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VERTEBRATES

Chapter 29
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BE ABLE TO:

• Outline the major adaptations associated with

the origin and diversification of the chordates.

• Describe the form and function of the major

groups of chordates.

• Explain how the different vertebrate

characteristics are adaptive for each group in
their environments.
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CHORDATE EVOLUTION
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CHORDATE EVOLUTION
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CHORDATE EVOLUTION

• chordates
chordates include all vertebrates + 2 invertebrate
subphyla (cephalochordates & urochordates)
• 5 key shared features of Phylum Chordata:
1. a notochord creation of the spinal cord
2. dorsal hollow nerve chord
3. pharyngeal slits - early adaptation for lungs (adapt to lungs or gills)
4. post-anal tail
5. endostyle/thyroid gland (secretes iodinated hormones)
more complex body plan requires a good metabolism
needs iodine as a essential part
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CHORDATE EVOLUTION
• notochord
notochord – flexible, rod-like mesodermal structure
• embryonic stage of all chordates (adult stage in some)
• vertebrates replace it with vertebral column (spine)
• located between digestive tube & nerve cord
• covered in collagen sheath
• provides skeletal support & muscle attachment

lanclet

invertebrate chordate,
does not further its
adaptation
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CHORDATE EVOLUTION
• dorsal hollow nerve cord
• derived from ectoderm central nervous system
• located dorsally to notochord
• develops into brain & spinal cord (CNS) of vertebrates
pharyngeal slits – openings in pharynx to outside
• pharyngeal
lungs
• used to excrete water entering mouth
• modified into gill & jaw support in some fishes
• modified into ear, tonsils or bones of some vertebrates
• endostyle
endostyle in floor of pharynx produces mucus & hormones
(homologous to thyroid gland in vertebrates) mammals do
• mucus moves food to gut w/ aid of cilia
not do this
tail – elongation that extends beyond anus
• post-anal tail
• contains skeletal elements & muscles for locomotion in fishes
• aids in balance, courting & signaling in terrestrial vertebrates
• vestigial in humans & great apes (coccyx)
still see the reminants, but does not have any use
 still have the 5 parts, because their notochord does not make into a spinal cord

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CHORDATE EVOLUTION – THE INVERTEBRATES
have not much developed their 5

• Phylum Cephalochordata noticeable characteristics further

• lancelets
lancelets filter feed w/ pharyngeal slits can still move
• external fertilization from separate sexes
• Phylum Urochordata (tunicates)
tunicates do not move much since they are in one place
• tunic of cellulose-like carbs cover outer body
• adults do not possess notochord, dorsal hollow nerve
cord or post-anal tail
• most are hermaphrodites w/ internal fertilization
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lancelets

tunicates
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VERTEBRATE EVOLUTION
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VERTEBRATE EVOLUTION & CHARACTERISTICS
deuterostomes within Chordata
• bilaterally symmetrical deuterostomes
• derived characteristics of vertebrae (vertebral column) and
cranium
4 limbs
• tetrapods
tetrapods include amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals

• innovations of tetrapods vs. invertebrate chordates:

1. emergence of quadrupeds as amphibians
2. evolution of the amniotic egg
• fishes include jawless (hagfishes & lampreys) & jawed
• gnathostomes refers to fishes & tetrapods w/ jaws
• monophyletic clade of Vertebrata/Craniata
• > 62,000 extant species
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VERTEBRATES:
FISHES
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FISHES (~ 31,000 SPECIES)
• jawless
jawless fishes were earliest vertebrates

• lack jaws, paired fins, internal ossification, scales

• Lampreys nerves come on pairs due to bilateral symmetry
spinal cord,
• well-differentiated brain w/ 10 pairs of nerves splits the
• begin as suspension feeders in freshwater organism in half
• sexually mature into ectoparasites before reproducing
• many species are fish ectoparasites w/ sucking mouths
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FISHES (~ 31,000 SPECIES)
• Gnathostomes – true jaws derived from 1st pair of gills
gills

• paired fins
fins led to true predation in fishes
• Cartilaginous fishes – endoskeleton
endo of cartilage
• rays, sharks, skates, sawfishes
• shark characteristics:
• teeth modified from scales for predation
• detect electromagnetic fields of prey
• ovoviviparous – retain fertilized egg in oviduct
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FISHES (~ 31,000 SPECIES)
• Gnathostomes – true jaws derived from 1st pair of gills
• Bony fishes – mineralized bone for endoskeleton
• osteocytes
osteocytes maintain ECM
• lateral line system for detecting vibrations
• gills for breathing
• swim bladder
bladder controls buoyancy (homologous to lungs)
• ray-finned fishes: tuna, bass, trout, salmon
• lobe-finned fishes: lungfishes, coelacanths
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VERTEBRATES:
AMPHIBIANS
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AMPHIBIANS EVOLUTION
still stayed in water, because their lobes were
not that advanced to live there

• fossil record shows they are ~ 400 m yrs old

• evolved from lobe-finned
lobe-fined freshwater fish during Devonian
• ancestral species lived in shallow environments
• limbs could not support prolonged land walking
• Tiktaalik ancestral intermediate had gills & lungs (~ 375 mya)
• “age of amphibians” in early Carboniferous period
legs should not be
bilateral to the body,
they should be
underneath the body
for the organism to
move
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AMPHIBIANS (~ 6,800 EXTANT SPECIES)
• frogs, salamanders, caecilians (limbless)
• tetrapods that live in both aquatic & terrestrial environments
• earliest terrestrial tetrapod
• reproduction requires aqueous setting
• many undergo metamorphosis
• moist, permeable skin w/ mucus
mucus
• used as a respiratory surface (w/ mouth & lungs)
• all are carnivorous
carnivorous w/ small teeth at edge of jaws
• vomerine teeth in roof of mouth in some
towards the superior/inferior part of human's
• true eyes & color vision oral mouth
• ears in frogs & toads
frequencies are different for frogs matting, behavior isolation
 how they treat their young

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AMPHIBIANS is the main difference
between reptiles and
• Salamanders amphibians
• 4 limbs & a tail hard to move properly
• lateral
lateral undulation to help small legs move body
• most are lungless w/ skin or external gills for respiration
• few have primitive lungs or both lungs & gills
• reproduce through internal fertilization of eggs
• sperm deposited in external spermatophore
spermatophore that is
picked up by female
• majority are oviparous
• aquatic species lay eggs in water
• develop into legless larvae (efts)
• terrestrial species lay eggs in damp nests
• axolotls retain juvenile form (no metamorphosis)
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SALAMANDERS
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AMPHIBIANS
• Frogs
• found on all continents except Antarctica
• 0.007 cm to 32.0 cm in size
• hindlimbs & endoskeleton used to jump
• tree frogs have hands
hands for climbing
• camouflage skin to avoid predators
• some release poisons
posions from skin glands
some would mimmic
aposematic coloration in toxic species
• aposematic being toxic
nonpredators
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AMPHIBIANS
• Frogs
• eggs fertilized externally and laid in moist places
tapoles
• some carry eggs and/or tadpoles on limbs or back
• 2 life cycle stages: larval and adult w/ metamorphosis
• tadpole larvae filter feed as herbivores
• gills, lateral line system, finned tails, no limbs
• in adults 4 limbs develop & tadpole structures lost
• adults are carnivores w/ larger jaws
• eardrums & lungs
lungs also develop
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VERTEBRATES:
REPTILES
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REPTILES
• distinguished from amphibians by egg
• terrestrial adaptation w/ extraembryonic membranes
• yolk sac, amnion,
amnion chorion, allantois

• eggs also have shells

true amnions have these 4 parts
• evolution of amniotes
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REPTILES
• Amniotes
• albumin
albumin (egg white) provides water & protein
most abundant
• egg yolk is fatty & provides nutrients
• extraembryonic membranes
• yolk sac: blood vessels transport nutrients to
circulatory system of embryo
• chorion: exchanges O2 & CO2 for embryo
• allantois:
allantois stores nitrogenous waste; respiration
• amnion: protects embryo from shock or dehydration
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REPTILES
• all tetrapods (even snakes & legless lizards)
• sexual reproduction w/ internal fertilization
have calcium (for a shell)
• lay calcareous or leathery eggs
lay the eggs and then they leave
• ovoviviparous or viviparouscarried by the females
• scaly skin adaptation reduces water
water loss

• cannot be used for respiration (all use lungs)

• regularly grow & shed skin
don't have internal means to create body temperatures
• most are ectotherms
ectotherms (body heat from environment)
don't need as much food as much as us
• need only about 10% of calories as endotherms
• evolved during Carboniferous period (dinosaurs & pterosaurs)
• “age of reptiles” in Mesozoic era
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MODERN REPTILES
• Crocodiles
• Tuataras
• Lizards & iguanas
previously had limbs and
• Snakes then lost them
• Turtles, terrapins & tortoises
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VERTEBRATES:
BIRDS
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BIRDS (10,000 + SPECIES)
• evolved from theropod dinosaurs
dinosaurs ~ 150 mya

• endothermic (homeothermic) w/ high metabolic rate

• feathers are homologous to reptile scales & mammal hair
• contour
contour feathers for flight insect wings and bird wings are
• down
down feathers for insulation convergent evolution

• well-developed muscles for flight

• reduced body weight for lift using pneumatic bones
• cloacae replaces urinary bladder to reduce water weight
fecal and urinary waste are in the same place
• modified respiratory system allows efficient O2 delivery
• true brain w/ 12 pairs of cranial nerves
• closed circulatory system w/ 4-chambered heart
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BIRDS

big feathers
hinder flights
but might help
for sexual
selection
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VERTEBRATES:
MAMMALS
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MAMMALS (~ 5,200 SPECIES)
used to support the young
• hair & mammary
mammary glands
• endothermic w/ heat regulation by metabolic activity
• integument includes secretory glands
NEED TO KNOW THE GLANDS!!
• sebaceous (oil) glands, eccrine sweat glands, apocrine
scent glands, mammary glands (milk)
creates milk
• modified jaw & ear bones
• most are diphyodonts (baby & adult teeth)
different types of teeth
• 4-chambered heart
heart & closed circulatory system
• RBCs do not have nuclei
specialized cells to contain oxygen in the blood cells
• no renal portal system to kidneys; urinary bladder present
• enlarged cerebral cortex
cortex in some
more surface area for a change in behaviors
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MAMMALS (~ 5,200 SPECIES)
• earliest fossils from early Jurassic (~ 205 mya)
• diversification in Mesozoic era followed by mass extinction
• new diversification in Cenozoic era to present
• 3 extant mammalian groups
• monotremes:
monotremes platypus, spiny anteaters
• lay eggs rather than live birth more like reptiles

• do not have teeth

• marsupials:
marsupials kangaroo, koala, bandicoot, Tasmanian devil
• fetal at birth; young reside in pouch; no eggshell
• placentals:
placentals elephants, bats, sloths, rodents, primates, etc.
does what the
• fetus connected to mother by placenta amniotic egg does
• numerous adaptations for flight, running, swimming…
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ORDER PRIMATES
• includes lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys, apes & humans
• all have adaptations for climbing
climbing trees

• rotating shoulder joint; big toe & thumb separation from

stereoscopic vision for depth
other digits for gripping; stereoscopic
perception
• larger brains than other mammals
• claws modified to flattened nails
• 1 offspring per pregnancy
• body held upright w/ bipedalism
• some nocturnal (strepsirrhines); others diurnal (haplorhines)
• some synthesize Vitamin C
humans can't
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ORDER PRIMATES
• evolved from proto-primates similar to squirrels (~ 85 mya)
• anthropoid monkeys
monkeys show up ~ 40 mya in New & Old World

• New World monkeys all arboreal

• prehensile (grasping tails) present in species
• Old World monkeys both arboreal & ground-dwelling
• apes evolved ~ 25 mya w/ larger brains than monkeys
• include gibbons, siamangs & great apes (chimpanzees,
bonobos, gorillas, orangutans, humans)
• separation of species happened within last 5-7 mil yrs
• humans belong to family Hominidae (hominids)
hominids & Homo
• appeared 2.5 – 3 mya (Homo sapiens more recently)
• bipedalism, larger brain, fully opposable thumb
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