die. Some of the cracks are in clusters. These d. a flashline shear tear.
discontinuities are most likely:
26. A cast crankshaft has a surface indication along the
a. stringers. length of a machined bearing surface. The most
b. grinding cracks. probable cause of this indication is a:
c. seams.
d. forging laps. a. fatigue crack.
b. cold shut.
c. seam.
d. grinding crack.
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27. An extruded seamless tube has a long visible 31. Which of the following is typically considered an
indication along the length of the inside diameter. The internal weld discontinuity?
possible cause of this indication is:
a. Inadequate penetration.
a. incomplete penetration in the weld. b. Incomplete fusion.
b. an irrelevant indication from the seam weld c. Burn through.
metallurgical structure. d. Undercut.
c. an irrelevant indication caused by the tendency of
the magnetic particles to collect at the bottom of 32. An indication that appears as a very narrow straight
the inside diameter. line along the root of the weld is:
d. a draw mark.
a. slag lines.
28. A crack is in a critical area of an expensive part. The b. inadequate penetration.
first plan of action is to save the part. What action c. a crack.
should be taken? d. undercutting.
a. Put a weld bead over the crack and polish off the 33. Undercutting is an indication that may appear:
surface.
b. Grind a notch across the crack to determine if it a. as sharp contours around the edges of grinding
can be ground out. marks.
c. Take a radiograph of the cracked area. b. as zigzag or jagged shapes in the middle of the
d. Cut a section out of the part for metallurgical weld bead.
evaluation. c. only on one side of the weld or on both sides of
the weld.
29. Magnetic particles bunch in some fillet areas and d. as rounded indications.
stand on end on the edge of the part being
magnetized. These observations indicate that the: 34. Internal stress caused by shrinkage upon cooling of
the weld may cause:
a. particle concentration is too low.
b. flux density is excessive. a. porosity
c. flux has the improper orientation. b. slag inclusions.
d. flux density is too low. c. incomplete fusion.
d. a crack.
30. To evaluate an indication in the weld, information
about: 35. If improper electrodes or long arcs are used and
droplets of molten metal stick to the surface of the
metal near the weld seam, this is known as:
a. the welding parameters used and the welder ID
number should be known. a. weld spatter.
b. the welding procedure qualification date should be b. grinding marks.
readily available. c. arc strikes.
c. the strength of the magnetic field used to produce d. undercutting.
the indication should be known.
d. the welding procedure and the joint design should
be available.
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36. When the welding arc is started or displaced during 38. Which of the following discontinuities is NOT formed
the weld out onto the base metal surface, it will as a result of improper welding practices?
produce the following indication:
a. Arc strikes.
a. grinding mark. b. Weld spatter.
b. arc strike. c. Grinding marks.
c. weld spatter. d. Slag inclusions.
d. inadequate penetration.
39. Which of the following discontinuities can be easily
37. What is the weld discontinuity that occurs as a detected using magnetic particle examination?
product of insufficient heat or the presence of scale on
the fusion face of a weld bevel? a. Incomplete fusion.
b. Lack of cross-centered penetration.
a. Inadequate penetration. c. Inadequate penetration.
b. Incomplete fusion. d. Slag inclusions.
c. Slag lines.
d. Undercutting.
Answers
1b 2a 3b 4d 5c 6d 7a 8c 9b 10a 11c 12b 13a
14a 15d 16b 17d 18c 19a 20a 21c 22b 23a 24d 25d 26b
27d 28b 29b 30d 31b 32b 33c 34d 35a 36b 37b 38c 39c
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Chapter 10
Probability of Detection
Detectability versus Probability of sometimes provided; however, there are limits from
Detection the standpoint of weight, size and complexity.
For most critical components, a reliability
The ASNT NDT Level III must be sufficiently famil- demonstration program is required using fatigue-
iar with the magnetic particle testing (MT) process cracked specimens with cracks of known sizes. The
to know, generally, the size and basic location of dis- test procedures to be used on production parts are
continuities that can be detected by an MT method applied to the specimens and quantitative estimates
for generic part configurations. Very small disconti- of reliability are derived.
nuities may not be detectable. If they are detectable
by the magnetic particle testing process the proba- Human Factors That Affect Reliability
bility of detecting them increases as the discontinu- The human element is the most important factor in
ity size increases. Probability of detection varies by the interpretation and evaluation of magnetic parti-
inspectors, part processing, inspection technique, cle testing indications. Indications revealed by MT
material and other factors. Therefore, the quality of provide the evaluator with sizes and shapes and a
the magnetic field is critical. This is normally con- specific location. The inspector and other personnel
trolled by a technique to ensure consistent process- involved in the evaluation must have a wide back-
ing, viewing and interpretation. ground in materials and fabrication technology.
They should also have a broad knowledge of metals
Probability of Detection production, a basic understanding of metallurgy, a
knowledge of metalworking and manufacturing
Because indications must be visually detected, length methods, and experience in the ways different metals
is the most important characteristic. A 3 mm perform in service.
(0.12 in.) long indication can be seen; however, how In addition, inspection personnel must have
reliably can it be seen? A typical study to determine good eyesight because the indication must first be
the answer to this question might have the following seen to be detected. Inspectors must be conscien-
characteristics to find the probability of detection. tious and have temperaments to withstand the bore-
After testing over 100 inspectors using a 95 per- dom of testing many parts without becoming care-
cent confidence level, it was found that indications less. After many parts have been inspected without
with a length of 3 mm (0.12 in.) were detected only detecting a discontinuity, it is a natural human ten-
45 percent of the time. The study further revealed dency to become less alert. Management must be
that indications had to be at least 10 mm (0.39 in.) aware of such factors and select and qualify inspec-
long to be detected 90 percent of the time at a tion personnel very carefully.
95 percent confidence level.
Reproducibility
Reliability Nondestructive testing personnel are encouraged to
Reliability has achieved prominence as a result of the develop reliability into their tests to provide repro-
space age. All components of a space vehicle must ducible testing methods and practices. The best way
continue to be operational for a specified length of to do this is to use quality control practices on NDT
time. Even seemingly insignificant components must methods, inlcuding MT, to ensure that the tests are
be reliable; the failure of one critical diode could reproducible. This includes strict adherence to estab-
abort an entire mission. Redundant systems are lished practices and diligence that the many vari-
ables in the magnetic particle testing method are in
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control. Periodic unannounced audits are also used discontinuities can be injected into the system,;
to ensure that all of the parameters are under control. however, these sometimes go by undetected and get
Checks for reproducibility must include continu- lost in a large inventory.
ous observation f detail. If small details are allowed Another element in reliability is the develop-
to slide into a marginal tolerance level, an inspection ment of testing technique control. A method pro-
process will slowly slip out of control. It is necessary cedure covering each pair or group of similar parts
to establish a schedule of process control consisting should be on file and used for setting up each
of equipment maintenance, Ketos ring tests and batch of parts (single- or multiple-part batches)
meter calibrations. Test items having known for testing.
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Probability of Detection
Review Questions
1. Which statement is correct? 4. To ensure the reliability of test results during magnetic
particle testing, inspection personnel must:
a. If discontinuities are detectable by the magnetic
particle testing process, the probability of a. have an eye exam every six months.
detecting them increases as the discontinuity size b. have an annual eye exam.
decreases. c. have an eye exam for near-distance reading every
b. Knowledge of material type and history of six months and a color acuity on an annual basis.
processing can improve the probability of d. be capable of reading a minimum of Jaeger No. 1
detection in magnetic particle testing. or equivalent.
c. Very small discontinuities are always detected.
d. A technique to control consistent processing, 5. To develop reliability and reproducibility for magnetic
viewing and interpretation is unnecessary. particle testing:
2. In magnetic particle testing, the probability of a. operators should maintain their ASNT
detection varies in order of importance by: certification.
b. having a procedure written by experienced
a. part processing, inspection technique, material personnel in the field of MT method is essential.
and inspectors. c. following a written procedure and having
b. inspectors, inspection technique, part processing unannounced periodic audits are the best practice.
and material. d. inspectors should write their own procedures
c. inspectors, part processing, inspection technique because they are more familiar with all
and material. parameters.
d. inspection technique, inspectors, material and part
processing. 6. To ensure that the magnetic particle testing process is
repeatable:
3. The best practice to ensure the reproducibility of
magnetic particle testing is to: a. inspectors should rely on their experience to find
indications.
a. use quality control practices to ensure that the b. allow small details to slide into a marginal
tests are reproducible. tolerance level.
b. allow inspectors to vary from established c. audit only when there is a question of
practices. reproducibility.
c. offer a reward for each discontinuity found. d. establish a schedule of process control consisting
d. announce the time of all upcoming audits. of equipment maintenance.
ANSWERS
1b 2c 3a 4b 5c 6d
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Chapter 11
Process and Equipment Controls
Control and Verification of ammeter should show the maximum amperes capa-
Equipment Functions ble of being produced by the unit.
This test should be performed daily and the
The magnetic particle testing process is not reliable results should be compared to the certified/calibrat-
if the equipment or other parts of the process are not ed output of the unit and the actual ammeter read-
adequately maintained, monitored and controlled. ing. The ASNT NDT Level III should be notified of a
The process can be broken down into variables gradual decay in the maximum output of the unit.
of the system and each evaluated separately. These The results may require recording.
variables are:
1. electrical system and controls, Short Test
2. mechanical components, With either nothing or a nonconductor clamped
3. instrumentation, between the heads of the unit, and with the function
4. suspension vehicle, switch set at contact, the ammeter should read 0
5. magnetic particles and bath, and when the magnetize switch is pressed. Any move-
6. ultraviolet lights. ment of the ammeter pointer indicates a shorted
electrical system. This test should be performed
All equipment checks, suspension checks and daily and the results may require recording.
calibrations shall be conducted in accordance with
and at intervals specified in ASTM E 1444 / E Ammeter Check
1444 M, or as specified in the contract or purchase The ammeter should be calibrated periodically to
order. Evaluation of the data received from magnetic ensure that readings are accurate. The direct current
particle testing checks and calibrations should be ammeter of a bench machine is checked for accuracy
made at regular intervals to observe trends and by clamping a calibrated shunt/ammeter combina-
ensure that data are being properly collected and tion between the contact heads. The readings of the
recorded when recording is required by customer ammeter connected to the shunt are compared with
specification. Strict adherence to a quality program the ammeter on the machine. The two readings
is the only way to maintain an inspection system’s should be within ±10 percent or other contractually
reliability. All calibrations shall be traceable to specified values. Purchasing a spare analog ammeter
National Institute of Standards and Technology and from the manufacturer of the equipment is recom-
the certification of calibration must be available for mended. Analog ammeters are designed with very
review. All calibrations are conducted in accordance little damping in the movement, which allows them
with a nationally recognized calibration specification to react to the short rise time of a magnetizing shot.
such as ANSI Z540 or ISO 10012. The ammeter of a portable or mobile power sup-
ply is checked by connecting the shunt to the end of
Electrical System and Controls a 6 m (20 ft) length of cable from each of the direct
The electrical system and controls consist of maxi- current and common terminals.
mum unit output, short test, ammeter check, quick The shunt/ammeter and the unit ammeter
break test, shot timer check, system performance should be calibrated at least every six months or as
check and other machine checks. otherwise specified, and both the unit and shunt
meter readings must be recorded.
Maximum Unit Output
The maximum output of the unit’s electrical system Quick Break Test
is checked by placing a copper or aluminum bar This test is used to determine if the quick break cir-
between the contacts with the current control set at cuit on the coil is functioning properly. The test is
maximum output and the function switch set at con- performed with a quick break tester and should be
tact. When the magnetize switch is pressed, the conducted at least once every six months.
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Shot Timer Check Type II is the flashpoint, with Type II having the
This test is performed with a calibrated timing lower flashpoint. If there is a question as to whether
device and should be conducted at least once every the oil is the proper kind or not, a sample of the new
six months. The timer should be calibrated at least oil should be sent to a chemical laboratory for analy-
every six months with a calibrated timing device that sis. Tests for suspension control are required by
measures to at least ±0.1 s accuracy. The duration of ASTM E 1444 / E 1444 M. When initially charging or
current flow for each magnetizing shot must be at replacing the suspension, a sample of the new sus-
least 0.5 s, with a maximum of 1 s to prevent parts pension must be saved for later comparison during
from burning. Because the timing device accuracy is suspension tests. These checks are not required for
± 0.1 s, the unit timer should be set to at least 0.6 s to aerosol can solutions.
ensure at least 0.5 s unit on-time. Water may be used as the carrier when permitted
by the customer. There are advantages and disadvan-
System Performance Check tages to using water instead of oil. Water is cleaner to
Another quick way to show that the system is func- work with, is readily available and is less expensive
tioning properly and suspension has sufficient sensi- than oil.
tivity is to use a Ketos ring test. This test, first The following tests are conducted for both water
required by MIL-I-6868 in 1972, requires that a non- and oil: particle concentration, particle condition,
ferromagnetic central conductor with a diameter particle contamination, vehicle (carrier) contamina-
between 25.4 mm (1 in.) and 31.75 mm (1.25 in.) be tion, particle brightness and magnetic properties.
placed through the center hole and centered in the Water also requires a pH check and water break test,
demagnetized Ketos ring. The bar is clamped whereas oils may require a viscosity check.
between the contacts of the machine. The ring is cir-
cularly magnetized at current levels specified in Particle Concentration Check
ASTM E 1444 / E 1444 M, or other contractual docu- The concentration of particles in the suspension is
ments, and suspension is applied using the continu- critical and must be controlled closely. For fluores-
ous method. The ring is examined within 1 min after cent particles, the concentration shall be between
current application. Lighting requirements are based 0.1 mL and 0.4 mL/100 mL, inclusive. For nonfluo-
on the use of fluorescent or nonfluorescent baths. rescent particles, the concentration shall be between
Particles should show a minimum number of holes 1.2 mL and 2.4 mL/100 mL, inclusive.
on the outside edge of the ring depending on the The following procedure is used to test the con-
current used. centration of particles in a suspension bath:
The steel used is Ketos tool steel, a common tool 1. Agitate the solution for a minimum of 30 min.
steel that is heat treated to a Rockwell B-90 to B-95 2. Take a 100 mL sample of the suspension from the
hardness as specified in AS 5282. The type of steel, hose or tank in a 100 mL pear-shaped centrifuge
its hardness, and the type of annealing process are tube.
critical for reproducible results. The Ketos ring test 3. Demagnetize the solution.
should be performed daily and the results may 4. Place the tube in a tube holder and allow it to
require recording. settle for a minimum of 30 min for water
suspension and 60 min for oil suspension.
Other Machine Checks 5. Read the amount of settled particles in the stem
Other components of the machine should also be of the tube.
checked for proper operation. Accumulations of parti-
cles should be cleaned off the track and other areas of Particle Condition Check
the unit. The entire tank should be thoroughly cleaned After the particles have settled in the centrifuge tube,
each time the bath is changed and the inlet screen of they should be evaluated for agglomeration and
the pump should be checked for clogs and holes. brightness. Fluorescent solutions are evaluated under
ultraviolet light and visible solutions are evaluated
Suspension Control Test under visible light. Solutions are compared to the
sample saved when the suspension was initially
Oils used as the carrier vehicle for magnetic particles mixed. The particles should be loose and not lumpy,
should be procured in accordance with AMS 2641, and the brightness of the two samples should be rel-
Type I. Type II materials may be used, but are not atively the same. If not, either further evaluation
recommended and may not be permitted by some should be conducted or the suspension should be
specifications. The difference between Type I and changed.
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Particle Contamination Check Viscosity Check

This test is to ensure that foreign particles, dirt and The viscosity check, if required, should be per-
other contaminants do not exceed 30 percent of the formed in accordance with AMS 2641. The viscosity
solids in the graduated portion of the tube. Look for should be no greater than 5 mm/s2 (5 centistokes) at
striations or bands and differences in color or room temperature or 3 mm/s2 (3 centistokes) at
appearance of the particles. If contamination exceeds 38 °C (100 °F). This test should be performed
30 percent, the suspension should be changed. This monthly and the actual viscosity value recorded.
test should be performed weekly and the results may
require recording. Light Intensity and Integrity
Vehicle (Carrier) Contamination Check for Ultraviolet, visible and ambient light are all used in the
Fluorescent Baths evaluation of magnetic particle testing indications.
Contamination changes the color of the suspension
and may mask or prevent indications from forming. Measurement of Ultraviolet Light
This test is performed by examining the liquid above The intensity and integrity of ultraviolet lights shall
the precipitate with ultraviolet light. If the liquid sig- be checked with an ultraviolet meter that measures
nificantly fluoresces, the suspension should be light in the range of 320 nm to 380 nm. The normal-
changed. This test should be performed weekly and ly accepted intensity is 1000 µW/cm2 at the test sur-
the results may require recording face. Measurement is normally conducted at 381 mm
(15 in.) because most inspections are conducted
Particle Brightness Check with the light closer than 381 mm (15 in.) to the sur-
Brightness of the particles is evaluated by compar- face being evaluated. This measurement is made
ing the in-use particles that have settled out in the daily and the actual intensity value may require
centrifuge tube to those in the unused suspension recording.
saved when the solution was mixed. This test Lenses or filters are checked visually to ensure
should be performed weekly and the results may they are free from dirt, oils and other contaminants
require recording. that may inhibit light transmission. Also, they are
checked for cracks or chips that may allow visible
Magnetic Properties Check light to interfere with the evaluation process. Some
The magnetic properties of the particles are deter- specifications require the measurement of visible
mined by a test part or the Ketos ring (AS 5282). light emitted by the ultraviolet light. This test should
Sensitivity is checked on a test part that has a be conducted daily and recording of the value may
representative fine crack. The part is magnetized to be required.
a specific technique for each test. If the Ketos ring is
used instead, the number of holes observed for Measurement of Visible Light
three or more amperages is recorded. The Ketos For adequate evaluation, light intensity should be
ring and the test part must be periodically cleaned 1076 lx (100 ftc) at the test surface when inspecting
to remove surface contamination that may interfere with visible magnetic particles. Some specifications
with the test. require 1076 lx (100 ftc) to be available when evalu-
ating indications detected by fluorescent particles.
Water Break Check Intensity of the visible light should be checked week-
A water break test should be performed to deter- ly and recording of the intensity value may be
mine if the water suspension will wet parts properly. required.
The test is performed by laying a flat sheet of pol-
ished metal on the bench of the magnetizing equip- Measurement of Ambient Light
ment and running a stream of suspension over it. The maximum ambient light (background visible
The surface of the plate should be covered from edge light) permitted is 22 lx (2 ftc). Measurements are
to edge. The suspension should not roll up like water made in the area where ultraviolet light is used to
on a waxed surface, but should be even and in a con- evaluate the part. This measurement should be per-
tinuous layer. This test should be performed daily formed weekly or when lighting conditions are
and the results recorded. changed. The actual intensity may require recording.
The enclosed or darkened area must be free of extra-
neous light that may be distracting to the inspector
or that may affect adapted vision.
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Review Questions
1. The ammeter should be checked against a calibrated 4. Which of the following is NOT a means of verifying
shunt/ammeter: the correct operation of the magnetic particle testing
process?
a. at the start of each shift.
b. daily. a. Checking the ultraviolet light intensity.
c. weekly. b. Checking the water washability of the emulsifier.
d. at least every six months or as otherwise specified. c. Calibrating the ammeter with a master ammeter
and shunt.
2. The magnetizing current ammeter should be d. Checking the magnetic properties of the particles
calibrated by: with a Ketos ring.
a. a field strength meter. 5. The Ketos ring test will provide a complete functional
b. nothing —installed ammeters are considered to be check of the magnetic particle testing process. It is a
accurate unless damaged by overload or accident. quick, simple test that should be used:
c. a calibrated ammeter and master shunt placed
between the machine’s current contacts. a. daily.
d. a calibrated galvanometer and bridge b. hourly.
circuit connected across the installed ammeter. c. each shift.
d. whenever the manager requires it.
3. The alternating current ammeter should be checked:
6. The Ketos ring test provides information about the:
a. with a shunt and a master alternating current
ammeter. a. hardness of the piece being inspected.
b. with an impedance bridge and an oscilloscope. b. system sensitivity.
c. with a master current transformer and a calibrated c. intensity and integrity of ultraviolet lights.
alternating current ammeter. d. concentration of particles in suspension.
d. only if it is damaged.
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7. A settling test shows that the magnetic particle bath is 8. The test used to check the strength or concentration
too high in particle content. To correct the situation: of the wet method is called the:
a. turn off the circulating pump for 30 min and a. hardness test.
recheck; continue this procedure until the bath b. sensitivity test.
concentration is within limits. c. settling test.
b. demagnetize the bath sample in the centrifuge d. hydrometer test.
tube and recheck.
c. add suspension vehicle or solvent, as appropriate, 9. The magnetic particle bath concentration should be
to achieve an allowable particle content. checked:
d. continue to circulate the bath until an allowable
concentration is achieved. a. daily.
b. weekly.
c. monthly.
d. in accordance with the applicable procedures and
specifications.
ANSWERS
1d 2c 3a 4b 5a 6b 7c 8c 9d
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Chapter 12
Specifications, Procedures, Techniques and
Standards
Introduction However, the customer must also be satisfied that the

The inspector must be thoroughly familiar with the fabrication or inspection facility has an adequate
governing specifications, procedures and techniques quality control system and qualified personnel to
before performing any testing or inspection. Gener- produce or test the product.
ally, specifications establish the parameters control- Specifications establish the parameters for con-
ling the process. Procedures are the detailed how-to trolling specific processes —in this case, they are
documents that delineate how the specification is to details of the magnetic particle testing process.
be applied within the parameters specified in the 1. The scope should establish the limits of
control document. Techniques are instructions for applicability of the document or special
inspecting a specific part or group of similar parts. conditions that make the preparation of the
standard necessary.
Specifications 2. The applicable documents are company or
Specifications are contractual documents that estab- industry documents that are referenced.
lish the parameters for the process and are used by 3. Materials and other expendable supplies are listed
engineering, management and purchasing person- with their trade name and source.
nel. The edition of a specification that is current at 4. Equipment to be used is listed.
the time a contract is signed and dated is the appli- 5. Requirements are presented. These state the
cable revision unless otherwise specified in the con- acceptable ranges of the factors being measured
tract, an amendment to the contract or a deviation. and controlled as well as the frequency that they
The main purpose of a specification is to convey the should be measured.
limitations of perfection or imperfection of the 6. Procedures detail the manner and means of
object being described. In most cases, specifications obtaining the desired measurements.
are restricted to only the quantitative features of the 7. Safety requirements are presented where
object or process. Between buyers and sellers, the applicable.
specification quantitatively describes the object or the 8. Notes may be included regarding items of advice
process that the buyer is willing to accept from the or of caution.
seller. Any deviation from the limits of the specifica- 9. Reference documents are sometimes listed to
tion requires the written consent of the purchaser. provide background information for the user.
Specifications may be general for the process or
describe a specific product and its quality or per- Acceptance Criteria
formance requirements. They may also contain Acceptance criteria is specified by the cognizant
acceptance criteria or the acceptance criteria may be engineering organization and may or may not be the
in a separate specification, on the drawing or in company requesting the inspection; however, the
another purchase order document. cognizant engineering organization’s specifications
Specifications should provide sufficient detail so are applicable. The acceptance criteria may be on the
an engineer can develop fabrication, processing, drawing, in the process specification or a separate
inspecting and testing procedures to ensure the part specification, or may be in a third-party document
will meet its structural and functional requirements. (ASTM, SAE, etc.).
It should also contain enough information so a fabri- Acceptance criteria are included in some specifi-
cator or inspection facility can prepare quality con- cations to provide ranges, classes and grades of qual-
trol procedures to ensure integrity of the product. ity that are acceptable. An example of this is found in
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SAE AMS 2175 Castings, Classification and Inspec- requirements, limitations and criteria set forth by the
tion of. This document was developed for aerospace engineering, management and quality departments
castings, but its scope is broad enough to be used of the purchaser and supplier. The procedure should
for almost any type of casting that will be inspect- present everything an inspector needs to know to
ed. This particular document rates castings apply the process and test the parts to the intended
according to class and grade. Functionally, a cast- specification. Though procedures are frequently
ing could be in Class A, B or C with subgrades developed in laboratory conditions on special test
within each class. objects, they should be tried under production
Class A is a high-reliability casting that requires conditions by production personnel before actual
complete inspection by both radiographic testing implementation.
and either magnetic particle testing or liquid pene- Procedures establish the details for controlling
trant testing. Classes B and C have lower reliability specific processes.
requirements and require full magnetic particle 1. The scope should establish the limits of
testing and a sampling plan for radiographic test- applicability of the document or special
ing. The grade of the material determines its conditions that make the preparation of the
acceptability. The grade is based on the design and standard necessary.
structural requirements of the casting. There is a 2. The applicable documents are company
tabulation in the document of the quantitative documents that are referenced.
ranges and limits of acceptable discontinuities. A 3. Materials and other expendable supplies are
component specification referencing this particular occasionally listed with their trade names and
document must specify both the class and grade of sources.
casting required. 4. Equipment to be used is listed.
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code also 5. Requirements are presented. These state the
provides similar data. Welds in pressure vessels are acceptable ranges of the factors being measured
loaded differently, depending on their locations. As a and controlled as well as the frequency that they
consequence, the acceptance criteria can be different. should be measured.
For example, the configuration of the head provides 6. Procedures detail the manner and means of
different types of loads on the welds. A hemispheric obtaining the desired measurements.
head may have primarily tensile loads if the plates 7. Safety requirements are presented where
match perfectly with no offset. A vessel with a flatter applicable.
head could experience tensile loads but also a bend- 8. Notes may be included regarding items of advice
ing stress. These different load factors can result in or of caution.
the need to apply different acceptance criteria from 9. Reference documents are sometimes listed to
one location to another. provide background information for the user.
Documents containing acceptance criteria pres-
ent a technique of grading certain types of materials A procedure should detail at least the following
or products. Certain variables are categorized, such items:
as the alloy, type of fabrication, finish, coating, 1. Materials, shapes or sizes to which the procedure
strength, safety and function. These factors should is specifically applicable.
be considered in the design analysis before assigning 2. The type of magnetization to be used.
a class or grade to the product. The acceptance crite- 3. The equipment to be used for magnetization.
ria state the size and type of discontinuities accept- 4. Surface preparation (finishing and cleaning).
able in a specified area. The product can be zoned to 5. The ferromagnetic particles to be used
allow different grade levels in different locations on (manufacturer, color, type).
the product, if so desired. However, in some cases, 6. Magnetization current and time involved.
acceptance criteria may have only one discontinuity 7. Sketches or charts indicating the location, type
size above which it must be removed, removed and and amperage of each test area and, if necessary,
repaired, or scrapped. the sequence of tests.
Procedures For more specific information on the content of
The scope of a procedure is intended to cover a sin- procedures, reference ASTM E 1444 / E 1444 M.
gle process, complex or critical component, or a Occasionally, procedures contain the accept-
group of similar items. Procedures contain the ance criteria from the specification that relates to
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Specifications, Procedures, Techniques and Standardss
the specific part. This would present the exact pro- Other Types of Controlling
cedure and acceptance criteria for each specific Documents
part as stated in the specification or the engineering
drawing. The procedure should be retained and filed There are many types of controlling documents used
by number in the magnetic particle testing area and in industry. They include:
it should be referred to each time a batch of parts is 1. Handbooks —books of basic data on a specific
to be inspected. subject with references to literature to support the
handbook data.
Sample Magnetic Particle Testing Procedure 2. Recommended practices —uniform practices
A sample magnetic particle testing procedure can be that, with reasonable compliance, produce
found in Appendix 1. desired results.
3. Reference photographs —a presentation of
Techniques different types of discontinuities of certain sizes
Techniques are much more specific than procedures that can be used as acceptance criteria if
and often require no more than one page. These referenced by a specification or contract.
documents outline the very basic requirements, such 4. Maintenance manuals —explain how to set up and
as specific equipment, solutions, magnetization maintain magnetic particle testing equipment.
amperages, magnetization direction, specific method 5. Operation manuals —contain instructions about
of application of the solution, how the part is to be the operation of magnetic particle testing
mounted in head or coil, etc. Techniques meet the equipment.
requirements of the applicable specifications and 6. Overhaul manuals —explain how to disassemble,
procedures. The contract may require techniques be repair and reassemble magnetic particle testing
approved by the customer. equipment.
Techniques do not normally contain any how-to 7. Drawings —the designs of a machine or part that
information. Most contracts require that specifica- show the material, dimensions, processing and
tions, procedures and techniques be prepared and/or other pertinent data.
signed by an ASNT NDT Level III in the applicable 8. Process records —records that accompany parts
method. during their manufacture to show the proper
sequence of each operation and the responsibility
of workmanship.
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Review Questions
1. On a daily basis, NDT Level I personnel normally use: 5. The controlling document(s) that would be most
likely to contain acceptance criteria for
a. the model specification. discontinuities indicated by a magnetic particle test on
b. component quality specification. a particular casting is a:
c. the AWS Structural Welding Code.
d. magnetic particle testing procedures. a. standard.
b. component specification.
2. A document in widespread use by large segments of c. code.
industry is titled Recommended Practice for Measurement d. process specification.
and Control of Magnetic Particle Materials Used in
Magnetic Particle Inspection. This document is most 6. One step in a procedure makes reference to a sequence
probably a: of steps contained in another document without
reproducing them in the procedure being used. Which
a. code. of the following statements is true?
b. standard.
c. process specification. a. The referenced document is for advisory use only;
d. maintenance manual. it is not necessary to perform the steps included in
the referenced document.
3. The organization that most probably developed and b. It is improper to reference one procedure in
issued the document referenced in question 2 is: another. The referenced document steps need not
be performed unless they are reproduced in the
a. a large corporation. document being used.
b. an industry association representing a number of c. The referenced document steps should be
corporations that all produce the same type of performed. The inspector must be familiar with
product. the referenced document and the referenced
c. a technical or professional society representing document must be available for reference.
design engineers. d. The referenced document steps should be
d. a national or international consensus standards performed, but only if the inspector is familiar
writing organization. with the referenced document and can perform
the steps without having the document in hand.
4. Small parts are sometimes fabricated from
engineering drawings that contain acceptance criteria
in the notes on the face of the drawing. In such cases,
the drawing most nearly represents a:
a. code.
b. standard.
c. specification.
d. procedure.
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Specifications, Procedures, Techniques and Standards
7. A customer’s specification for a particular part The following questions refer to the procedure P-3650, Steel
includes a detailed procedure for magnetic particle Cleanliness by the Magnetic Particle Method, found in
testing. The inspection facility does not have Appendix 1.
equipment of the specific type that the customer has
required. However, the ASNT NDT Level III is familiar 8. Which of the following inspection personnel should
with the customer’s equipment and can verify that the perform the magnetic particle testing to P-3650?
inspection facility’s equipment is at least as effective.
The ASNT NDT Level III is asked to comment on the a. A certified Level I working under the supervision
customer’s procedure because the company wishes to of a certified Level II.
bid competitively. The recommendation should be b. A certified Level II working under the supervision
that: of a certified ASNT NDT Level III.
c. A certified Level I should perform the magnetizing
a. management should be informed that the facility’s procedure and a certified Level II should count the
equipment, while different, has equal capabilities indications and record the results.
on the equipment specified and that the ASNT d. A Level II or ASNT NDT Level III should perform
NDT Level III will prepare a procedure based on the test because this procedure is complex.
the equipment that can be sent to the customer for
approval along with the bid. 9. Procedure P-2468 provides for step-down specimens
b. because this situation represents an opportunity that have various step lengths. If specimens were
for the facility to get additional equipment, the received for testing under P-3650 that had step
ASNT NDT Level III should inform management diameters of 25.4 mm (1 in.), 50.8 mm (2 in.) and
that the only safe way to bid on this job is to 76.2 mm (3 in.) and step lengths of 76.2 (3 in.), the
promise to purchase the customer specified areas of the survey surfaces for each step would be, for
equipment. the 25.4- (1-inch), 50.8- (2-inch) and 76.2-millimeter
c. the ASNT NDT Level III should recommend that (3-inch) diameter steps, respectively:
the company not bid on the job because the
inspection facility does not have the proper a. 239.27 mm2, 68.07 mm2 and 79.76 mm2
equipment. (9.42 in2, 6.28 in2 and 3.14 in.2).
d. the ASNT NDT Level III should inform b. 79.76 mm2, 68.07 mm2 and 239.27 mm2
management that after the inspection facility gets (3.14 in2, 6.28 in2 and 9.42 in.2).
the job, the details can be worked out with the c. 6077 mm2,12 155 mm2, 18 232 mm2
customer. (9.42 in.2, 18.84 in.2 and 28.26 in.2).
d. 18 232 mm2, 12 155 mm2, 6077 mm2
(28.26 in.2, 18.84 in.2 and 9.42 in.2).
10. Fluorescent particles are not readily available for these

tests. Per P-3650, it is permissible to use visible
magnetic particles:
a. under no condition.
b. if the concentration as measured in the centrifuge
tube ranges between 1.0 and 1.2.
c. if the slurry sensitivity test produces indications of
at least four holes in the Ketos ring.
d. with any technique because the procedure does
not specify the use of either fluorescent or visible
particles.
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11. To reveal all of the inclusions of interest, the 12. A specimen was received for testing in accordance
specimens should be magnetized by: with P-3650. The specimen was
31 mm × 60 mm (1.25 in. × 2.38 in.) cross section and
a. alternating current longitudinal 103 mm (4.06 in.) long. The minimum magnetizing
magnetization. current that should be used is:
b. direct current circular magnetization.
c. direct current circular magnetization followed by a. 1156 A.
three fast alternating current circular shots. b. 2311 A.
d. alternating current circular magnetization. c. 4691 A.
d. 7260 A.
13. For the specimen in Question 12, the area of the

survey section is:
a. 184 mm2 (7.26 in.2).

b. 238 mm2 (9.38 in.2).
c. 307 mm2 (12.08 in.2).
d. 749 mm2 (29.48 in.2).
ANSWERS
1d 2b 3d 4c 5b 6c 7a 8a 9c 10a 11b 12b 13d
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Chapter 13
Safety
Introduction
Improperly handled parts and equipment can
Safety is a critical issue that involves everything cause damage that renders the parts unsatisfactory
related to the process —personnel, handling of for their intended use. Deep nicks, scratches and
parts, equipment, inspection materials and the facili- other damage may not be repairable or may require
ty in which the inspection is being conducted. Many excessive time and costs for repair or rework. Care
injuries are the direct result of carelessness and a should be exercised at all times.
cluttered work area. The inspector should always be Improper positioning of parts in heads or
alert to surroundings, work conditions and equip- improper use of clamps and prods may cause arc
ment condition, and should keep the area clean and burns that render the parts unacceptable for their
free of extraneous objects such as parts, cables and intended use or require extra time and costs to
equipment not being used. repair or rework. Proper pads and good contact are
essential at all times.
Personnel
The main risks faced by personnel are from lifting, Equipment
burns, electrical shock and equipment. Injuries are Damage to equipment is normally the result of
often a direct result of improper lifting or movement improper handling, use or connection. Dropping
of heavy objects or equipment. Proper lifting tech- equipment, dropping objects on the equipment and
niques should be practiced at all times. When using excessive force or pressure when making adjust-
hoists, forklifts and other mechanical devices, the ments or connections may cause damage.
operator should verify that the equipment is in prop- All equipment should be used within the limits
er working order. For instance, check that cables are established by the manufacturer. Attempting to
not frayed, connecting devices and cables are of the use equipment outside of its designed limits may
proper weight range for the load to be moved, etc. cause damage to circuits, meters, gages and other
The operator should understand the proper opera- components.
tion of all equipment and devices used. Connection to electrical outlets or other current-
Burns can result from arcs and fires. Arcs are carrying devices should always meet the National
caused when heads, clamps or prods do not make Electric Code and be of the proper value for equip-
proper contact with the part. Under some circum- ment or equipment setting. Failure to adhere to the
stances, arcs may burn the hands, face or eyes. The code may cause equipment damage or personal
improper handling of equipment may cause fires in injury.
adjacent materials or the petroleum carrier. The petroleum distillate used as the carrier in
Eye protection is necessary when working out of wet horizontal units is flammable. Materials meeting
position (on vertical and overhead tests) and gloves the requirements of AMS 2641, Type I, are less flam-
may be necessary for protection from reactions to mable than Type II; however, they will both burn
chemical solvents used as carriers in wet applications. under certain circumstances. Caution should be
Electrical shock may be caused by improperly exercised to prevent arcing from any source in the
maintained equipment, frayed power cables and area.
carelessness. The facility and the work area should be cleared
of loose items such as cables, parts, trash and any
Parts materials that are not contributing directly to the
Parts should be handled carefully to prevent damage testing process. A cluttered work area could cause
and improper contact with current-producing personal injuries, damage to equipment and parts,
equipment when magnetizing or demagnetizing. and possibly damage to the facility.
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Ultraviolet Lamp Hazards lamp. The temperature is not high enough to be

visually apparent, but is high enough to cause severe
High-pressure ultraviolet lamps that have high burns.
operating temperatures should not be used when Ultraviolet radiation in certain wavelengths may
flammable vapors may be present. A safety review be extremely dangerous to unprotected skin and
performed by a qualified technician should be com- eyes. The ultraviolet radiation testing environment
pleted before the first object is inspected and at regu- should be evaluated for safety by a qualified techni-
lar intervals to ensure safety. cian. Typically, high-pressure ultraviolet radiation
Ultraviolet lamp housings and filters are sources are rated as high in health hazard potential,
extremely hot during operation. Care must be exer- whereas fluorescent phosphor sources are typically
cised to prevent touching or contacting the surfaces rated as mild health hazards. Care must always be
with any exposed part of the body. Severe burns may exercised when using an ultraviolet radiation source
result. The temperature of an operating ultraviolet and only appropriate sources may be used by mag-
lamp reach as high as 121 °C (250 °F) or more dur- netic particle testing technicians. Ultraviolet radia-
ing operation. This is above the ignition or flash- tion exposure levels — both time and intensity —
point of fuel vapors, which burst into flame if they should be monitored.
contact the bulb at this temperature. The bulb tem-
perature may also heat the external surfaces of the
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APPENDIX 1
Test Procedure Example
The following is a sample procedure for performing a magnetic particle test. This procedure is typical of many found in
industry.
The ASNT NDT Level III must sign this document, technique sheets and other documents related to the magnetic particle
test prepared within the company in accordance with company procedures.
(Rev. C),
Nov. 1, 2011
Supersedes
Rev. B
Jan. 14, 2008.
Procedure No.: P-3650
Procedure Title
Steel Cleanliness by the Magnetic Particle Method
1.0 Scope
This document provides a procedure for magnetic particle inspection of the steel cleanliness specimens prepared in accordance
with Procedure P-2468.
2.0 References
PBA-1004, Aircraft Quality Steel Cleanliness—Magnetic Particle Method
PBA-906, Magnetic Particle Inspection
ASTM E 1444, Standard Practice for Magnetic Particle Examination
ASNT-CP-189, Personnel Qualification and Certification in Nondestructive Testing (2011)
P-2468, Steel Cleanliness Specimen Preparation
3.0 Personnel
Personnel shall be certified in accordance with ASNT-CP-189 (2011). These tests shall be conducted by certified Level I personnel
working to this procedure under the supervision of certified Level II personnel.
4.0 Equipment
1. Wet horizontal magnetic particle machine with fluorescent suspension
2. Ketos ring
3. 2.5 cm diameter copper bar, 45.7 cm long
4. 100 W minimum pressure mercury-vapor ultraviolet light
5. 100 mL pear-shaped centrifuge tube
5.0 Definition of Terms

Stringers — nonmetallic inclusions in the steel
Steel cleanliness specimen — a steel specimen that has been machined in accordance with Procedure P-2468
Perimeter — perimeter of a square or rectangle is the sum of the four sides
Magnetizing current for a square or rectangular specimen cross section — amperage = perimeter/3.1416 × 1000
For example, for a bar 1.3 cm thick and 10.0 cm wide:
perimeter = 10.0 cm + 10.0 cm + 1.3 cm + 1.3 cm = 22.6 cm
amperage = 22.6 cm/3.1416 × 1000 = 7194 A.
Note: The next highest current available shall be used if current selection is not continuous.
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Magnetic Particle Testing l Appendix 1
6.0 Standardization
Prior to any test in accordance with this procedure, the pump on the machine shall be operated continuously for 30 minutes.
A 100 mL centrifuge tube shall be filled with suspension taken from the exit noble to the 100 mL level and allowed to stand for
30 minutes. A range of 0.2 to 0.7 mL of particles shall be indicated in the tube. If necessary, the suspension shall be adjusted or
changed to comply with the requirements of PBA-906. Conduct a slurry sensitivity test in accordance with MIL-I-6868 using the
Ketos ring. At least four holes in the ring must be indicated at 2500 A on a 2.5 cm (1 in.) copper bar. This test must be made
immediately prior to the cleanliness test in accordance with this procedure.
7.0 Test Procedure

7.1 Cleaning
Degrease the specimens to remove oil or antirust coatings in accordance with PBA-906.
7.2 Inspection
Using a wet continuous direct current fluorescent particle procedure, start at the smallest size on the specimen and
magnetize at 1000 A per 2.5 cm (1 in.) diameter. To compute the amperage for a rectangular specimen, measure the
perimeter of each step of the specimen and divide by 3.1416. The formula for the amperage of a 2.5 cm (1 in.) square bar
would be:
amperage = 10.0 cm/3.1416 × 1000 = 3183 A.
Note: The next highest current available shall be used if current selection is not continuous.
The specimen shall be clamped between the contact plates and direct circular magnetism used. Magnetize one time, cover
the part with suspension, stop the flow of suspension and magnetize three times in a fast sequence. The magnetization
shall not be less than 0.2 s.
7.3 On each successive step of the specimen, count the number of stringers and record on the record sheet as required by
paragraph 8.0 of this procedure.
7.4 Repeat steps 7.2 and 7.3 for each step of the specimen.
7.5 Postcleaning
Wipe the specimen with a clean cloth to remove magnetic particles and oil, then wrap in paper.
8.0 Recording Procedure

A separate recording form shall be used for each specimen. The form used shall be as attached to this procedure.
(See Figure A1.1.)
a. On the forms accompanying the specimens, record the Material Spec., P.O. Number and Heat Number in the upper corner.
Fill in the largest diameter in Size in the upper corner.
b. Fill in the date.
c. Fill in the diameter of the first step in the first column.
d. Compute the area of the step and record in the second column.
The area of the circular cross section = diameter × 3.14 × length of step.
The area of the rectangular cross section step = perimeter × length of step.
e. Count and measure the length of each indication on each step. Record the number of indications in the proper column
according to their length.
f. Add all of the indications for each step and record in the Sum column.
g. Divide the sum by the area and enter the number in Sum/Area column.
h. Add all of the Sum/Area entries and record in Frequency per Specimen column.
i. Multiply the number of indications of each length range by the Progression Factor at the top of the column.
j. Add all of the products for each sheet and record in the Total Product column.
k. Divide the Total Product by the Area for each step and enter in Product/Area column.
l. Total the Product/Area column and enter in the Severity per Specimen space.
m. If more than one specimen is tested for a single Heat Number, P.O. Number and Material Spec., add the Frequency per
Specimen from each record sheet to obtain the Total Frequency of Heat. Divide the Total Frequency of Heat by the Number
of Specimens and enter the result in the Average Frequency of Heat space on each record sheet.
n. Similarly, add the Severity Per Specimen from each record sheet to obtain the Total Severity of Heat. Divide the Total
Severity of Heat by the Number of Specimens and enter in the Average Severity of Heat space on each record sheet.
94
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Material Spec.
Record for Determination of Frequency-Severity P.O. No.
by Magnetic Particle Inspection Procedure Heat No.
Form
P-3650C
Step-down Bar Specimen

Size 76.2 mm (3 in.) diameter
Premium Aircraft Quality Steel
Date April 6, 2012
Step-down Section Length and Number of Indications/Inclusions Frequency Severity

Figure A1.1 Sample recording form
Diameter × Length Area 1.5-6.4 mm 3.3-6.4 mm 6.4-12.7 mm 12.7-19.1 mm 19.1-25.4 mm 25.4-38.1 mm

(mm, in.) (mm2, in.2) (0.06-0.25 in.) (0.13-0.25 in.) (0.25-0.5 in.) (0.5-0.75 in.) (0.75-1 in.) (1-1.5 in.)
0.5 1 2 4 8 16 Sum Sum/Area Total Product Product/Area
1. 25.4 mm × 25.4 mm L
3.14 14 15 10 6 3 2 50 15.9 122 38.9
(1 in. × 1 in. L)
2. 50.8 mm × 25.4 mm L
6.28 10 6 4 3 1 0 24 3.8 39 6.2
(2 in. × 1 in. L)
3. 76.2 mm × 25.4 mm L
9.42 8 6 2 1 1 1 19 2.0 42 4.5
(3 in. × 1 in. L)
4.
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5.
Frequency per Specimen 21.7
49.6
Severity per Specimen
Total Frequency of Heat

Average Frequency of Heat = =
Number of Specimens
Total Severity of Heat

Average Severity of Heat = =
Number of Specimens
Product = Total Number of Indications × the Progression Factor for each Length of Indication
Inspector Signature
95
Test Procedure Example
Magnetic Particle Testing
APPENDIX 2
Magnetization Chart
Magnezaon
Alternang Current Direct Current
Residual Connuous Residual Connuous
Circular Circular
Portable Staonary Staonary Portable
Horizontal Clamps
Clamps Unit Heads
Yokes (AC) Central Yokes (DC)

Conductor
Prods (AC) Prods (DC)
Leeches (AC) Leeches (DC)
Flexible
Cables
Longitudinal Mul- Longitudinal

direconal
Portable Staonary Staonary Staonary Portable
Cables (AC) Coils (DC) Cables (DC)

Horizontal
Unit Heads
Yokes (AC) Cables (DC) Yokes (DC)
Prods (AC) Prods (DC)
Leeches (AC) Leeches (DC)
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APPENDIX 3
Materials Properties
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Magnetic Particle Testing
APPENDIX 4
Discontinuities Found Using Magnetic
Particle Testing
Processing Discontinuities
Inherent Discontinuities Primary Processing Secondary Processing
Rolling, Forging Heat Treating, Grinding,

Welding
and Extruding Plating and Machining
• Blowholes and porosity • Bursts • Arc strikes • Grinding cracks

• Cold shuts • Cupping • Heat-affected zone cracking • Heat-treat cracks
• Hot tears • Flash line racks/tears inclusions (welding) • Machining tears
• Nonmetallic inclusions • Forging laps • Lack of penetration
• Shrinkage (microshrinkage) • Hydrogen flake • Surface shrinkage cracks
• Shrinkage cracks • Inclusions (stringers)
• Laminations
• Seams
• Seams (rolled threads)
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APPENDIX 5
Glossary
A B
acceptance standard: A specimen test object similar to
background: In magnetic particle testing, the appearance of
the product to be inspected, containing natural or artificial
discontinuities that are well defined and similar in size to, or the surface against which test indications are viewed.
extent of, the maximum acceptable in the product. barkhausen effect (barkhausen steps): The magnetization
alternating current: An electric current that reverses the
of a ferromagnetic substance by an increasing magnetic field;
direction of its flow at regular intervals. takes place in discontinuous steps rather than continuously.
The effect results from the orientation of magnetic domains.
alternating current field: The active magnetic field It was first observed by H. Barkhausen in 1919.
produced around a conductor by an alternating current
bath: See suspension.
flowing in the conductor.
bearding: See furring.
alternating current magnetization: Magnetization by a
magnetic field that is generated when alternating current is berthold penetrameter: A magnetic flux indicator
flowing. containing an artificial discontinuity in the shape of a cross,
ampere: A unit of electric current. Abbreviated A or amp.
mounted below an adjustable cover plate.
ampere per meter: The magnetic field strength in air at the

center of a single-turn circular coil having a diameter of 1 m, C
through which a current of 1 A is flowing. Abbreviated A•m–1
capacitor discharge method: A single-shot magnetization
or A/m.
method using discharge from a bank of capacitors. A means
ampere turns: The product of the number of turns of a coil by which electrical current is built up and stored until a
and the current in amperes flowing through the coil. sufficient level is achieved to provide a predetermined
magnetic field in a test object, usually saturation.
arc: A luminous high-temperature discharge produced when
all electric current flows across a gaseous gap. carrier fluid: The liquid vehicle in which fluorescent or
nonfluorescent magnetic particles are suspended for ease of
arc strikes: Localized burn damage to an object from the arc application. See vehicle.
caused by breaking an energized electric circuit. Also called
arc burns. central conductor: An electric conductor passed through
the opening in a part with an aperture, or through a hole in a
arcing: Current flow through a gap, often accompanied by test object, for the purpose of creating a circular magnetic
intense heat and light. field in the object.
articulated pole pieces: On a magnetizing yoke, circular magnetic field: The magnetic field surrounding an
independently adjustable magnetic elements enabling the electrical conductor (test object) when a current is passed
magnetization of irregular test object profiles. longitudinally through the conductor.
artificial discontinuity: A manufactured material anomaly. circular magnetization: The magnetization in an object
See acceptance standard and reference standard. resulting from current passed longitudinally through the
artificial flaw standard: See acceptance standard. object itself or through an inserted central conductor.
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circumferential magnetization: See circular magnetization. defect: A discontinuity whose size, shape, orientation or
location makes it detrimental to the useful service of the test
coercive force Hc: The magnetizing field strength required
object or which exceeds the accept/reject criteria of an
to bring the magnetic flux density of a magnetized material applicable specification.
to 0.
demagnetization: The reduction of residual magnetism to
coil method: A method of magnetization in which all or a
an acceptable level.
portion of the object is encircled by a current-carrying coil.
demagnetizing coil: A coil of conductive material carrying
coil shot: A technique of producing longitudinal
alternating current used for
magnetization by passing electric current through a coil demagnetization.
encircling the test object.
diamagnetic material: A material with magnetic
coil technique: See coil method.
permeability less than one.
conditioning agent: An additive to water suspensions that
direct contact magnetization: See current flow technique.
imparts specific properties such as proper wetting, particle
dispersion or corrosion resistance. direct current: An electric current flowing continually in
one direction through a conductor.
contact head: Electrode assembly used to clamp and
support an object to facilitate passage of electric current direct current field: A residual magnetic field or an active
through the object for circular magnetization. magnetic field produced by direct current flowing in a
conductor.
contact method: See current flow technique.
discontinuity: A change in the physical structure or
contact pad: Replaceable metal pad, usually made of lead
configuration of an object. May be intentional or
or copper braid, placed on electrodes to give good electrical unintentional.
contact, thereby preventing damage such as arc strikes to the
test object. domain: A saturated macroscopic substructure in
ferromagnetic materials where the elementary particles
continuous technique: A sequence where magnetic
(electron spins) are aligned in one direction by interatomic
particles are applied to the test object while the magnetizing forces. A domain would be a saturated permanent magnet.
force is present.
dry method: A magnetic particle testing method in which
Curie point: The temperature at which ferromagnetic
the ferromagnetic particles are applied in a dry powder form.
materials can no longer be magnetized by outside forces and
at which they lose residual magnetism (between 650 °C and dry powder: Finely divided ferromagnetic particles selected
870 °C for most metals). and prepared for magnetic particle testing.
Curie temperature, Tc:The transition temperature above
which a material loses its ferromagnetic properties. E
Approximately 760 °C (600 °F) for iron. electrode: A conductor by means of which a current passes
current flow technique: A means of magnetizing by passing into or out of a test object.
current through an object using prods or contact heads. The electromagnet: A soft iron core surrounded by a coil of
current may be alternating current or rectified alternating wire that temporarily becomes a magnet when an electric
current. current flows through the wire.
current induction technique: A means of magnetization in encircling coil: See coil method.
which a circulating current is induced in a ring component
by the influence of a fluctuating magnetic field. evaluation: The process of determining the magnitude and
significance of a discontinuity causing a test indication after
D
it has been interpreted as being relevant.
examination: The process of testing materials, interpreting
dark adaptation: The adjustment of the eye over time to
reduced illumination, including increased retinal sensitivity, and evaluating indications to determine if the test object
dilation of the pupil and other reflex physical changes. meets specified acceptance criteria.
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Glossary
examination medium: A powder or suspension of flux density, saturation, Bs: The maximum intrinsic
magnetic particles applied to a magnetized test surface to induction possible in a material.
determine the presence or absence of surface or slightly
flux indicator: A small device, generally a metal strip or disk,
subsurface discontinuities.
containing artificial discontinuities. Used to determine when
correct magnetizing conditions or magnetic field direction
F have been achieved.
false indication: An indication that may be interpreted as flux leakage field: The magnetic field that leaves or enters
being caused by a discontinuity but is located where no the surface of an object.
discontinuity exists.
flux leakage method: A method for the detection and
Faraday’s law of magnetic induction: (1) An emf is analysis of a discontinuity using the flux that leaves a
induced in a conductor when the magnetic field surrounding magnetically saturated, or nearly saturated, test object at a
it changes. (2) The magnitude of the emf is proportional to discontinuity.
the rate of change in the field. (3) The sense of the induced
emf depends on the direction of the rate of change of the flux lines: See lines of force.
field.
fluxmeter: An electronic device for measuring magnetic flux.
ferrite: A very ductile form of practically pure iron (no
full-wave direct current: A single-phase or three-phase
carbon) that occurs in the matrix of cast iron and therefore
alternating current rectified to produce direct current
in rolled and forged steel products. It has a tensile strength of
characteristics of penetration and flow.
~345 MPa (~50 000 psi).
furring: Buildup or bristling of magnetic particles resulting
ferromagnetic material: A material that exhibits the
from excessive magnetization of the test object.
phenomena of magnetic hysteresis and magnetic saturation
and whose magnetic permeability is dependent on the
magnetizing field strength. G
field flow technique: See magnetic flow technique. gauss: Old CGS unit of magnetic flux density or magnetic
induction. Magnetic field strength, B, is measured in gauss
field strength, H: The parameter characterizing the (G); 1 G is one line of magnetic flux per square centimeter of
amplitude of the magnetizing field strength. area. See tesla.
fill factor: In the coil method of magnetization, the ratio of gauss meter: A magnetometer using gauss to register field
the cross-sectional area of the object within the coil to the strength.
cross-sectional area of the coil.
flash magnetization: Magnetization by a current flow of H
brief duration. See capacitor discharge method.
half-wave current: A unidirectional rectified single-phase
flashpoint: The lowest temperature at which vapors above a alternating current that produces a pulsating unidirectional
volatile, combustible substance ignite in air when exposed to field.
flame.
hall effect: A potential difference developed across a
flaw: See defect. conductor at right angles to the direction of both the
magnetic field and the electric current. Produced when a
fluorescence: The emission by a substance of visible current flows along a rectangular conductor subjected to a
radiation as a result of, and only during, the absorption of transverse magnetic field. The magnitude of the voltage is
ultraviolet energy. proportional to the applied field.
fluorescent magnetic particle testing: The process using heads: The clamping contacts on stationary magnetic
finely divided ferromagnetic particles that fluoresce when particle systems.
exposed to ultraviolet light (320 to 400 nm).
head shot: A short pulse of magnetizing current passed
flux density, B: The corresponding parameter for the through an object or a central conductor while clamped
induced magnetic field in an area perpendicular to the flux between the head contacts of a magnetizing unit, generating
path. See magnetic flux density. circular magnetization of the object. Duration of the current
is usually less than 1 s.
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horseshoe magnet: A bar magnet bent into the shape of a leech: Permanent magnet or electromagnetic accessory used
horseshoe so that the two poles are adjacent. The term to ensure adequate electrical contact during current flow
usually applies to a permanent magnet. magnetization. Sometimes spelled leach.
hysteresis: (1) The lagging of the magnetic effect when the lifting power: The ability of a magnet to lift a piece of ferrite
magnetizing force acting on a ferromagnetic body is steel by magnetic attraction alone.
changed. (2) The phenomenon exhibited by a magnetic
lines of force: A conceptual representation of magnetic flux
system wherein its state is influenced by its previous history.
based on the line pattern produced when iron filings are
hysteresis loop: A curve showing flux density, B, plotted as a sprinkled on paper laid over a permanent magnet.
function of magnetizing force, H, as the magnetizing force is
longitudinal magnetic field: A magnetic field wherein the
increased to the saturation point in both the negative and
positive directions sequentially. The curve forms a flux lines traverse the component in a direction that is
characteristic S-shaped loop. Intercepts of the loop with the essentially parallel with its longitudinal axis.
BH axis and the points of minimum and maximum longitudinal magnetization: Magnetization in which the
magnetizing force define important magnetic characteristics flux lines traverse the component in a direction essentially
of a material. parallel to its longitudinal axis.
I M
indication: A magnetic particle accumulation that serves as magnetic circuit: The closed path followed by any group of
evidence of a leakage field and requires interpretation to magnetic flux lines.
determine its significance.
magnetic constant, µ0: The permeability of free space.
induced magnetization: A magnetic field generated in an
object when no direct electrical contact is made. magnetic field: Within and surrounding a magnetized
object, the space in which the magnetic force is exerted.
induced current technique: See current induction
technique. magnetic field indicator: A device used to locate or
determine the relative intensity of a flux leakage field
inductance: The magnetism produced in a ferromagnetic emanating from an object.
body by some outside magnetizing force.
magnetic field leakage: See flux leakage field.
inherent fluorescence: Fluorescence that is an intrinsic
characteristic of a material. magnetic field strength: The measured intensity of a
magnetic field at a specific point. Expressed in amperes per
inspection: See examination. meter or oersted.
inspection medium: See examination medium. magnetic flow technique: When a test object or a portion
internal conductor: See central conductor.
of it closes the magnetic circuit of an electromagnet. The
resulting field is longitudinal in direction.
interpretation: The determination of a magnetic particle
magnetic flux: The total number of lines of force existing in
indication’s source and relevancy.
a magnetic circuit.
K magnetic flux density: The normal magnetic flux per unit

area. Expressed in tesla (gauss).
keeper: Ferromagnetic material placed across the poles of a
permanent magnet to complete the magnetic circuit and magnetic flux leakage testing: A nondestructive testing
prevent loss of magnetism. method where induced magnetism in a ferromagnetic
sample forms localized poles at the surface. Near-surface
L discontinuities are indicated by a signal in an induction coil
or hall element; if they are indicated by magnetic particles,
laminated pole pieces: See articulated pole pieces. the method is called magnetic particle testing.
leakage field: See flux leakage field.
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Glossary
magnetic hysteresis: In a magnetic material, the magnetizing force: The magnetizing field strength applied
irreversible variation of the flux density, B, or magnetization to ferromagnetic material to produce magnetism.
which is associated with the change of magnetic field
magnetometer: A device for measuring the strength of
strength and is independent of the rate of change. See
hysteresis. magnets or magnetic fields.
multidirectional magnetization: Two or more magnetic
magnetic leakage field: See flux leakage field.
fields in different directions imposed on a test object
magnetic particle test: A nondestructive test method sequentially and in rapid succession.
utilizing magnetic leakage fields and suitable indicating
materials to disclose surface and near-surface discontinuities. N
magnetic particle test system: Equipment providing the near-surface discontinuity: A discontinuity not open to but
electric current and magnetic flux necessary for magnetic located near the surface of a test object. Produces broad,
particle discontinuity detection. Provides facilities for fuzzy, lightly held dry particle indications.
holding components of varying dimensions and for adjusting
and reading the magnetizing current. nonrelevant indication: A test indication produced by an
acceptable discontinuity or by spurious effects such as
magnetic particles: Finely divided ferromagnetic material magnetic writing, changes in section or the boundary
capable of being individually magnetized and attracted to between materials of different magnetic properties.
flux leakage fields.
magnetic permeability: See permeability. O
magnetic pole: One of two sites on a magnet that generates oersted: Obsolete CGS unit of magnetic field strength.
magnetic fields. Flux leakage sites on an object. Replaced by the SI system’s ampere per meter.
magnetic powder: Magnetic particles in dry or powder overall magnetization: Magnetizing a complete object with
form with size and shape suitable for discontinuity detection. a single energizing cycle.
magnetic rubber: A specially formulated testing medium
P
containing magnetic particles. Used to obtain replica castings
of component surfaces with discontinuities being reproduced parallel magnetization: A magnetic field induced in
within the replica. A suitable magnetizing technique causes magnetizable material placed parallel to a conductor
the migration of magnetic particles within the medium to carrying an electric current. Not a recommended practice for
the position of the discontinuity. magnetic particle testing.
magnetic saturation: In a specific material, the degree of paramagnetic material: A material with magnetic
magnetization where an increase in H produces no further permeability slightly greater than one.
increase in magnetization.
permanent magnet: An object possessing the ability to
magnetic writing: A nonrelevant indication sometimes retain an applied magnetic field for a long period of time
caused when the surface of a magnetized object comes in after the active power of the field has been removed.
contact with another piece of ferromagnetic material or a
current-carrying cable. permeability: (1) The ease with which a material can
become magnetized. (2) The ratio of flux density to
magnetism: The ability of a magnet to attract or repel magnetizing force, B/H.
another magnet or to attract a ferromagnetic material. A
force field surrounding conductors carrying electric current. permeability, µ: The ratio of the magnetic flux density, B, in
a substance to the external (applied) field strength, H. For
magnetization: The process by which elementary magnetic example, µ = B/H.
domains of a material are aligned predominantly in one
direction. permeability, relative, µr: The ratio of the permeability of a
substance to the permeability of free space, µr = µ/µ0.
magnetizing current: The electric current passed through
or adjacent to an object that gives rise to a designated permeability, initial, µint: The slope of the induction curve
magnetic field. at zero magnetizing force as a test object begins to be
magnetized from a demagnetized condition (slope at the
origin of the BH curve before hysteresis is observed.)
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pole: See magnetic pole. S
powder: See dry powder. saturation: The point at which a material is unable to be
magnetized more strongly, as all domains are oriented in the
powder blower: A compressed air device used to apply dry
same direction.
magnetic particles over the surface of a test object.
saturation level: See magnetic saturation.
prod magnetization: See current flow technique.
sensitivity: The degree of capability of a magnetic particle
prods: Handheld electrodes for transmitting magnetizing
test to indicate surface or near-surface discontinuities in
current from a generating source to a test object.
ferromagnetic materials.
pulse magnetization: Direct or indirect application of a
settling test: A procedure used to determine the
high field intensity, usually by the capacitor discharge
concentration of particles in a magnetic particle bath.
method.
shot: A short energizing cycle in a magnetic particle test.
Q
skin effect: The phenomenon that causes the magnetization
quick break: A sudden interruption of magnetizing current. produced by alternating current to be contained near the
Used in magnetic particle tests for materials with high surface of a ferromagnetic object.
residual longitudinal magnetism and limited to three-phase slurry: A free-flowing pumpable suspension of a fine solid in
full-wave rectified alternating current. a liquid.
R subsurface discontinuity: See near-surface discontinuity.
rectified alternating current: A unidirectional electric suspension: A two-phase system comprising finely divided
current obtained by rectifying alternating current without magnetic particles dispersed in a vehicle, often a liquid
the deliberate addition of smoothing to remove the inherent petroleum distillate. See vehicle.
ripples. swinging field: See multidirectional magnetization.
reference standard: A specimen containing controlled
artificial or natural discontinuities. Used for verifying the T
accuracy of discontinuity detection processes or equipment.
tesla: The SI unit of measure for magnetic flux density (T).
relevant indication: An indication caused by a condition or One tesla is equivalent to 104 G.
a type of discontinuity that requires evaluation.
test piece: See reference standard.
remanence, B: The flux density remaining in a magnetic
test ring: A ring specimen typically made of tool steel,
material when the applied magnetic field strength is reduced
to 0. containing artificial subsurface discontinuities used to
evaluate and compare the performance and sensitivity of
remanent magnetism: See residual magnetic field. magnetic particles.
residual magnetic field: The field remaining in a through-coil method: See coil method.
ferromagnetic material after the magnetizing force is reduced
true continuous method: Test technique in which
to 0.
magnetizing current is applied before application of
residual technique: Ferromagnetic particles are applied to a magnetic particles and is maintained without interruption
test object after the magnetizing force has been discontinued. throughout the examination.
retentivity: The capacity of a substance to retain magnetism toroidal field: An induced magnetic field occurring in a ring
after the magnetizing force has been reduced to 0. test object when current is induced. See current induction
technique.
ring standard: See test ring.
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Glossary
U W
ultraviolet light: Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths wet method: A testing technique in which the magnetic
between 200 and 400 nm (2000 and 4000 Å). The range of particles are applied as a suspension in a liquid vehicle.
wavelengths used for fluorescent nondestructive testing is
wet slurry technique: A magnetic particle test in which the
typically between 320 and 400 nm. Shorter wavelengths are
very hazardous. particles are suspended in high-viscosity vehicle.
ultraviolet light filter: A filter that transmits near ultraviolet Y

radiation while absorbing other wavelengths.
yoke: A U-shaped magnet that induces a field in the area of
V
the test object that lies between its poles. Yokes may be
permanent magnets, alternating current electromagnets or
vehicle: A liquid medium for the suspension of magnetic direct current electromagnets.
particles, often a light petroleum distillate or conditioned
water. See carrier fluid.
visible light: Radiant energy generated in the 400 to 700 nm
(4000 to 7000 Å) wavelength range.
105
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APPENDIX 6
Figure Sources
Unless indicated below, all images are from the previous edition of ASNT Level III Study Guide: Magnetic
Particle Testing.
Figure 1.1: Moore, D.G., tech. Ed., and P.O. Moore, ed. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition: Volume
8, Magnetic Testing, Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (2008).
Figure 4.15: Smith, G.E., Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book. Columbus, OH: The American
Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (2004).
Figure 8.1: Nondestructive Testing Classroom Training Handbook, second edition: Magnetic Particle. Fort Worth,
TX: General Dynamics, Convair Division (1977). Chapter 6.
Figure 8.2: Nondestructive Testing Programmed Instruction Handbook, fourth edition: Magnetic Particle. Fort
Worth, TX: General Dynamics, Convair Division (1977).
Figure 9.1: Nondestructive Testing Classroom Training Handbook, fourth edition: Liquid Penetrant. Fort Worth,
TX: General Dynamics, Convair Division (1977).
Figures 9.2, 9.3 and 9.4: EPRI NP-1590-SR, NDE Characteristics of Pipe Weld Defects. Palo Alto, CA: Electric
Power Research Institute (1980).
107
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Catalog Number: 2253 The American Society for

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MT SG Level III Cover final to IPC_Layout 1 4/10/13 8:52 AM Page 1

The American Society for

Copyright © 2013 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing.

first printing 2001

ISBN-13: 978-1-57117-239-6 (print)

Printed in the United States of America

Edited by: Cynthia M. Leeman, Educational Materials Supervisor

Tim Jones, Senior Manager of Publications

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Fenton, John D., 1927-

ASNT Mission Statement:

How to Use the Study Guide

Martin T. Anderson – Alaska Technical Training, Inc.

The Publications Review Committee includes:

Glenn M. Light, Chair – Southwest Research Institute

The following references were used to develop this Study Guide.

Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii

Chapter 1: Introduction to Magnetic Particle Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Chapter 2: Materials and the Theory of Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Using Permanent Magnets to Induce Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Chapter 4 – Field Strength and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Chapter 5 – Magnetic Field Direction and Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Chapter 6 – Magnetic Particle Testing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Chapter 7 – Magnetic Particle Testing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

Chapter 8 – Magnetic Particle Testing Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

Chapter 9 – Indications and Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

Chapter 10 – Probability of Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75

Chapter 11 – Process and Equipment Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79

Chapter 12 – Specifications, Procedures, Techniques and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85

Chapter 13 – Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91

Appendix 1 – Test Procedure Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93

Appendix 2 – Magnetization Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96

Appendix 3 – Materials Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97

Appendix 4 – Discontinuities Found Using Magnetic Particle Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98

Appendix 5 – Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99

Appendix 6 – Figure Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107

Typical Magnetic Particle Testing

Small particles of soft iron with high magnetic

Introduction Paramagnetic Materials

Figure 2.2: Magnetic repulsion and attraction.

Electric Currents and Magnetic Fields in

current is a positive charge and flows from positive

Uniform magnetic Combined field of where:

In the above example, the relative permeability at

(the slope of the curve at that point).

5. A solenoid is a coiled conductor that:

a. contains up to one loop.

a. H is the flux density.

14. The term retentivity is the characteristic of a material

Magnetizing Current Wave form (AC)

Figure 3.2: Rectification of alternating current to half-wave direct current.

Previous: Figure 1.5

Figure 3.3: Full-wave direct current.

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 +

Figure 3.4: Three-phase alternating current rectified to full-wave direct current.

Full-Wave Rectified Current (Single-Phase) Using Permanent Magnets to Induce

These equations assume the part placed in the coil

Low Fill-Factor Coils

=4 conductor is very low and rises sharply, nonlinearily,

Alternang Current Direct Current

Residual Connuous Residual Connuous