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POWER ELECTRONIC
SYSTEM DESIGN
Linking Differential
Equations, Linear Algebra,
and Implicit Functions

KENG C. WU
Switching Power, Inc. Ronkonkoma, NY, United States
POWER ELECTRONIC
SYSTEM DESIGN
Linking Differential
Equations, Linear Algebra,
and Implicit Functions
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom 50
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Notices
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Typeset by Aptara, New Delhi, India

Dedicated to
Grandson
Mitchell Patrick Wu Cayanni
Contents

About the Author xi

Preface xiii

1. Capacitor and inductor 1

1.1 Capacitor equation in differential form 1
1.2 Capacitor equation in integral form 2
1.3 Inductor equation in differential form 3
1.4 Inductor equation in integral form 4
1.5 Definition of inductance and Faraday’s law 4
1.6 Magnetic coupling and mutual inductance 5
1.7 Transformer equation 7
1.8 Nonideal capacitor, nonideal inductor, and equivalent circuit 10
1.9 Transformer equivalent circuits 11
1.10 Physical size of capacitor and inductor 13
1.11 Specifications for capacitor and inductor 15

2 First-order circuits 19
2.1 RC network with periodic drive source 19
2.2 Sawtooth (triangle ramp) generator 30
2.3 Full-wave rectifier with RC load 33
2.4 A brushless DC Motor with permanent magnets rotor 38
2.5 A BLDC motor speed detector 45
References 47

3 Current source 49
3.1 Semiconductor diode equation 49
3.2 Simple current source 50
3.3 Bob Widlar current source 54
3.4 Improved current source 58
3.5 Source impedance 60
3.6 555 timer 64
3.7 Precision current loop 70
3.8 Current-mode laser driver 74
3.9 LED array driver 76
3.10 JFET current source 77
3.11 MOSFET current source 78

vii
viii Contents

4 Second order 81
4.1 Form 81
4.2 Root 83
4.3 Time domain 85
4.4 Frequency domain 89
4.5 Parallel and serial resonance 92
4.6 Eigen value approach 103
4.7 RC filters and Sallen–Key filters 104
4.8 Power filters 111
4.9 Oscillator 113
4.10 Implicit function 120

5 Gain blocks 123

5.1 Class-A direct-coupled bipolar transistor amplifiers 123
5.2 Class-AB, B, C bipolar transistor amplifiers 129
5.3 Transformer-coupled transistor amplifiers 133
5.4 Class-D switch-mode power amplifiers 135
5.5 Pulse width modulator 139
5.6 Digital (clocked) window comparator 140
5.7 Linear operational amplifiers 142
5.8 Tuned amplifiers and implicit function 147
5.9 Composite nonlinear operational amplifiers 150
5.10 Unity-gain bandwidth of op-amp 153
5.11 Large signal gain of op-amp 156

6 Feedback approaches 167

6.1 Voltage feedback 167
6.2 Current feedback 170
6.3 PID feedback 175
6.4 State feedback 178
6.5 Feedback isolation 180

7 Control practices 189

7.1 Level control 189
7.2 Mode control 190
7.3 Zone control 192
7.4 Variable structures 193
7.5 Sensor 196
7.6 Open loop 198
 Contents ix

7.7 Close loop 200

7.8 Loop contention 203
7.9 Time control 204
7.10 Sequential time control 206

8 Linear regulator 213

8.1 Bipolar series voltage regulator 213
8.2 MOSFET series voltage regulator 223
8.3 Multiple implicit function approach 227
8.4 Design procedure for loop stability 228
8.5 Design procedure for error amplifiers 230
8.6 Current-mode laser driver design procedure 236
8.7 Shunt regulators 238

9 Switch-mode DC/DC converters 241

9.1 Power filter, inductor, and capacitor 243
9.2 Fundamental topologies 249
9.3 Operational dynamics of basic buck topology 254
9.4 Operational dynamics of basic boost topology 257
9.5 Operational dynamics of basic flyback converter 259
9.6 Cascaded converter—nonisolated 261
9.7 Isolated converter—forward converter 264
9.8 Isolated converter—half-bridge converter 269
9.9 Isolated converter—push–pull converter 272
9.10 Isolated converter—full-bridge converter 272
9.11 Isolated converter—quasi-resonant converter 273
9.12 Analog feedback 275
9.13 Close loop—analog 288
9.14 Close loop—digital 296

10 AC drives, rectification, and inductive loads 299

10.1 Reexamine RC-loaded rectifier 299
10.2 AC drive with unidirectional RL load 301
10.3 Half-wave AC drive with nonpulsating current feeding RL load 304
10.4 Full-wave AC drive with nonpulsating current feeding RL load 305
10.5 Phase-controlled AC drive with RL load 307
10.6 Phase-controlled AC drive with free-wheel diode and RL load 309
10.7 Phase-controlled full-wave AC drive with RL load 311
10.8 Three-phase circuits 313
x Contents

11 Rotation, three-phase synthesis, and space vector concepts 319

11.1 Magnetic field (flux) 319
11.2 Synthesis of three-phase sources and inverters 323
11.3 Vector concept 331

Appendix A Accelerated steady-state analysis for a parallel resonant

network fed by nonsinusoidal, half-wave rectified current 347

Appendix B Matrix exponential 349

Appendix C Example 4.7 MATLAB m-file 351

Appendix D Example 8.1 353

Appendix E A general mass-spring-dashpot second-order system;

first alternative 359

Appendix F A general mass-spring- dashpot second-order system;

second alternative 363

Appendix G A general mass-spring- dashpot second-order system;

third alternative 365

Appendix H Matrix exponential—Jordan form 367

Appendix I A step-by-step primer on digital power-supply design 369

Digital tides 369
Tumble to digital 369
Roadmap to digital 370
Navigate to digital filter 371
Work out a forward converter example 373
Implementation 377
Conclusion 380
References 381

Appendix J Motor winding driven by SCR phase-controlled

sine source 383
Index 385
About the Author

Keng C. Wu, a native of Chiayi( ), Dalin( ), Taiwan, received the B.S.

degree from Chiaotung University, Taiwan, in 1969 and the M.S. degree
from Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois in 1973.
He was a lead member, technical staff, of Lockheed Martin, Moorestown,
NJ. He has published five books: Pulse Width Modulated DC-DC Converters
Chapman & Hall, January 1997; Transistor Circuits for Spacecraft Power System
Kluwer Academic Publishers, November 2002; Switch-mode Power Converters:
Design and Analysis Academic Press, Elsevier, November 2005; Power Recti-
fiers, Inverters, and Converter Lulu.com November 2008.; Power Converters with
Digital Filter Feedback Control, Elsevier, Academic Press, 2016. He holds a
dozen US patents, was awarded Author of the Year twice (2003 and 2006
at Lockheed Martin), and presented a 3-hour educational seminar at IEEE
APEC-2007 S17.

xi
Preface

Years ago, Prof. Emeritus Chi-Tsong Chen, the author of Linear System
Theory and Design, a very successful textbook (Oxford University Press), met
the author at his Flushing, New York residence. In the meeting, and in the
preface of Signals and Systems – A Fresh Look his last publication (PDF form
free to all globally), Prof. Chen lamented that “Feedbacks from graduates
that what they learned in university is not used in industry prompted me to
ponder what to teach in signals and systems.”
Sadly,and based on long professional career serving RCA/GE/Lockheed
Martin space sector, the author can definitively confirm the fact Prof.
Chen was sad about. The less-than-desirable state had existed, and is still
present,in the form that many degree-holding engineers including electrical,
electronic, mechanical, and other specialties are falling short in applying
mathematical tools they were taught in college. Given electrical schematic
drawings, they were unable to formulate and express systems’ dynamics in
state variables and state transition using the first-order differential equations
and linear algebra technique. As a result, they were unable to boost their
productivity using software such as MATLAB.
This book intends to bridge the gap—what is taught in college and how
it is being applied in industry. In essence, this writing shall be considered
didactic.
It begins with Chapter one giving capacitors and inductors, two indis-
pensable energy storage components, an in-depth examination from the
view point of the first-order derivative, its corresponding integral form,
and its physical implications. Chapter two covers RC- and RL-type net-
works governed by a single differential equation. Key steps moving system
differential equations to Laplace transform in a frequency domain and to
a state-space transition form are introduced. Along the way, unconven-
tional approaches deriving Fourier series, explaining orthogonal property,
or treating boundary value problems are also explored. Chapter three covers
current sourcing circuits including current mirror, the workhorse of analog
integrated circuits, and precision current generator loops critical to instru-
mentation. Chapter four extends Chapter two to networks of second order
governed by two first-order differential equations. Procedures transforming
multiple differential equations to Laplace form, to state-transition form, and
to state-transition solution are shown. Chapter five examines circuit blocks

xiii
xiv Preface

and modules performing amplification, voltage-to-time window, duty cycle

modulation, etc. Chapter six covers feedback practices including voltage,
current, isolation, summative current, subtractive current, and state feedback.
Chapter seven discusses configurations of control loops including single loop,
multiple loop, open loop, closed loop, nested loop, loop contention, etc.
Chapter eight deals with linear regulators including series voltage regulator
and current shunt in parallel. Chapter nine explores switch-mode power
processing. Chapter ten presents complexities arising from inductive load fed
by rectified AC sources of single phase, multiple phases, and phase control.
Employing the concept of electromagnetic vectors in space, Chapter eleven
focuses on the formation of magnetic flux vector placed intentionally along
selected orientation, time-varying flux intensity, and rotational flux vector
that makes motor spin.
Considering the writer’s goal is to bridge materials taught in college and
applications of the material in actual industrial settings, the topics outlined
above and organized in that particular order are suitable for college seniors
and novice professionals in the industry. Following the material, and when
facing a real-world design schematic, readers will be able to (1) assign state
variables (circuit node voltage, inductor branch current), (2) write down
multiple differential equations, (3) place equation set in a state-transition
form, (4) select the approach one is more comfortable and confident, for the
time being, (5) obtain system response solutions corresponding to various
drives in different time frames, (6) stitch together a steady-state response
solution in closed-form analytical expressions.
Given time and practice, and when facing system order exceeding three,
most readers will quickly realize that state-transition equation and solution
invoking matrix operation delineated in linear algebra are more effective,
even elegant, in handling high-order systems.
This writer had definitely experienced that awareness, and expects all
reader to do the same.
As indicated in the subtitle of this writing, along the presentation,
mathematical notes are inserted where appropriateness is not violated. Quite
a few may be considered unconventional. This is done in the spirit of never
taking authority dogmatically—a true open mind respecting the unlimited
possibilities of viewing nature from multiple angles and a belief that what
 Preface xv

was said true in the past may not be true in the future when new discoveries
see the daylight.
On the backdrop of the above conviction, this author took additional
efforts to make this writing also available in Chinese language;thanks to pub-
lisher Elsevier for granting such translation right. Thanks are also extended
to Mr. , at ITRI (Industrial Technology Research Institute, Hsinchu Taiwan),
who had performed the translation, a very demanding task considering the
limitations of Chinese language in handling technical subjects.
With the advance of miniaturized electronic hardware and supercom-
puter equipped with mathematical co-processors, engineering design tasks
are now mostly carried out by the simulation and computation. The
implementation of both always requires design formulation in the form
of analytical expressions based on, in most cases, systems of differential
equations with coefficients depending on components/parts values.
In the course of almost four decades‘Ł‘™professional career in aerospace
industries, the author had definitely derived significant benefits from follow-
ing the path outlined above.
You, readers, can certainly do the same.
Keng C. Wu
Princeton, NJ.
Dec. 2020
CHAPTER 1

Capacitor and inductor

Two components, capacitors and inductors, play irreplaceable roles in elec-
trical power processing for their energy-storage properties.By presenting the
analytical equations governing both in either differential or integral forms,
this chapter illuminates the electromagnetic behaviors of those devices and
elucidates its physical significance when working with driving sources.

MATH. NOTE: In most calculus textbooks, derivatives and integrals are

introduced in the forms of f´(x) = dy/dx = df(x)/dx and ∫ydx = ∫f(x)dx,
given y = f(x) a two-dimensional plane curve and x is the independent vari-
able, with little physical meaning attached except the concept of “tangential
slope,” associated with the derivative, and “geometrical area,” associated with
the integral, employing the approach of limit. The independent variable x is
by no means restricted to signifying only space quantity.It certainly can stand
for time,and many other variables as well.The simple act of replacing dx with
dt, an infinitesimal time increment, introduces interesting, and important,
physical meaning to derivative f´(t) = dy/dt = df(t)/dt. As dt appears in the
numerator (inverse of time), derivative against time yields the dimension of
speed, velocity, and/or frequency; the temporal changes of a time-dependent
variable. ♣

1.1 Capacitor equation in differential form

Almost without exception, the action of capacitors is introduced in text-
books in a differential form; which links current through the device and
time rate of voltage change across it with a positive sign as shown.

MATH. NOTE: At a more fundamental level, the current is expressed as

the rate of charge carriers’ changes, i(t) = dQ(t)/dt, in which Q(t) = Cv(t) and
C, the capacitance and a constant within reason, is a function of geometry
and material property. ♣

i
dv(t ) +v
i(t ) C (1.1)
dt
Power electronic system design. Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc.
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-32-388542-3.00004-2 All rights reserved. 1
2 Power electronic system design

v
i
t

Fig. 1.1 Terminal current and voltage of a capacitor.

What does this form tell us about a capacitive element?

1. When dv/dt = 0, that is when the device voltage reaches an extreme,
a maximum or a minimum, the corresponding device current crosses zero
value. Stated differently, the device’s time-domain current waveform makes
a zero-crossing at the time its corresponding voltage waveform peaks, or
bottoms out. In other words, and in a graphical form, terminal voltage and
through current for a capacitor must hold a relation as shown in Fig. 1.1.
2. As the voltage variable in Eq. (1.1) appears as a derivative, the current
variable does not change its value if Eq. (1.1) is rewritten as
d[VDC + v(t )]
i(t ) = C (1.2)
dt
In this form, one important property of capacitor stands out. That is, the
device sustains a DC (direct current) voltage, VDC , which however does not
contribute to its current. The significance of this attribute is that a capacitor
blocks DC current. Or, DC current does not flow through a capacitor. Only
AC (alternating) current does.
3. Capacitor allows the application of a DC voltage within limit; the
breakdown voltage.

1.2 Capacitor equation in integral form

Eq. (1.1) can of course be rewritten as
 
1 1 t
v(t ) = i(t )dt = V0 (t0 ) + i(τ )dτ (1.3)
C C t0
MATH. NOTE: This is actually a rewording of the previous MATH
NOTE, that is, charge is equal to the time integral of current. ♣
In contrast to the derivative form, the integral form (Eq. 1.3), in particular
the right-hand side, conveys an extremely important effect of the capacitive
state variable: voltage.
4. In a very straightforward manner, it declares the continuous nature of
capacitor voltage.
 Capacitor and inductor 3

t
v

Fig. 1.2 Terminal current and voltage of an inductor.

5. In addition, Eq. (1.3) implies that capacitor voltage is lagging its

current in time domain:voltage phase lags (The integral of a time-dependent
variable yields accumulation of its past acts.) Or, capacitor current is leading
its voltage across: current phase lead.
6. Furthermore, in a subtle way, Eq. (1.3) indicates that a capacitor stores
energy in stationary charge space: E-field.

1.3 Inductor equation in differential form

MATH. NOTE: At a more fundamental level, the inductive voltage will
be expressed as the rate of magnetic flux changes, v(t) = d(t)/dt, in which
(t) = Li(t) and L, the inductance and a constant within reason, is a function
of geometry and material property. This will be expounded in one of the
section to follow. ♣

By the same token, inductor and its electrical symbol was always intro-
duced by the following
i
di(t ) +v
v(t ) L (1.4)
dt

With reasoning similar to those given for capacitors, the following

electric behaviors are expected of an inductor.
1. When di/dt = 0, that is when the device current reaches an extreme,
a maximum or a minimum, the corresponding device voltage crosses zero
value. Stated differently, the device’s time-domain voltage waveform makes
a zero-crossing at the time its corresponding current waveform peaks, or
bottoms out. In other words, and in a graphical form, terminal voltage and
through current for an inductor must hold a relation as shown in Fig. 1.2.
2. As the current variable in Eq. (1.4) appears as a derivative, the voltage
variable does not change its value if Eq. (1.4) is rewritten as
d[IDC + i(t )]
v(t ) = L (1.5)
dt
4 Power electronic system design

In this form, one important property of inductor stands out. That is, the
device allows a DC current, IDC , which however does not contribute to its
voltage.
3. The allowed DC current is however constrained within a limit; the
magnetic core saturation and winding wire Ampere rating.

1.4 Inductor equation in integral form

Eq. (1.4) can also be rewritten as
 
1 1 t
i(t ) = v(t )dt = I0 (t0 ) + v(τ )dτ (1.6)
L L t0
Again in contrast to the derivative form, the integral form (Eq. 1.6), in
particular the right-hand side, conveys an extremely important effect of the
inductive state variable: current.
4. It states the continuous nature of inductive current.
5. In addition, (Eq. 1.6) implies that inductive current is lagging its voltage
in time domain: current phase lag. Or, inductive voltage is leading its through
current: voltage phase lead.
6. Furthermore, in a subtle way, Eq. (1.3) indicates that an inductor stores
energy in circulating charge: H-field.

1.5 Definition of inductance and Faraday’s law

Faraday’s law is also generally presented in a differential form and named
“Faraday’s Law of Induction”: An electromagnetic force, emf, is generated by
a time-varying magnetic flux, e = d/dt. This form may best be interpreted
as magnetic induction on a single turn (loop). For a multiple-loop device,
the case of a practical inductor with N turns, the total induced emf sums up
to v = Ne = d(N)/dt.
Placed in an integral form, Faraday’s law of induction with multiple
loops in series becomes λ = N = ∫vdt: Total flux linkage equals the time
integral of a driving (voltage) source. For a practical device consisting of
a magnetic core, which serves to guide and focus flux, and an N-loop
winding, which passes current, each loop experiences an identical flux, .
With known cross-sectional core area, Ac , supplied by core manufacturer,
the total flux linkage is expressed as λ = NAc B, in which B stands for flux
density. It is then understood in physics that, given a core material with
permeability μ = μo μr (μo vacuum permeability, μr relative permeability), flux
 Capacitor and inductor 5

density is proportional to the magnetic field intensity, H, generated by a

driving source in the form of current, I, while permeability serves as the
proportional constant. Therefore, the total flux linkage is further expressed
as λ = NAc μo μr H.
Here, another electromagnetic law kicks in. That is Ampere’s Law:
magneto-motive force Ni = ∫Hdlm , the contour integral of magnetic field
intensity along a closed path lm . The integral may be simplified to HLm for
a geometrically isotropic and materially homogeneous core.
This additional attribute allows us to step further and rewrite the total
flux linkage as λ = NAc μo μr Ni/Lm , or λ = (N2 μo μr Ac /Lm )i. Plugging into
Faraday’s law of induction, we have v = (N2 μo μr Ac /Lm )di/dt. Referring to
Eq. (1.4), inductance is therefore L = N2 μo μr Ac /Lm for an inductor with core
material property μo , μr and core geometry Ac ,Lm ; core area and magnetic
path length.
As given, parameters determining inductance value are grouped in two;
(1) inductance index equal to the product of material property and core area
to magnetic path length ratio, and (2) square of winding turn number. In
industrial sector, core inductance index is often assigned a symbol AL .

1.6 Magnetic coupling and mutual inductance

In previous section citing Faraday’s law of induction, “time-varying mag-
netic flux” is mentioned as the key to magnetic induction. However,
“variable magnetic flux” may be more fitting as there are basically three
mechanisms to create variable magnetic flux.
A flux source may be moved mechanically in space while the inductive
reception loop stays stationary. Or, the flux generator stays stationary while
the reception loop is moved mechanically. Either way, a relative spatial
motion exists between two entities and that is actually the bottom line
of magnetic induction. Hydropower, coal-fired power, and other turbine
generators all fall under this category. In conventional physics text, it is
named “generator action.”
But the third way involves no mechanical motion at all. Both the flux
source and the reception loop remain stationary in space while the flux
generation side is driven by a true time-varying electric source. By so doing,
a time-varying flux is also created. In conventional physics, it is named
“transformer action.”
Employing the “Transformer action,” multiple windings, each with
multiple turns, are built wrapping around a common ferrous core. One
6 Power electronic system design

i1 i2
v1 v2
N1 N2

Fig. 1.3 Ferrite cup-cored transformer and its electrical symbol.

B-H curve
0.4 0.4

0.2
B( H)
Tesla

0 0

−0.2

−0.4
−0.4
−400 −200 0 200 400
−400 H 400
Oersted

Fig. 1.4 A B-H curve example without hysteresis.

winding, the primary, serves as a flux source driven by an external voltage

while the rest, the secondary, act as output windings. Fig. 1.3 shows a ferrite
cup-cored transformer, a two-winding and a multi-winding transformer
symbols.
Based on the two-winding transformer, Ampere’s law establishes a mag-
netic field intensity (N1 i1 + N2 i2 )/Lm in the core. When only winding 1 is
driven while winding 2 remains open, i2 = 0, Eq. (1.7) holds

N1 i1 Aw1
λ1 = N1 1 = N1 Aw1 B = N1 Aw1 μoμr = N12 μoμr i1 = L1 i1
Lm Lm
(1.7)
where Aw1 stands for winding 1 cross-sectional area.
Under the same driving condition, Eq. (1.8), a cross-coupled flux linkage,
holds for winding 2, assuming Aw2 < Aw1 .

N1 i1 Aw2
λ2 = N2 2 = N2 Aw2 B = N2 Aw2 μoμr = N2 N1 μoμr i1
Lm Lm (1.8)
λ2 = M21 i1
 Capacitor and inductor 7

Next, we move driving source to winding 2 and open winding 1, i1 = 0.

Eq. (1.9), again a cross-coupled flux linkage, holds for winding 1. Readers
are cautioned to note the assumption that Aw2 < Aw1 .
N2 i2 Aw2
λ1 = N1 1 = N1 Aw2 B = N1 Aw2 μoμr = N1 N2 μoμr i2
Lm Lm (1.9)
λ1 = M12 i2
And, Eq. (1.10) holds for winding 2
N2 i2 Aw2
λ2 = N2 Aw2 B = N2 Aw2 μoμr = N22 μoμr i2 = L2 i2 (1.10)
Lm Lm
Clearly, a mutual inductance exists between the two windings. That is
Aw2
M = M12 = M21 = N1 N2 μoμr (1.11)
Lm
An interesting effect is also observed, that is the product of L1 and L2 .
Aw1 2 Aw2
L1 L2 = N12 μoμr N2 μoμr
Lm Lm
(1.12)
Aw1 Aw2 Aw1 2
= N1 N2 μoμr N1 N2 μoμr = M
Lm Lm Aw2
or,

Aw2 √
0<k= < 1, M = k L1 L2 (1.13)
Aw1
Here an imperfect attempt indicates the origin of coupling coefficient,
k. Imperfect because perfectionist theoretician may mount a challenge
against the use of winding area in place of core area. However, considering
the imprecise nature of magnetism, practitioners in the industrial sectors
are willing to accept Eq. (1.13) knowing there are other flux leakages
unaccounted for.

1.7 Transformer equation

In previous sections, the linkage, represented by symbol μo , μr , between flux
density and magnetic field intensity was freely invoked without qualification.
Unfortunately, nature always places limitation on everything. Permeability
of material is not exempted either. It is well understood, and documented,
that ferromagnetic materials exhibit highly nonlinear and hysteric properties
8 Power electronic system design

when magnetized. The nonlinearity may be expressed in an analytic form

by borrowing the Fermi–Dirac (electron density) distribution, (Eq. 1.14), and
modifying it.
In solid-state physics, the Fermi–Dirac function is given as
1
p(E ) = E−E f
(1.14)
1+ e kT
−23
in which k = 1.380658 × 10 [Joule/degree], T temperature in degree
Kelvin, Ef Fermi energy.
With slight modifications based on Eq. (1.14), Eq. (1.15) describes the
nonlinear magnetic property for ferrous material.
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
B(H ) = Bsat ⎜ − 1⎟ (1.15)
⎝ −
H 
Bsat
⎠
2μoμr
1+e
in which Bsat is the saturation flux density, specific to a material, in Tesla
(MKS unit]; H the driving magnetic field intensity in Oersted (MKS unit].
For example, given μo = 4π × 10−7 [Henry/m, MKS uint], μr = 2500 [unit-
less], Bsat = 0.25 [Tesla], Eq. (1.15) yields Fig. 1.4 plot.
With further modifications, hysteretic behavior is also accounted for,
(Eq. 1.16), depending on either increasing or decreasing magnetic field.
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
B(H, Ho ) = Bsat ⎜ H −Ho 
− 1⎟ (1.16)
⎝ −
Bsat
⎠
2μoμr
1+e
In the case of increasing, the B-H curve traverses the right ascending leg,
while the left descending leg covers decreasing field (Fig. 1.5).
The main point of focus is that the magnetic flux density for any ferrous
material is limited to an upper bound, Bsat , beyond which the material can
no longer support additional flux change. Once a drive condition, that is,
the volt-second integral, exceeds the limit, the device/material permeability
drops to zero. As a result, the device incorporating the material no longer
offers inductance.Eq.(1.4) then states that,with near-zero inductance,a huge
di will also results. Such a surge current, limited only by winding resistance,
will lead to device destruction. And, this is exactly the reason the following,
flux density of transformer core, is discussed.
 Capacitor and inductor 9

B-H curve
0.4 0.4

0.2
B(H, 50)
Tesla 0
0
B(H, −50)

−0.2

−0.4
−0.4
−400 −200 0 200 400
−400 H 400
Oersted

Fig. 1.5 A B-H curve example with hysteresis.

MATH. NOTE: What Fig. 1.5 shows is a multivalue function. At a selected

H coordinate, there are two corresponding flux density values. At a selected
B coordinate, there are two corresponding field intensity values. ♣
Refer now to Fig. 1.3 transformer. Suppose an AC source v(t) = Va cos(ωt)
is driving the primary winding N1 . The integral form of Faraday’s law of
induction gives a total flux linkage
 √
Va 2 Vrms
λ = Va cos (ωt )dt = sin (ωt ) = sin (ωt ) (1.17)
ω ω
As discussed above and considering the allowable saturation flux density,
the flux linkage magnitude of Eq. (1.17) must satisfy Eq. (1.18)
√ √
2 Vrms 2 Vrms
|λ| = = ≤ N1 Ac Bsat (1.18)
ω 2π f
where f stands for a driving source frequency. In other words, the driving
source magnitude, in RMS, must be constrained to
2π
Vrms ≤ √ f N1 Ac Bsat ≈ 4.443 f N1 Ac Bsat (1.19)
2
Otherwise, the transformer core will be saturated if the drive exceeds the
limit.
In power processing, in addition to sinusoidal drive, symmetrical 50%
square wave drive, dotted trace in Fig. 1.6, is also a very popular source.
Readers are invited to prove that, in this case, the source magnitude is
10 Power electronic system design

Va
flux

−Va

Fig. 1.6 Square-wave drive and core flux function.

Va Va
0

−Va −Va

Fig. 1.7 Rectangular wave drives.

constrained by Eq. (1.20) and the core flux (per turn) traces the solid curve
given in Fig. 1.6.
Vrms ≤ 4 f N1 Ac Bsat (1.20)
At this point, a moment of caution is warranted. Both Eqs. (1.19) and
(1.20) invoke drive source in RMS quantity. This practice entails easily mis-
understood mistake. Specifically, Eq. (1.19) is applicable solely for sinusoidal
drive while Eq. (1.20) for symmetrical, 50%, square-wave drive. For drive
waves, such as those given in Fig. 1.7, conversion factors existing between
drive amplitude,Va ,and its equivalent RMS quantity will alter the numerical
factor, 4.443 or 4, that appears in Eqs. (1.19) and (1.20). Readers are again
invited to work out the flux profile for drive waves shown in Fig. 1.7.

1.8 Nonideal capacitor, nonideal inductor, and

equivalent circuit
So far, all discussions concerning capacitors and magnetic devices are carried
out in the context of idealistic, conceptual space on paper. To be of practical
use, both must be built and brought to face real world. Capacitors are made
of bilayer electrodes, which must extend externally via metal contacts, while
inductors of spiral metal wires. Therefore, serial resistances are inevitably
introduced. This is not all; even a short piece of wire has inductance, however
small. What else? Capacitance exists between adjacent wires. Surfaces of
device package also create sneaky, leaky path. Taking in all, a real capacitor
or inductor may be represented by a lumped model (Fig. 1.8).
As shown, a view begins to emerge that neither device would work
as purely as what it is theoretically. Depending on the frequency range it is
immersed in a capacitor/inductor actually acts like a complex RLC network
(Fig. 1.8). We will come back to this point later.
 Capacitor and inductor 11

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.8 Lumped model of real (a) capacitors and (b) inductors.

1.9 Transformer equivalent circuits

In the same spirit, two-wind transformer (Fig. 1.3) can be transformed into
equivalent circuits. However, before proceeding, the drawing will be slightly
modified (Fig. 1.9) to include effects of mutual inductance. Readers should
also refer to physics textbooks for the dot convention invoked in the figure.
For the time being and in the following, winding resistances are omitted
to simplify the derivation of equivalence.
One sees easily that N1 loop gives

di1 di2 di1 di1 di1 di2

v1 = L1 +M = L1 −M +M +M
dt dt dt dt dt dt
(1.21)
di1 d(i1 + i2 )
= (L1 − M ) +M
dt dt
And, N2 loop gives

di2 di1 di1 di2 di2 di2

v2 = L2 +M =M +M + L2 −M
dt dt dt dt dt dt
(1.22)
d(i1 + i2 ) di2
=M + (L2 − M )
dt dt
Both lead to the loop T-form equivalent circuit (Fig. 1.10).

i1 M i2
v1 v2
N1 N2

Fig. 1.9 Two-winding transformer with mutual inductance.

12 Power electronic system design

1:1
i1 L 1 - M L2 - M i2
v1 M v2
Ideal

Fig. 1.10 Loop T-form model for two-winding transformer.

1:1
i1
(L1L2 - M 2 )/ i2
v1 M
v2
(L1L2 - M 2 )/ (L1L2 - M 2 )/ Ideal
(L2-M ) (L1-M )

Fig. 1.11 Nodal π -form model for two-winding transformer.

Taking Laplace transform for the left most parts of Eqs. (1.21) and (1.22),
we reach a new equation set
v1 = sL1 I1 (s) + sMI2 (s) v2 = sMI1 (s) + sL2 I2 (s) (1.23)
Eq. (1.23) enables us to express I1 and I2 in terms of v1 and v2 .
v1 sM
v2 sL2 sL2 v1 − sMv2 (L2 − M )v1 + M (v1 − v2 )
I1 = = 2 = 
sL1 sM s L 1 L2 − M 2 s L 1 L2 − M 2
sM sL2 (1.24)
v1 (v1 − v2 )
=  +  
−M
s L1 L2M−M
2 2
s L1LL22−M

sL1 v1
sM v2 sL1 v2 − sMv1 (L1 − M )v2 + M (v2 − v1 )
I1 = = 2 = 
sL1 sM s L 1 L2 − M 2 s L 1 L2 − M 2
sM sL2 (1.25)
v2 (v2 − v1 )
=  +  
L1 L2 −M 2
s L1 L2M−M
2
s L1 −M

Eqs. (1.24) and (1.25) indicate a nodal π -form equivalent circuit

(Fig. 1.11).
Both the loop form and the nodal form transformer equivalent circuits
do not find them useful as it calls out all components and parameters.
 Capacitor and inductor 13

1:1
i1 (1-k 2)L 1 i2
v1 k 2L 1 v2
Ideal

Fig. 1.12 Hybrid τ -form model for two-winding transformer.

A keen observation changes the situation. By making L2 – M = 0 in

Fig. 1.10 and recognizing M = kæ(L1 L2 ), M = L2 becomes k2 L1 . As a result,
Fig. 1.10 becomes Fig. 1.12; the hybrid τ -form equivalent circuit.
This form has a loop and a node equation with two parameters, coupling
coefficient and primary inductance, involved.

1.10 Physical size of capacitor and inductor

Based on the fundamental principle dealing with electric charge storage
capacity of a pair of metallic plates or metalized films, the capacitance C of
such a mechanical construction is expressed as
A
C=ε (1.26)
d
in which ε represents the permittivity (dielectric constant) of separator
medium embedded between two plates, while A stands for plate area and d
plate separation, both spatial dimensions. Therefore, to a very good estimate,
the volumetric size for a capacitor will be at least equal to, or larger than,
dA; which is a simple product of two geometrical entities.
However, the process for sizing magnetic devices does not enjoy the
simplicity a capacitor is endowed with, as the construct of magnetic devices
always require some ferromagnetic filling a core shaped purposely to guide
magnetic flux such that the latter forms closed loops. In addition, space
must also be provided to accommodate multiple windings made of turns
of insulated metal wires. Fig. 1.13 shows one half of a ferrite core. The other
half is a mirror image.
As shown, the core has a center post giving a cross-sectional area Ac and
a winding window area Aw , within which coil(s) is(are) wound.
For a core wound with multiple windings, each winding in general
sustains different periodic voltage waveform and carries different currents,
also periodic. Eq. (1.18) can be generalized to specify how each winding will
be designed individually considering core flux limitation.

(Vrms ) j = K f f N j Ac Bmax (1.27)

14 Power electronic system design

Ac
Aw

Fig. 1.13 Half of a ferrite core; Ac = center post core area; Aw . (dotted line) = winding
window area, small filled circles = coil wires.

Here, Bmax is often chosen to be less than Bsat . Kf is a scaling factor relating
the RMS value of a periodic voltage and its time-domain magnitude.
Next, for each winding with peak current ij , a winding area (Aw )j is
conceptually assigned. Due to wire shape and unavoidable stacking in actual
build, only k(Aw )j is utilized. Given a desired inverse current density J [unit,
length2 /Amp],the winding peak current and its corresponding winding area
is associated by
k · (Aw ) j
ij = (1.28)
JN j
Eqs. (1.27) and (1.28) allow, for jth winding, its area product
(Vrms ) j JN j i j J (Vrms ) j i j
Ac (Aw ) j = · = (1.29)
K f f N j Bmax k kK f f Bmax
The total core cross-sectional area and winding area product covering all
winds is then
 J 
Ac A w = A c (Aw ) j = (Vrms ) j i j (1.30)
j
kK f f Bmax j

The summation on the right-hand side hints the total power handling
capacity of the device. The mathematical formulation may not be exactly
right, but it does give the flavor.
Therefore, referring to Fig. 1.13 and ignoring unit discrepancy, the
volumetric size of a magnetic device, in numerical term, may be considered
 Capacitor and inductor 15

almost twice of Eq. (1.30). Designers must check with core manufacturers
as to the accounting of the area2 number to avoid over, or under, count;
therefore over, or under, sizing a device.

1.11 Specifications for capacitor and inductor

In the following, only key parameters considered essential are tabulated
for both parts. Readers are to be reminded that a good understanding
of part specifications and ratings constitutes a major role in delivering a
good design, selecting reliable components, and making a high-quality final
product.

1.11.1 Capacitor

Parameter Digits, unit Example Comments

Value Numeral, pF, nF, or 100 pF, 100 μF
μF
Value, tolerance Numeral, % 5%, 10%
Value, thermal Numeral, %/°C, 0.02%/°C
ppm/CÚ
Voltage, breakdown Numeral, Volts 25 V, 100 V DCmax + AC peak
magnitude
Voltage, surge rate Numeral, 1 KV/ms Causes transient
(dv/dt) Volts/sec current and
localized
overheating
Current, steady Numeral, A or mA 0.5 A at 360 Hz Frequency
sinusoidal dependent
Current, single pulse Numeral, A μs; A 500 A 3 μs Causes localized
ns overheating
ESR (Equivalent Numeral, mOhm 7 mOhm Not a constant
Serial Resistance)
Reactance Numeral, Ohm = Xc (ω), A curve Frequency
1/(ωC) dependent
Dissipation factor Numeral, A curve ESR/Xc (ω),
dimensionless
Leakage current Numeral, pA, nA Insulation quality
Lead Polarity Not applicable Polarized or Electrolytic or Film
nonpolarized
Packaging Not applicable Radial or axial Mounting
Disc or tubular consideration
16 Power electronic system design

A c B–L m H curve
0.4

Weber(volt.second)=AcB
Ψ(H, 50∙500)

Ψ(H, −50∙500)

−0.4

−2×105 H 2×105
AmpereTurn=LmH

Fig. 1.14 A core specific Ac B–Lm H curve.

1.11.2 Inductor
The intricacy for specifying magnetic devices is, in this writer’s view, orders
of magnitude harder than that for capacitors. Here, we will begin with an
important reexamination of the B-H curves given in Fig. 1.4 and Fig. 1.5.
As far as this writer has been able to reach, the most existing literature
including journalistic articles and textbooks dealing with the subject cover
it solely in terms of B(flux density)-H(field strength) parameters. What was
not clearly mentioned in those presentations is the underlying significance
of presenting in B-H form. In a single statement, we proclaim that the
curve in B-H parameter form is “material specific.” It is characterizing a
specific ferrous material in terms of per unit volume. In other words, it is
independent of core geometry.
Therefore, those material property curves can be easily modified to be
“core specific,” Fig. 1.14, in which core geometry is now included; Ac core
cross-sectional area and Lm magnetic path length. The plot x-axis coordinate
is HLm (Ampere) while the y-axis is Ac B (flux, per turn, in Weber) (Readers
should ignore numerical figures in Fig. 1.14. It just shows that the inclusion
of core geometry will alter plot coordinate scales.)
By the same token, it can be further modified to be “device specific” or
“winding specific,” “terminal specific” in which the winding turn number,
N, is included. With that, the plot x-axis coordinate is Ni (Ampere turn)
while the y-axis is NAc B (total flux linkage in volt-second = ∫vdt).
In summary, three aspects are involved in specifying a magnetic device:
core material B-H, core geometry Ac B–HLm , and winding terminal NAc B-
Ni.
 Capacitor and inductor 17

1.11.3 Inductor core material

Parameter Digits, unit Example Comments
μi , zero-biased Numeral, 126, NIDC = 0 Referenced to μo
Permeability dimensionless = 4π × 10−7
μr , IDC -biased Numeral, 95, NIDC = 40, Referenced to μo
Permeability dimensionless Amp-Turn = 4π × 10−7
μo , free space 4π × 10−7 μ = μr • μo
Permeability

1.11.4 Inductor core Geometry

Parameter Digits, unit Example Comments
2
Ac , cross-sectional Numeral, SI (MKS) 0.67 cm
area meter2 or cgs cm2
lm , magnetic path Numeral, SI (MKS) 8.15 cm
length meter or cgs cm
Aw , winding area Numeral, SI (MKS) 2.13 cm2
meter2 or cgs cm2

1.11.5 Inductor winding

Parameter Digits, unit Example Comments
Fill factor 0< kf < 1, N/A 0.77, AWG #20 Wire gauge
dependent
lw , mean turn Numeral, m or 1.85 cm, Wire gauge
length cm AWG#24 dependent
N, turn number Numeral 13, AWG#22 Wire gauge
dependent
Many magnetic device manufacturers also often list the area product,
discussed in Section 1.10, to give designer a sense of how large the device
may be in handling a given power. This particular listing may be considered
to belong to the category of core geometry; but not exactly.
There are certainly other parameters, such as core losses unit volume
(a frequency-dependent parameter), thermal conductivity, etc. that are not
listed above; as this section presentation is not meant to be exhaustive.
Actually, this is the reason that efforts specifying magnetic devices properly
are very demanding.
Another random document with
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erection, with a copious description, as also, plans, elevations,
sections, and details of the most prominent features of the building
or structure, illustrated, and the work, from its great utility, will take a
place amongst the magazines of the present day, second only to the
great magazine of the north.[1]
“A large and beautiful field lies open before you, and by bringing
before the public some of the noble metropolitan structures, the
beautiful street architecture, and suburban villas, you will create a
love for reading and study amongst a most important class, that will
force The Builder on, till it has attained the ‘Corinthian order’ as a
magazine, and the companion of every artizan.
“A magazine has always occurred to me as the best mode to bring
the architecture of this country in its best form before the public,
always acknowledging the name of the professional gentlemen
employed in the erection illustrated; so much so, that I have often
been tempted to suggest the idea to some of the London publishers,
as there the erections are as a source inexhaustible.
“Though The Builder may be an instrument of much good, if
correctness of plans and details are guaranteed, its fall will be as
certain, if it should be a medium of ‘book-making,’ so often seen
thrown before the public.
“It will likewise add to the value of The Builder, by continuing the
portraitures of men so eminent in architectural skill as the noble-
minded William of Wykeham, already illustrated in the Precursor
number.
“I would respectfully suggest the propriety of detaching the
advertisements from The Builder, so far as to allow a separate
binding of the work.
“Reviews of architectural works are also highly commendable in
The Builder, as they increase in quantity of late years; and a
guidance to purchasers therefore is valuable.
“With best wishes for the prosperity of the undertaking, in a
continual increasing circulation, I must beg the forwarding to your
correspondent here, such of the numbers as have been issued.
 “I remain, most respectfully,
“Joseph J. Roebuck, Joiner.”
“Manchester-Road, Huddersfield, Feb. 13, 1843.”

[1] Chambers’s.

“Sir,
“Judging from a perusal of The Builder that it is your intention to
give to the building world the first information upon all matters
connected with its interests, I beg therefore to apprize you that at this
moment, a bill is preparing very secretly (at least the ground-work for
one) for Parliament, upon which it is presumed, as secretly will be
obtained, a New Building Act.
“Whatever objections there may be (and I readily admit there are
many) to our present Building Act, yet I do not think it requires
altogether to be superseded.
“From private information I learn, that the majority of clauses in the
intended new bill, are exceedingly arbitrary, and calculated only to
oppress the Builders without the least additional benefit to the public,
and indeed, I am of opinion that if adopted, it will prove a source of
great inconvenience and expense to all parties in any way connected
with building. I should, therefore, recommend a Meeting of
speculative Builders immediately, to take into consideration the best
means to oppose the bill in Parliament.
“I shall be most happy to give my best assistance in this matter, as
also to forward the views of the proprietor of The Builder.
“I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
“John Reid, Surveyor.”
“90, Canterbury-buildings, Lambeth,
“February 14th, 1843.”
 The foregoing letter came to hand as we were going to press. We
have only time to assure our correspondent that we will pay
immediate attention to the subject it refers to, and we invite further
information from all those who may be in the way of procuring it. At
the same time we would urge a calm and steady purpose in the
pursuit of this or any similar object of our vigilance.
Legislation on matters affecting building interests, above all things,
should be deliberate and not capricious. Much mischief may be done
by over anxious meddlings, indeed, we may say in this respect with
Shakspeare in Hamlet,
“Better bear the ills we have than fly to others that we know not
of,”
or run the risk of so doing.
 ON METAL WORKS.
(From Pugin’s principles of Pointed Architecture.)
We now come to the consideration of works in metal; and I shall
be able to shew that the same principles of suiting the design to the
material and decorating construction, were strictly adhered to by the
artists of the middle ages, in all their productions in metal, whether
precious or common.
In the first place, hinges, locks, bolts, nails, &c., which are always
concealed in modern designs, were rendered in Pointed
Architecture, rich and beautiful decorations; and this, not only in the
doors and fittings of buildings, but in cabinet and small articles of
furniture. The early hinges covered the whole face of the door with
varied and flowing scroll-work. Of this description are those of Notre
Dame at Paris, St. Elizabeth’s church at Marburg, the western doors
of Litchfield cathedral, the Chapter House at York, and hundreds of
other churches, both in England and on the Continent.
Hinges of this kind are not only beautiful in design, but they are
practically good. We all know that on the principle of a lever, a door
may be easily torn off its modern hinges, by a strain applied at its
outward edge. This could not be the case with the ancient hinges,
which extended the whole width of the door, and were bolted through
in various places. In barn doors and gates these hinges are still
used, although devoid of any elegance of form; but they have been
most religiously banished from all public edifices as unsightly, merely
on account of our present race of artists not exercising the same
ingenuity as those of ancient times, in rendering the useful a vehicle
for the beautiful. The same remarks will apply to locks which are now
concealed, and let into the styles of doors, which are often more than
half cut away to receive them.
A lock was a subject on which the ancient smiths delighted to
exercise the utmost resources of their art. The locks of chests were
generally of a most elaborate and beautiful description. A splendid
example of an old lock still remains at Beddington Manor House,
Surrey, and is engraved in my father’s work of examples. In
churches we not unfrequently find locks with sacred subjects chased
upon them, with the most ingenious mechanical contrivances to
conceal the keyhole. Keys were also highly ornamented with
appropriate decorations referring to the locks to which they
belonged; and even the wards turned into beautiful devices and
initial letters. Railings were not casts of meagre stone tracery, but
elegant combinations of metal bars, adjusted with a due regard to
strength and resistance.
There were many fine specimens of this style of railing round
tombs, and Westminster Abbey was rich in such examples, but they
were actually pulled down and sold for old iron by the order of the
then dean, and even the exquisite scroll-work belonging to the tomb
of Queen Eleanor was not respected. The iron screen of King
Edward the Fourth’s tomb, at St. George’s Chapel, Windsor, is a
splendid example of ancient iron-work. The fire-dogs or Andirons, as
they were called, which supported either the fuel-logs where wood
was burnt, or grates for coal, were frequently of splendid design. The
ornaments were generally heraldic, and it was not unusual to work
the finer parts in brass, for relief of colour and richness of effect.
These form a striking contrast with the inconsistencies of modern
grates, which are not unfrequently made to represent diminutive
fronts of castellated or ecclesiastical buildings with turrets, loopholes,
windows, and doorways, all in the space of forty inches. The fender
is a sort of embattled parapet, with a lodge-gate at each end; the end
of the poker is a sharp pointed finial; and at the summit of the tongs
is a saint. It is impossible to enumerate half the absurdities of
modern metal-workers; but all these proceed from the false notion of
disguising instead of beautifying articles of utility. How many objects
of ordinary use are rendered monstrous and ridiculous because the
artist, instead of seeking the most convenient form and then
decorating it, has embodied some extravagancies to conceal the real
purpose for which the article was made! If a clock is required it is not
unusual to cast a Roman warrior in a flying chariot, round one of the
wheels of which, on close inspection, the hours may be descried; or
the whole of a cathedral church reduced to a few inches in height,
with the clock-face occupying the position of a magnificent rose
window. Surely the inventor of this patent clock-case could never
have reflected that according to the scale on which the edifice was
reduced, his clock would be about 200 feet in circumference, and
that such a monster of a dial would crush the proportions of any
building that could be raised. But this is nothing when compared to
what we see continually produced from those inexhaustible mines of
bad taste, Birmingham and Sheffield; staircase turrets for inkstands,
monumental crosses for light shades, gable ends hung on handles
for door porters, and four doorways and a cluster of pillars to support
a French lamp; while a pair of pinnacles supporting an arch is called
a Gothic-pattern scraper, and a wiry compound of quatrefoils and fan
tracery an abbey garden seat. Neither relative scale, form, purpose,
nor unity of style, is ever considered by those who design these
abominations; if they only introduce a quatrefoil or an acute arch, be
the outline and style of the article ever so modern and debased, it is
at once denominated and sold as Gothic.
 SUSPENSION ROOF.
TO THE EDITOR OF THE BUILDER.
Sir—I have introduced the suspension principle in two or three
instances with great success, where nothing else could have
answered the purpose; and as it was through you that the first
impression was made upon my mind of its practicability for building
purposes, I at once send you a rude sketch of the last one I have
used. It is to carry a roof, lead-flat, and ceiling; it is in connection with
the old mansion, an enlargement of the cooking kitchen, taking out
the whole of the end wall, 16 feet wide, and making or adding to the
same a large bow, which is covered with lead. I have marked the
different parts as follows:
A. Suspension-rods secured to walls, 1 inch round, iron, flat in the
walls.
B. Screw bolts, 1 inch round, iron.
C. Nuts at bottom of bolts, and brace.
D. Brace, ½ inch round, iron.
E. Head to brace.
F. Iron plate under wood plate, 3 inches by ½ inch, flat.
G. Wood plate, 3 inches thick.
H. Lead-flat.
I. Joists to ditto.
J. Ceiling-joists.
K. Principal beam of roof.
I must give you to understand the bow, lead-flats, &c., were done
before I came here, and supported in a manner that gave offence to
every one; you will now perceive there is a straight ceiling and no
obstruction to light or any thing else.
The suspension-rods are fixed to the bolts as the link of a chain,
the brace screws them tight together, and the bottom nuts screw up
and camber the plate, which renders the whole complete and very
strong. I had it put together and fixed in about two hours, so that you
will perceive it can be applied in any situation without doing any
damage, by merely boring the holes and making good the joint round
the bolts on either a floor, roof, or flat.
I have applied others in different places, and have made them as
circumstances required, to carry scores of tons weight. They have
given the greatest satisfaction possible to all concerned.
I am happy to inform you that our architect and the master-builder
will both be subscribers to your valuable work. I think from this
neighbourhood you will have a dozen names.
Yours most obediently,
T. P. Hope,
Clerk of Works, Richmond.
 THE ENTHUSIAST.
We beg to introduce the Enthusiast to our readers, for such the
world is pleased now and then to call him; his real character,
however, shall be judged of by the reflecting and considerate; the
name may stick to him as a matter of small account, for a wiser man
than ourselves has said “there’s nothing in a name.”
When we speak of the reflecting and considerate, it is not to be
implied that all persons do not at times and in their way reflect and
consider; but it is hard to do so while we are involved in the business
of ordinary life; like players at cards, we are absorbed in the
calculations that affect them, and in the consideration of the “hand”
we hold. We find even the most skilful, straining to recollect himself
of the past progress, and speculating on the future chances of the
game—so it is with the mass of human beings. Could we look but on
as cool spectators of the games, and shifts, and moves of general
life, we should pity, smile, expostulate, reprove, where now at best
we give a vacant look, an unmeaning sigh, rage and burn, as in turns
we feel the instinct of weakness or passion, and are driven to act
under their impulses—but we are drawing the portrait of the
multitude, and losing sight of the Enthusiast.
How shall we catch his likeness and how present it to our readers?
It must be drawn with many lines and a patient hand. We are not
limners, or choose not to be, who cut out profiles in black, with a pair
of scissors; nor can we daguerrotype him at a glance. No! The
Enthusiast must be the subject of many sittings, though we may give
a complete feature or, sketch at each of his aspect for the day; and
in doing so, we promise ourselves what we hope will be largely
shared in by our readers, a fair amount of interest and gratification.
Enthusiast has some eccentricities, or to speak more plainly, has
his oddities. Tell him so however, tell him as a friend, and he is
enthusiastic to rid himself of his oddities. He has friends who now
and then tell him so; he has enemies who also take the same liberty;
but it is ten to one, if you examine it, that both friends and enemies,
in specifying some particular oddity, confront and contradict each
other, and leave the poor Enthusiast not wiser, but more perplexed,
between them. Indeed, so much do they themselves blunder, and so
much of guess-work is there in their opinions, that to give things their
right names, judging from effects, we should call the friend an
enemy, and the enemy a friend. The only conclusion we can come to
is by canvassing the motives of each, to decide that the well-
meaning and evil-doing are ranged on the one side, and the evil-
meaning and well-doing on the other. So odd are many things and
many persons besides Enthusiast; but we are again sketching from
the crowd, and Enthusiast sits impatient, or rather his friends are
impatient, which with them is much the same thing.
Enthusiast is an architect! Upon my word, some one will exclaim,
what is coming to us now-a-days?—architects and architecture are
obtruded upon us at every turn; and a certain lady of a certain age
(which means, as everybody knows, no very large portion of a
century) indignantly expostulates against this attempt to engross the
public mind and attention with these “new fanglements” of a
profession and an art which her father and grandfather’s days could
very well do without. “Formerly,” she says (which means about the
ancient period of her youth), “we hardly heard the mention of such
things. Architects, indeed! formerly the word even was scarcely so
much as known among us. I recollect,” says she, “having my
attention forced upon it somewhere in my school readings, in some
out of the way chapter or exercise, which poor Mrs. Cross-stitch
imposed on me at the ‘finishing’ of my education. I recollect reading
something about architecture, and how I mispronounced the word,
and how Mrs. Letterhead, our class mistress, told me to pronounce
the ch like k; and how she gave us a spelling task with that and
several other hard words to learn at home in the evening, and how
my poor father, when he heard me my task at my bed-time, had a
dispute with our neighbour, Percy Fullpurse, as to which was the
greater personage, the archdeacon or the architect; for they both
insisted that Miss Letterhead was wrong in her pronounciation, as
Percy had it; and how Percy, who was a great authority with us, for
we thought riches and wisdom went very much together, decided
that the archdeacon and the architect had nothing to do with each
other, but that the architect was something he could not exactly tell
what or how, but he believed had something to do with the quarter of
the Archipelago, with which also he had nothing to do. All this I
recollect, and certainly, though I may now smile at the ignorance of
my poor father and neighbour Percy, yet I am not bound to hold with
all that we are hearing and having dinned into our ears every day.
Almost every third person I meet with has some friend or friend’s
friend who is an architect, or is acquainted with an architect—and I
meet with them at parties; and there is Cousin Symmetry has placed
his son by his first wife as pupil to an architect; but what call can
there be, or what to do for so many architects? Architects, like
Proctors, should keep their places, and some two or three of them
inhabit a cathedral town, to take care of those fine old buildings and
the churches, for the churchwardens, they say, do not look to those
things properly; but, Lord bless us, do not let us be bored with
architecture at every turn. Let them have a bookseller specially to
themselves, if they will—and now I think of it, I recollect something of
an old established shop in that way somewhere in Holborn; but here
I see Messrs. Longman are publishing works on architecture, and
Mr. Tilt pushing them before one’s noses, and Bell & Wood, and
others, as the advertisements tell us. Nay, to crown all! there is that
very Boz, in his new work, Martin Chuzzlewit, beginning with an
architect, which, by the way, proves what I have always said, that he
is wearing out his subjects—and mind what I say again, it will break
down! He should take popular characters and popular subjects; but
an architect! Why, not one in a thousand knows or cares any thing
about architects. Trash! and now just do look at this—a weekly
paper, called The Builder! and another character to be drawn out—
an Enthusiast, who is also an architect! Well, upon my word, that is
good! We have heard of castles in the air; I suppose we are going to
have a builder of them, and that this Enthusiast is to be the architect.
Well, that is as it should be—the clouds for the architects, and the
architects for the clouds.”
But when shall we sit down to our business?—Miss Fatima Five-
and-forty has had the turn of our pencil, and Enthusiast still awaits its
return.
Enthusiast is an architect; that is, he is so for this limning; for
Enthusiast enters into most things, and is the life and soul of them.
We cannot go into his parentage, to shew how he is allied to, or of
the family of, the Geniuses; but really it is a difficult task this
sketching that we have undertaken, and reminds us of one of
George Cruikshank’s humours, under the head of “Ugly Customers;”
not that we are so much out of love with our subject as with the task
we have undertaken.
Do excuse us, good readers, for a while longer, and we will tell you
a story about this same Enthusiast. It is a trick of some of our
contemporary painters, to beguile the sitter by a conversation on
some topic which throws him from the restraint of posture-making;
perhaps if we try it, Enthusiast may be caught in a more favourable
attitude, and we may close the day with some success for our
hitherto failing and disappointed pencil.
Enthusiast was one day engaged in a discussion with a lady
friend, and had, in the usual warmth of his manner, been descanting
on the beauties and properties of Church Architecture in connection
with the proposed erection of a suitable structure of this class in a
wealthy manufacturing town. “It should be a cathedral,” said he, “at
least in dimension, in aspect, in decorations and appointments.” He
had dwelt on the peculiar features it should possess, on the facilities
that could be commanded, on the energies that ought to be exerted,
and so on, when he was cut short in his rhapsody by the cruel
observation of the lady,—and a common one it is,—“There is no
money for such things now-a-days.”
Casting his eyes around, as if in a reverie of thought, he scanned
the character of the various luxuries of the well-appointed drawing-
room in which they sat. Glancing from the broad mirror boldly
superposed on the massive carved chimney-piece of Carrara
marble, which in its turn enclosed the highly-polished steel and
burnishings of a costly Sheffield grate and its furniture, to the rich silk
hangings of the windows—their gilded cornices and single sheets of
plate-glass—thence to the chairs of rosewood and ivory inlaid, the
seats of silken suit—the companion couch and ottoman of most
ample dress—the curious and costly cabinet, the screens, the gold-
mounted harp, the “grand piano.”—Pacing once the length of the
room on the gay velvet of the carpet, he turned again and rested his
view on the table, choicely decked with books, most expensive in all
the appliances of paper, type, illustration, and binding—having done
all this, with breath suppressed and stiflings of emotion, which fain
had broken out with a scornful repetition of the lady’s words, “there is
no money for such things now-a-days,” he quietly disengaged
himself of his passion, and by an apparently easy transition ran on
thus:
“I have been calling to mind some of my early readings, and most
prominent just now is the recollection of the observations of Hope
when treating the subject of Egyptian Architecture and commenting
on the vastness of the Pyramids; he enters into a speculation as to
the means by which the people of that country under the Pharaohs
were enabled to find the leisure, or the time necessary for the
construction of such stupendous works, and he ventures to ascribe it
to the natural fertility of the soil caused by the annual over-flowings
of the Nile, thus demanding less from the Egyptians of the labour
and care of agriculture; and hence the drift of their exertions in the
direction of architecture. True, the bounty of nature would go a long
way in supplying to the cravings of art the leisure and opportunity for
gratification. True, those pyramids are evidence of the direction of
great means and great powers to an end which astounds more than
it edifies us, but what were the bounties of Egypt’s irrigating water,
what the greatness of their pyramids compared with that bounty
which Providence has given us in the mineral and the out-growing
mechanical characteristics of this favoured country, and the
pyramids which we erect as if in emulation of Egyptian vanity and
inutility?” “Pyramids!” interrupted the lady, “Ah, it is always so with
you, to propound to us first some extravagant project, and when
driven from your ground by a common sense and practical answer,
to take shelter in some ambiguity or paradox. Pyramids, Sir,—what is
your meaning?” “Here,” said the Enthusiast, “here, madam, are
stones from some of the English pyramids, of which your Scotts, and
Byrons, and Bulwers, and Marryatts have been the architects.
Compare the labours, and the end of the labours of these ingenious
minds with those of the architects of the Egyptian pyramids, and tell
me then the difference in amount. See the glories and untiring
industry of him of Abbotsford, devoted to an incessant wearing out of
the energies of his mind in designing pyramids of fiction—look on the
ant-like bustle and activity of the thousands whom he brought into
requisition to be engaged in the building—look at the millions of
devotees who have prostrated and continue to prostrate themselves
at these great entombments of his genius.—The paper-makers—the
printers—the artists employed in illustration—the binders—the
booksellers—the advertizing—the correspondence—the carrying—
volumes, pyramids of volumes to advertize alone—an endless train
of carriages and lines of road for the conveyance—the Builders and
makers employed on all these—and on the establishments of
printers, booksellers, &c.—and then the excited million of
expectants, the absorbed and half-entranced readers—the hours,
days, weeks, months, and years of reading—the impatience of
interruption till the whole delusion is swallowed—the readings again
and again—the contagion from the elders to the younger—children
even bewildered with the passion to peep into, to pore over, and last,
to read as rote-books these little better than idle fables—bootless in
their aim and object, and pointless in all but their rival obtuseness of
the mountain-mocking pyramids. The fertility, the leisure, and the
vanities of Egypt!—oh, madam, their country was sterility—their
leisure, incessant bustle compared with what we enjoy; and their
vain direction of labour and thought not to be named after this
enumeration of vanities. Pyramids!—where they had one we have
ten. Where ages were required by the Egyptians, we in as many
years outvie them, and yet your answer to my aspirations is, “We
have no money for such things as these!”
Reader, we have beguiled ourselves and you, and not the
Enthusiast, into a sitting; and one feature is sketched of his likeness
and his character.
 STREET SWEEPING MACHINE.
We give the following notice in connexion with the subject of Wood
Pavements, believing, as we do, that the efficiency of that mode of
paving greatly depends upon its being kept clean; an object which
this invention will materially facilitate.
Patent Self-Loading Cart, or Street-Sweeping Machine.
The Self-loading Cart has been lately brought into operation in the
town of Manchester, where it has excited a considerable degree of
public attention. It is the invention of Mr. Whitworth, of the firm of
Messrs. Joseph Whitworth & Co., engineers, by whom it has been
patented, and is now in process of manufacture. The principle of the
invention consists in employing the rotatory motion of locomotive
wheels, moved by horse or other power, to raise the loose soil from
the surface of the ground, and deposit it in a vehicle attached.
It will be evident that the self-loading principle is applicable to a
variety of purposes. Its most important application, however, is to the
cleaning of streets and roads. The apparatus for this purpose
consists of a series of brooms suspended from a light frame of
wrought iron, hung behind a common cart, the body of which is
placed as near the ground as possible, for the greater facility of
loading. As the cart-wheels revolve, the brooms successively sweep
the surface of the ground, and carry the soil up an inclined plane, at
the top of which it falls into the body of the cart.
The apparatus is extremely simple in construction, and will have
no tendency to get out of order, nor will it be liable to material injury
from accident. The draught is not severe on the horse. Throughout
the process of filling, a larger amount of force is not required that
would be necessary to draw the full cart an equal distance.
The success of the operation is no less remarkable than its
novelty. Proceeding at a moderate speed through the public streets,
the cart leaves behind it a well-swept track, which forms a striking
contrast with the adjacent ground. Though of the full size of a
common cart, it has repeatedly filled itself in the space of six minutes
from the principal thoroughfares of the town before mentioned.
The state of the streets in our large towns, and particularly in the
metropolis, it must be admitted, is far from satisfactory. It is
productive of serious hindrance to traffic, and a vast amount of public
inconvenience. The evil does not arise from the want of a liberal
expenditure on the part of the local authorities. In the township of
Manchester, the annual outlay for scavenging is upwards of 5,000l.
This amount is expended in the township alone. In the remaining
districts of the town, the expense is considerable. Other towns are
burdened in an equal or still greater proportion. Yet, notwithstanding
the amount of outlay, the effective work done is barely one-sixth part
of what would be necessary to keep the public streets in proper
order. In the district before referred to, they were a short time ago
distributed into the following classes, according to the frequency of
cleaning them:—Class A,—once a week; B,—once a fortnight; C,—
once a month. It may be safely asserted, that all these streets should
be swept, at least, six times oftener. The main thoroughfares, as well
as the back streets and confined courts, crowded with the poorer
part of the population, absolutely require cleaning out daily. But the
expense already incurred effectually prevents a more frequent
repetition of the process. The expensiveness of the present system,
in fact, renders it altogether inefficient; nor is there any chance of
material improvement in this important department of public police,
unaccompanied by a corresponding reduction in the rate of
expenditure.

According to the Kunctsblatt, a German painter, Edward Hansen,

of Basle, has been commissioned to prepare cartoons for the oil
paintings intended to decorate the church at Oscott, which Mr. Pugin
is about to build at the Earl of Shrewsbury’s expense. One of the
designs, “The Last Judgment,” is spoken of as exceedingly beautiful.
On the same authority, we learn that Thorwalsden has sustained a
loss by the wreck of a ship, bound from Leghorn to Hamburg. On
board were several of his works, most of which were saved, but were
completely spoiled by the sea-water; from which we infer that they
were plaster casts.
Gothic Architecture.

Westminster Hall Roof.

 CHAPTER I.
We now beg to draw attention to what we consider will be found
the most important feature in this number, inasmuch as it is the
commencement of the task with which we have charged ourselves to
enter upon the investigation and elucidation of the character and
principles of Gothic Architecture.
We use this unhappy term, Gothic, for no other reason than that
as we address ourselves mainly to the workmen, and as the style of
architecture so designated (originally in opprobrium) has now and for
long obtained the appellation in a popular sense, we feel unwilling to
depart from it until a thoroughly correct epithet shall have been
devised and accepted amongst us; that we are justified in this
decision, or rather indecision, we think may be shewn by the various
opinions of parties who may be said to rank as the authorities on
such points. Mr. Pugin is anxious that it should be called “Pointed, or
Christian Architecture.” Mr. Whewell and others have lately been
pleading for a title which the prevalence of vertical lines and
principles of construction, as in contradistinction to the horizontal
character of Greek architecture, appear to them to justify; others
again have contended for the term “English Architecture.” Now,
without committing ourselves to an opinion of our own, we think
there is sufficient ground for hesitating as to the adoption of this or
that novelty, notwithstanding our strong objection to the inapt and
absurd term “Gothic.”
Our task will be formidable, as to the length of time it will occupy,
the pains-taking it will require, the expense it will entail upon us, and,
above all, the system with which it must be conducted. But what
good thing is to be accomplished without some one or more of all
these? We only hope to be cheered on by the approving smiles and
the patient co-operation of those for whom we undertake it.
And how do we commence this task, so as to give promise that a
system may be observed, without which the best efforts in other
respects are likely to fail? It will not do to enter upon it at random, or
without due preparation, both on our own part and that of our
readers. We shall, therefore, proceed to state our object in selecting
the illustration we have done as the heading of this paper.
Let the carpenters look to it, and let them look on it with pride—
nay, let them look on it as we have done, with reverence. Let them
remember that this was the work of great spirits of their department.
It is a master-piece, and we have chosen it on this account, as we
shall continue, for some weeks to come, to make choice of similar
master-pieces, in the masons’ department. Oh! we have such
glorious examples at our hands. And then, again, as to ornamental
brickwork, and brass and latten work, and that gorgeous coloured
glazing, and such mastery in the carvers’ and sculptors’ art; these
we choose, to fire the breasts of our readers. We would excite them
by such glowing description of the land of promise into which we
propose to lead them, that the future steps, however irksome or
laborious, may be trodden with a light and gladsome foot. For the
present, then, and as we have said, for weeks to come, we shall
select the instances of varied excellence in roofs, vaults, arching, in
traceried windows, doorways, screens, in elaborate specimens of
“bench carpentry,” such as stalls, pulpits, railings, tabernacle and
screen work, in monumental brasses and other memorials of
sepulture, in moulded and enriched brickwork; the encaustic and
coloured pavements, the staining in glass, and generally all such
matter in the province of the artificer as may be regarded with the
admiring eye of the discerning practitioner.
Borrowing a similitude from what we are otherwise bound to
deprecate, we would speak of these as the trophies of our
predecessors in campaigns of glory, bidding every good soldier in
this day of later, though of similar service, to burn with ardour until he
may have successfully emulated the doings of his ancestry.
Yes, every carpenter should feel proud of a calling which enrols
him in the ranks of a craft whose arms are emblazoned and charged
with insignia such as these; but we promise the same evidences of
distinction to every department of the building fraternity.
This Westminster-Hall roof, spanning over an area of 74 feet wide
and 270 feet in length, rearing its ridge to the height of 90 feet,