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RHYTHMIC QUALITIES OF DIALOGUE
AND SOUND EFFECTS 247
THE “SOUNDS” OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE
OR INTERNATIONAL FILMS 247
Voice Dubbing 248
Subtitles 249 Source: Elle/Sony Pictures Classics
Analyzing Sound Effects and Dialogue 251
Watching for Sound Effects and Dialogue 251
10
Mini-Movie Exercise 252 Acting 283
DVD Filmmaking Extras 252 THE IMPORTANCE OF ACTING 284
Films for Study 253
THE GOAL OF THE ACTOR 284
Notes 255
BECOMING THE CHARACTER 285
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FILM ACTING AND STAGE
ACTING 286
FLASHBACK: SILENT ACTING EVOLVES: THE SUBTLETIES
OF EXAGGERATION 290
TYPES OF ACTORS 294
Impersonators 294
Source: La La Land/Lionsgate Interpreters and Commentators 294
9 Personality Actors 295
THE STAR SYSTEM 295
The Musical Score 256
CASTING 297
THE REMARKABLE AFFINITY OF MUSIC AND FILM 257
Casting Problems 300
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE MUSICAL SCORE 257 The Typecasting Trap 301
GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSICAL SCORE 258 Supporting Players 304
SPECIAL FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSICAL SCORE 260 Special Casting Challenges 306
Heightening the Dramatic Effect of Dialogue 260 Extras and Small Parts 309
Telling an Inner Story 260 ACTORS AS CREATIVE CONTRIBUTORS 310
Providing a Sense of Time and Place 262 SUBJECTIVE RESPONSES TO ACTORS 312
Foreshadowing Events or Building Dramatic Tension 262 Analyzing Acting 314
Adding Levels of Meaning to the Visual Image 263 Watching for Acting 315
Characterization Through Music 264
Mini-Movie Exercise I 315
Triggering Conditioned Responses 267
Mini-Movie Exercise II 316
Traveling Music 267
DVD Filmmaking Extras 317
Providing Important Transitions 268
Films for Study 318
Setting an Initial Tone 268
Notes 319
Musical Sounds as Part of the Score 269
Music as Interior Monologue 269
Music as a Base for Choreographed Action 269
Covering Possible Weaknesses in the Film 270
SYNTHESIZER SCORING 273
BALANCING THE SCORE 273
Analyzing The Musical Score 275
Watching for The Musical Score 276 Source: Silence (2016)/Paramount Pictures
Mini-Movie Exercise 277 11
DVD Filmmaking Extras 278
Films for Study 280
The Director’s Style 321
Notes 281 THE CONCEPT OF STYLE 324

Contents vii
SUBJECT MATTER 325 REREADING THE REVIEWS 376
CINEMATOGRAPHY 328 EVALUATING THE REVIEWER 376
EDITING 330 DEVELOPING PERSONAL CRITERIA 378
SETTING AND SET DESIGN 331 Analyzing The Whole Film 380
SOUND AND SCORE 331 Mini-Movie Exercise I 382
CASTING AND ACTING PERFORMANCES 332 Mini-Movie Exercise II 382
DVD Filmmaking Extras 383
SCREENPLAYS AND NARRATIVE STRUCTURE 333
Films for Study 384
EVOLVING STYLES AND FLEXIBILITY 336
Notes 385
SPECIAL EDITION: THE DIRECTOR’S CUT 339
A PORTFOLIO OF FOUR DIRECTORS 341
Analyzing A Director’s Style 350
Mini-Movie Exercise I 352
Mini-Movie Exercise II 352
DVD Filmmaking Extras 354
Films for Study 356
Source: Fences/Paramount Pictures
Notes 358

Source: Hidden Figures/20th Century Fox
12
Analysis of the Whole Film 360
THE BASIC APPROACH: WATCHING, ANALYZING,
AND EVALUATING THE FILM 361
Theme 361
The Relationship of the Parts to the Whole 362
The Film’s “Level of Ambition” 363
Objective Evaluation of the Film 363
Subjective Evaluation of the Film 365
OTHER APPROACHES TO ANALYSIS, EVALUATION,
AND DISCUSSION 365
The Film as Technical Achievement 365
The Film as Showcase for the Actor: The Personality
Cult 365
The Film as Product of a Single Creative Mind:
The Auteur Approach 366
The Film as Moral, Philosophical, or Social Statement 367
The Film as Emotional or Sensual Experience 368
The Film as Repeated Form: The Genre Approach 368
The Film as Political Statement 369
The Film as Gender or Racial Statement 370
The Film as Insight to the Mind: The Psychoanalytical
Approach 371
The Eclectic Approach 375
13
Adaptations 386
THE PROBLEMS OF ADAPTATION 387
Change in Medium 387
Change in Creative Artists 388
Cinematic Potential of the Original Work 389
ADAPTATIONS OF PROSE FICTION 390
Literary Versus Cinematic Points of View 390
FLASHBACK: THE WRITER’S PLACE IN HOLLYWOOD 392
Third-Person Point of View: Challenges 394
First-Person Point of View: Challenges 394
The Problem of Length and Depth 396
Philosophical Reflections 397
Summarizing a Character’s Past 398
The Challenge of Summarizing Events 399
Literary Past Tense Versus Cinematic Present Tense 400
Other Factors Influencing Adaptations of Fiction 401
ADAPTATIONS OF PLAYS 403
Structural Divisions 403
Sense of Space 404
Film Language Versus Stage Language 406
Stage Conventions Versus Cinema Conventions 406
Other Changes 408
FROM FACT TO FILM: REALITY TO MYTH 409
Analyzing Adaptations 413
Mini-Movie Exercise I 415
Mini-Movie Exercise II 416
DVD Filmmaking Extras 417
Films for Study 418
Notes 420

viii Contents
 DOES AMERICAN FILM SHAPE OR REFLECT
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL VALUES? 464
THE MOTION PICTURE PRODUCTION CODE,
1930–1960 466
CENSORSHIP IN TRANSITION, 1948–1968 471
Source: Hacksaw Ridge/Lionsgate THE MPAA RATING SYSTEM 473
CENSORSHIP AND FILMS ON TELEVISION 478
14 BEYOND THE CODE AND RATING
Genre Films, Remakes, and SYSTEM 480
CHANGING FORMULAS FOR THE TREATMENT
Sequels 422 OF SEX, VIOLENCE, AND LANGUAGE 481
GENRE FILMS 423 SOCIAL PROBLEM FILMS AND DOCUMENTARY
Values 424 FILMMAKING 484
The Strengths of Genre Films 424 FLASHBACK: FILMING LIFE: A HISTORY OF THE
Basic Genre Conventions—And Their Variations 425 DOCUMENTARY 488
REMAKES AND SEQUELS 439 Analyzing Films in Society 492
Remakes 441 Mini-Movie Exercise I 494
Sequels 443 Mini-Movie Exercise II 494
Analyzing Genre Films, Remakes, and Sequels 449 DVD Filmmaking Extras 495
Mini-Movie Exercise 450 Films for Study 497
DVD Filmmaking Extras 451 Notes 499
Films for Study 454
Notes 458 GLOSSARY G-1
INDEX I-1

Source: Spotlight/Open Road Films

15
Film and Society 461
FILM FOREIGNNESS 462
“Strange” Silents 464

Contents ix
preface
Never before have movies been so readily available to those who wish to watch them.
When the first edition of this book was published, students’ viewing opportunities
were mostly limited to local theaters, classrooms with 16mm projection capabilities,
or television. Since then, cable, satellite, VCRs, laserdisc players, and DVRs (begin-
ning with TiVo) have dramatically widened our choice of films to see and ways to see
them. DVDs and streaming video via the Internet and Wi-Fi have offered home view-
ers both improved visual and sound quality, and content extras such as commentar-
ies by directors, actors, writers, editors, cinematographers, and other filmmakers, as
well as extended “making of” documentaries. Perhaps most helpfully for the study of
film, these technologies allow direct digital entry to individual scenes so that we can
now scrutinize a film sequence by sequence, shot by shot, and even frame by frame.
What are we to make of this greater access to movies? What purpose does it
serve? This textbook is informed by the belief that making films is an art—and that
watching films is also an art. Most students come into an introductory film course
having watched plenty of movies, but during the semester, they develop ways to
engage in the experience on a deeper, more meaningful level.
With an emphasis on the narrative film, The Art of Watching Films challenges
students to take their film experience further by sharpening their powers of observa-
tion, developing the skills and habits of perceptive watching, and discovering complex
aspects of film art that they might otherwise overlook. The first chapter offers a ratio-
nale for film analysis while providing suggestions for deepening film appreciation from
day one of the course. Following Chapter 1, the text presents a foundation for under-
standing theme and story, key aspects of understanding narrative films (Chapters 2 and
3), before moving on to discussions of dramatic and cinematic elements (Chapters 4 to
11). A framework for integration and application of these elements into an analysis of
the whole film is set forth in Chapter 12. Subsequent chapters explore special topics
including adaptations, genre films, remakes, sequels, and the role of movies in society.
The Art of Watching Films introduces the formal elements and production process
of films, and helps students analytically view and understand films within their histori-
cal, cultural, and social contexts. The text presents an analytical framework that can be
applied to all movies as distinctly different as Fences, Arrival, Casablanca, Denial, The
Lobster, American Honey, Elle, Spotlight, Manchester by the Sea, and Life Itself.
• Images and Captions: More than 450 images with extensive, informative
captions illustrate key points in the text to provide context and a critical look
at the examples.
• Balanced Selection of Films: Quintessential classics such as films by
Alfred Hitchcock, The Great Train Robbery, and the French New Wave remain
as great examples, while the addition of new films, such as Moonlight, Hell
or High Water, and La La Land, illustrate cinematic concepts in relevant and
relatable ways. As always, we include a large number of contemporary films
x
 that today’s students are likely to have seen (Hidden Figures, Get Out, Star
Wars: The Force Awakens, Captain America: Civil War). We do this with the
understanding that students learn better and are more engaged by the sub-
ject matter when they start with what they know. However, we also include
numerous examples from American film classics, which are discussed in a
way that does not assume prior knowledge. Moreover, throughout the text, we
examine a variety of films from different countries and genres.
• Unique Chapter on Adaptation: The Art of Watching Films features an entire
chapter on adaptation (Chapter 13), a major aspect of current filmmaking that is
rarely covered in textbooks. Adaptation pertains not only to works of literature,
but also to television series, computer games, graphic novels, children’s books, and
even magazine articles. It’s an area from which many feature films today are born.
• Coverage of Film and Society: A chapter on film and society (Chapter 15)
covers such thought-provoking topics as the treatment of sex, violence, and
language; censorship and the MPAA Rating System; the “foreignness” of for-
eign language and silent films; and social problem films, including documen-
taries. These topics provide social context for students to become more aware
viewers of themes and meanings behind films.
• Encouragement of Active Viewing: End-of-chapter “Watching for . . .”
exercises offer a hands-on immediacy to the study of film. Assuming that
most students have access to a DVD player, we have devised exercises for nine
of the chapters in the text. For examination of specific scenes, simply follow
the descriptive references in the “chapters” ­indicator of the main menu.
• Analysis of Film Themes and Techniques: Questions at the end of every chap-
ter help students apply chapter concepts to the analysis of any film. They increase
students’ involvement in the film experience, encouraging them to participate
actively in an engaging quest rather than respond passively to the surface details.
• Mini-Movie Exercises: Chapters 3 through 15 provide students with exer-
cises for examining a short film or “cinema sampler” (part of a feature film
that is virtually self-contained). These exercises permit scrutiny of “complete,”
unified works rather than just fragmented bits and pieces of a feature-length
film. They should be especially helpful to students and teachers who necessar-
ily work within limited time periods.
• DVD Filmmaking Extras: Chapters 3 through 15 also contain annotated
lists of topic-specific materials about the filmmaking process to be found on
DVD versions of many movies. In addition, instructions are given for locating
some “Easter eggs” (special hidden features) on DVDs.
• Films for Study: Chapters 2 through 15 provide lists of film titles that lead
students to further examination of additional movies.

NEW AND UPDATED IN THE NINTH EDITION

Refreshed Photo Program with Scores of New Film Images
All of the film images in the book are full-color screenshots captured from the films
themselves. Publicity and production stills do not depict actual shots in the films.
More than ever before, the image program shows students what the films really look
like, indicating accurate framing, color, and aspect ratio.
Preface xi
 More Currency and Relevancy with Films New to this Edition
Many new film examples whose release dates span from 2011 to 2018 have been
added and discussed in this 9th Edition. These movie titles have all been carefully
selected to nurture an appreciation and understanding of the art. Of course, classic
films and ones that will always serve as good examples have been retained.

Updated Coverage of Current Technology

The technological coverage has been updated throughout the new edition, with
an emphasis on the technologies and resources that students today use most
­frequently: DVD, Blu-ray, Netflix, and so on. We also strengthened the coverage of
computer-generated graphics (CGI) and the process of directing with digital film.

Improved Organization for More Straightforward Information

Chapters include headings and key terms to guide students new to the analysis of films.

New Exercises for More Application and Appreciation

Two new Mini-Movie Exercises help students appreciate adaptations (Higglety,
Pigglety, Pop!, chapter 13) and film and society issues (Wild Tales, chapter 15).
The ninth edition of The Art of Watching
Films is now available online with Con-
nect, McGraw‐Hill Education’s integrated
assignment and assessment platform. Connect also offers SmartBook for the new edi-
tion, which is the first adaptive reading experience proven to improve grades and help
students study more effectively. All of the title’s website and ancillary content is also
available through Connect, including:
• A full Test Bank of multiple choice questions that test students on central con-
cepts and ideas in each chapter.
• An Instructor’s Manual for each chapter with full chapter outlines, sample test
questions, and discussion topics.
• Lecture Slides for instructor use in class.
• Quizzes, Internet Exercises, Flashcards, Chapter Outlines, and Extended Films
for Study.
• Video content consisting of one classic movie clip per chapter with accompanying
commentary and quiz questions for each chapter.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This ninth edition of The Art of Watching Films presents scores of new photographs,
most of which are frame captures. We believe that this approach allows film students
to view dynamic images as they actually appear in the films themselves, rather than
merely as static publicity stills. With considerable technological and editorial assis-
tance from Ron Nelms, Jr.—who created the photo illustrations used throughout the
book, and to whom I extend my heartfelt and enduring thanks—I have chosen each
new image in this book both for the pleasure it may give readers and, most crucially,
for the direct manner in which it supports the text. Our central goal has been to create
a consistently instructive, visually appealing volume that may also entertain anyone
who loves, or is simply curious about, the eternally magical world of cinema.
xii Preface
 Once again, to my patient and encouraging family, friends, colleagues, and stu-
dents, I wish to express enormous gratitude. For constant and wonderfully gener-
ous support, I especially offer my sincere appreciation to Sue Van Wagner, Jane
Tubergen, Thomas Tierney, Roberta Tierney, and Robert Briles.
In addition, Jeanne Braham, Karen Griggs, Ray Hatton, Miles Hession, Jacqueline
Orsagh, Robert Petersen, Sandy Ridlington, Guy Thompson, Justin Young, and Michael
and Deborah Blaz continue to win my genuine thanks for their many kindnesses.
As in the past, the talented, engaged professionals at McGraw-Hill Higher Educa-
tion have provided a happy and productive home for The Art of Watching Films. Note-
worthy among them are Brand Manager Jamie Laferrera; Content Project Manager
Mary Powers (extremely diligent and helpful); Product Developer Alexander Preiss;
Content Licensing Specialist Lori Slattery; Brand Manager Penina Braffman; Lead
Core Project Manager Sheila Frank; and particularly, from ansrsource, Developmen-
tal Editor Anne Sheroff, who has been admirably dedicated, patient, and kind. I wish
to thank all for their caring guidance.
I also thank all of my colleagues who served as reviewers:

Jiwon Ahn, Keene State College
Robin R. Ashworth, Virginia
Commonwealth University
Peter Attipetty, Milwaukee Area
Technical College
Michael Benton, Bluegrass
Community and Tech College
Mitch Brian, University of Missouri–
Kansas City
Jackie Byars, Wayne State University
Jim Compton, Muscatine Community
College
Corey Ewan, College of Eastern Utah
Molly Floyd, Tarrant County College
Ken Golden, Hartwick College
J. Paul Johnson, Winona State University
Leon Lewis, Appalachian State
University
Terrence Meehan, Lorain County
Community College
Dennis Maher, University of
Texas–Arlington
Christopher Miller, Northeastern State
University
Michael Minassian, Broward College
Carol Lancaster Mingus, Modesto
Junior College
Scott Pursley, Northeastern State
University
Gary Serlin, Broward College

Jason Genovese, Bloomsburg Kimberly Radek, Illinois Valley

University of Pennsylvania Community College
Frank Tomasulo, Florida State
Steve Gilliland, West Virginia State
University
University
Hunter Vaughan, Oakland University
William J. Hagerty, Xavier University
Robert West, Cuyahoga Community
Jennifer Hopp, Illinois Central College
College
Tania Kamal-Eldin, American
Dex Westrum, University of
University
Wisconsin–Parkside

Finally, I gratefully salute Donna Davidson-Symonds, College of the Canyons,

who created the excellent student tutorial and film-clip exercises that are now sig-
nificant elements of the free online materials supporting this text.

Dennis W. Petrie
Preface xiii
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 1 The ART of
WATCHING FILMS

Star Wars: The Force Awakens

Source: Star Wars: The Force Awakens/Lucasfilm

The cinema is a work of art when motion conforms to a perceptible

rhythm with pause and pace and where all aspects of the continuous
image relate to the whole.
—josef von sternberg, director

2 CHAPTER 1
THE UNIQUENESS OF FILM
The tremendous expense involved in producing motion pictures reminds us that
film is both an industry and an art form. Each film is the child of a turbulent mar-
riage between businesspeople and artists. Yet despite an ongoing battle between aes-
thetic and commercial considerations, film is recognized as a unique and powerful
art form on a par with painting, sculpture, music, literature, and drama. A. O. Scott,
a film reviewer for The New York Times, has eloquently identified other tensions
within our insatiable appetite for going to the movies: “[I]t is at once collective
and radically solitary, an amalgam of the cohesive social ritual of theater-going
and the individualist reverie of novel-reading. . . . [M]oviegoing is perhaps still . . .
the exemplary modern cultural activity. It splices together . . . the line at the box
office and the solitary dreaming in the dark. . . .”1
As a form of expression, the motion picture is similar to other artistic media, for
the basic properties of other media are woven into its own rich fabric. Film employs
the compositional elements of the visual arts: line, form, mass, volume, and tex-
ture. Like painting and photography, film exploits the subtle interplay of light and
shadow. Like sculpture, film manipulates three-dimensional space. But, like panto-
mime, film focuses on moving images, and as in dance, the moving images in film
have rhythm. The complex rhythms of film resemble those of music and poetry,
and like poetry in particular, film communicates through imagery, metaphor, and
symbol. Like the drama, film communicates visually and verbally: visually, through
action and gesture; verbally, through dialogue. Finally, like the novel, film expands
or compresses time and space, traveling back and forth freely within their wide
borders.

What Makes Film Unique

Despite these similarities, film is unique, set apart from all other media by its quality
of free and constant motion. The continuous interplay of sight, sound, and motion
allows film to transcend the static limitations of painting and sculpture—in the com-
plexity of its sensual appeal as well as in its ability to communicate simultaneously
on several levels. Film even surpasses drama in its unique capacity for revealing var-
ious points of view, portraying action, manipulating time, and conveying a bound-
less sense of space. Unlike the stage play, film can provide a continuous, unbroken
flow, which blurs and minimizes transitions without compromising the story’s
unity. Unlike the novel and the poem, film communicates directly, not through
abstract symbols like words on a page but through concrete images and sounds.
What’s more, film can treat an almost infinite array of subjects—“from the poles
to the equator, from the Grand Canyon to the minutest flaw in a piece of steel, . . .
from the flicker of thought across an almost impassive face to the frenzied ravings
of a madman. . . .”2
Film has the capability to represent just about anything we can imagine or
perceive. Time can be slowed or speeded up so that the invisible is revealed. As
if by magic, a bullet’s trajectory through the air or the many stages of a flower’s
bloom can be made visible and comprehensible. Film can afford us experiences
not normally available to mortals. Until movies such as Harry Potter and Avatar

The Art of Watching Films 3

 came out, how else—other than in our dreams—have human beings been able
to feel the motion of swooping through a canyon on the wings of a wild bird?
What better way to understand the depth, pathos, and genius of Mozart’s life than
through his own music (Amadeus)? Even the universe itself feels palpable when
Han Solo shifts his ship into warp speed and stars collapse outside his window in
Star Wars.
The medium is unlimited not only in its choice of subject but also in its
approach to that material. A film’s mood and treatment can range from the lyric to
the epic. In point of view, a film can cover the full spectrum from the purely objec-
tive to the intensely subjective; in depth, it can focus on the surface realities and
the purely sensual, or it can delve into the intellectual and philosophical. A film
can look to the remote past or probe the distant future; it can make a few seconds
seem like hours or compress a century into minutes. Film can run the gamut of
feeling from the most fragile, tender, and beautiful to the most brutal, violent, and
repulsive.

Increasing Realism as Technology Evolves

Of even greater importance than film’s unlimited range in subject matter and
treatment, however, is the overwhelming sense of reality it can convey. The con-
tinuous stream of sight, sound, and motion creates a here-and-now excitement
that immerses the viewer in the cinematic experience. Thus, through film, fantasy
assumes the shape and emotional impact of reality (Figure 1.1). The technological
history of film can in fact be viewed as a continual evolution toward greater real-
ism, toward erasing the border between art and nature. The motion picture has pro-
gressed step by step from drawings, to photographs, to projected images, to sound,
to color, to wide screen, to 3-D and beyond. Attempts have been made to add the
sense of smell to the film experience by releasing fragrances in the theater. Aldous
Huxley’s classic novel Brave New World depicts a theater of the future in which
a complex electrical apparatus at each seat provides tactile images to match the
visuals: “Going to the Feelies this evening, Henry? . . . I hear the new one at the
Alhambra is first-rate. There’s a love scene on a bearskin rug; they say it’s marvel-
ous. Every hair of the bear reproduced. The most amazing tactual effects.”3
Although Huxley’s “Feelies” have not yet become reality, the motion picture
has succeeded—through Cinerama, IMAX, and other wide-screen, curved-screen,
large-screen projection or computerized virtual reality techniques—in intensify-
ing our experience to a remarkable degree. In fact, by creating images that are
larger than life, films have sometimes been made to seem more real than reality.
A cartoon published shortly after the release of the first Cinerama film (This Is
Cinerama, 1952) illustrates the effectiveness of this device. The drawing pictures
a man groping for a seat during the famous roller-coaster sequence. As he moves
across a row of theater seats, another spectator, in a panic, grabs his arm and
screams hysterically, “Sit down, you fool! You’ll have us all killed!” This comic
exclamation echoed similar ones from early silent film patrons who reacted ner-
vously to the first train that swiftly entered a cinema’s “station.” What awesome
delights must await us consumers of movie CGI (computer-generated imaging)
in future decades.

4 CHAPTER 1
FIGURE 1.1 Making Fantasy Become Reality The film medium gives such fantasy movies
as novelist and screenwriter J. K. Rowling’s Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them the
texture and emotional impact of reality.
Source: Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them/Warner Brothers

THE CHALLENGES OF FILM ANALYSIS

The properties that make film the most powerful and realistic of the arts also make
analysis challenging. A motion picture moves continuously in time and space.
Once frozen, a film is no longer a “motion” picture, and the unique property of
the medium is gone. Therefore, film analysis requires us to respond sensitively to
the simultaneous and continuous interplay of image, sound, and movement on the
screen. This necessity creates the most challenging part of the task: We must some-
how remain almost totally immersed in the experience of a film while we maintain
a high degree of objectivity and critical detachment. Difficult though it may seem,
this skill can be developed, and we must consciously cultivate it if we desire to
become truly “cineliterate.” Innovations in digital videodisc (DVD), Blu-ray players
and recorders, and streaming video can help, initially at least, by simply making
screenings (as well as multiple viewings) of a film easier than in the past.
The technical nature of the medium also creates challenges. It would be ideal
if we all had some experience in cinematography and film editing. In the absence
of such experience, we should become familiar with the basic techniques of film
production so that we can recognize them and evaluate their effectiveness. Because
a certain amount of technical language or jargon is necessary for the analysis and
intelligent discussion of any art form, we must also add a number of important
technical terms to our vocabularies.
The most challenging part of our task has already been stated: We must
become almost totally immersed in the experience of a film and at the same time
maintain a high degree of objectivity and critical detachment. The complex nature
of the medium makes it difficult to consider all the elements of a film in a single
viewing; too many things happen too quickly on too many levels to allow for a
complete analysis. Therefore, if we wish to develop the proper habits of analytical
viewing, we should see a film at least twice whenever possible. In the first viewing,
we can watch the film in the usual manner, concerning ourselves primarily with

The Art of Watching Films 5

 plot elements, the total emotional effect, and the central idea or theme. Then, in
subsequent viewings, because we are no longer caught up in the suspense of what
happens, we can focus our full attention on the hows and whys of the filmmaker’s
art. Constant practice of the double- or multiple-viewing technique should make
it possible for us gradually to combine the functions of two or more viewings into
one. Still, few of us possess the kind of total recall claimed by celebrated film critic
Pauline Kael, who often insisted that she never watched any movie more than once
before she composed a review.
We must also remember that film analysis does not end when the film is over.
In a sense, this is when it really begins. Most of the questions posed in this book
require the reader to reflect on the film after viewing it, and a mental replay of
some parts of the film will be necessary for any complete analysis.
Finally, as we move through the chapters that follow toward the analysis of indi-
vidual films, we must always remind ourselves that if the medium can truly be called
an “art,” then it is definitely a collaborative one. Scores, if not hundreds, of commercial
professionals are involved in the production of the average “picture” (to use the term
that many filmmakers themselves prefer). When we analyze a literary work such as a
novel or poem, we judge the toil of a single creative individual. By contrast, our close
examination of a film requires an awareness of the talents of many different artists,
including producers, directors, production/costume/makeup designers, and, of course,
actors. Usually, though, in the beginning is still the word, and the screenwriter—who
has historically been viewed as the least respected major team player in Hollywood—
remains the primary originating force within cinematic art.

THE VALUE OF FILM ANALYSIS

Before we turn to the actual process of film analysis, it may be worthwhile to look
into certain fundamental questions that have been raised about the value of analy-
sis in general.

Either/Or Positions About Analysis

Perhaps the most vocal reactions against analysis come from those who see it as
a destroyer of beauty, claiming that it kills our love for the object under study.
According to this view, it is better to accept all art intuitively, emotionally, and sub-
jectively, so that our response is full, warm, and vibrant, uncluttered by the intel-
lect. However, an either/or, black-and-white polarization of intuition and analysis
is flawed. It denies the possibility of some middle ground—a synthesis that retains
the best qualities of both approaches and embraces as equally valid both the emo-
tional/intuitive and the intellectual/analytical avenues.

The Two Sides Can Coexist: This Book’s Position

This book rests on that middle ground. It assumes that the soul of the poet and the
intellect of the scientist can coexist within all of us, enriching and enhancing the
film experience. Analysis need not murder our love of the movies. We can experi-
ence beauty, joy, and mystery intellectually as well as intuitively. With the tools of

6 CHAPTER 1
FIGURE 1.2 Learning to Dive Watching classic film dramas such as Ingmar Bergman’s
The Seventh Seal helps us to understand our human selves with a depth that might elude
us otherwise.
Source: The Seventh Seal/The Criterion Collection

analysis, we can discover the deepest reaches of understanding that only the poet
within us can fully appreciate (Figure 1.2). By creating new avenues of awareness,
analysis can make our love for movies stronger, more real, more enduring. The ana-
lytical approach is essential to the art of watching films, for it enables us to see and
understand how each part functions to contribute its vital energy to the pulsing,
dynamic whole.
Analysis, generally, means breaking up the whole to discover the nature,
proportion, function, and interrelationships of the parts. Film analysis, then,
presupposes the existence of a unified and rationally structured artistic whole.
Therefore, the usefulness of this book is restricted to structured or narrative films—
films developed with a definite underlying purpose and unified around a central
theme. Limiting our approach to structured films does not necessarily deny the
artistic value of unstructured films. Many of the movies that experimental and
underground filmmakers produce do communicate effectively on a purely subjec-
tive, intuitive, or sensual plane and are meaningful to some degree as experiences.
But because these films are not structured or unified around a central purpose or
theme, they cannot be successfully approached through analysis.
It would be foolish to suggest that a structured film cannot be appreciated or
understood at all without analysis. If a film is effective, we should possess an intui-
tive grasp of its overall meaning. The problem is that this intuitive grasp is generally
weak and vague; it limits our critical response to hazy generalizations and half-
formed opinions. The analytical approach allows us to raise this intuitive grasp to a
conscious level, bring it into sharp focus, and thereby make more valid and definite
conclusions about the film’s meaning and value. The analytical approach, however,

The Art of Watching Films 7

 does not reduce film art to rational and manageable proportions. Analysis neither
claims nor attempts to explain everything about film. The elusive, flowing stream
of images will always escape complete analysis and complete understanding. In
fact, no final answers exist about any work of art. A film, like anything else of true
aesthetic value, can never be entirely captured by analysis.
But the fact that there are no final answers should not prevent us from pursu-
ing some important questions. Our hope is that, through analysis, we can reach
a higher level of understanding about films, a level where we are reflecting on
the most significant aspects of the film art as opposed to the merely mundane,
the practical, and the technical. Film analysis enables us to understand some ele-
ments habitually, thus freeing our minds to concentrate on the most significant
questions.

Analysis Enhances Our Love of Films

Analysis helps us to lock an experience in our minds so that we may savor it in
memory. By looking at a film analytically, we engage ourselves with it intellectu-
ally and creatively and thus make it more truly our own. Furthermore, because our
critical judgments enter into the process, analysis should fine-tune our tastes. A
mediocre film can impress us more than it should at first, but we might like it less
after analyzing it. A great film or a very good one will stand up under analysis; our
admiration for it will increase the more deeply we look into it.
Film analysis, then, offers several clear benefits. It allows us to reach valid con-
clusions on a movie’s meaning and value; it helps us to capture the experience of
a film in our minds; and it sharpens our critical judgments overall. But the ulti-
mate purpose of analysis, and its greatest benefit, is that it opens up new channels
of awareness and new depths of understanding. It seems logical to assume that
the more understanding we have, the more completely we will appreciate art. If
the love we have for an art form rests on rational understanding, it will be more
solid, more enduring, and of greater value than love based solely on irrational and
totally subjective reactions. This is not to claim that analysis will create a love of
films where no such love exists. Love of movies does not emerge from a book or
from any special critical approach. It comes only from that secret, personal union
between film and viewer in a darkened room. If that love does not already exist for
the viewer, this book and its analytical approach can do little to create it.
But if we truly love films, we will find that analysis is worth the effort, for the
understanding it brings will deepen our appreciation. Instead of canceling out the
emotional experience of watching the movie, analysis will enhance and enrich that
experience. As we become more perceptive and look more deeply into the film, new
levels of emotional experience will emerge.

BECOMING A RECEPTIVE VIEWER

Before we begin our analysis, we need to consider obstacles to objectivity and
maximum enjoyment that we create through our prejudices and misconceptions
and by the particular circumstances in which we watch the film. Each of us reacts
in a unique and complex way to internal and external forces that are beyond the

8 CHAPTER 1
FIGURE 1.3 Suspending Our Disbelief To enjoy movies such as Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King, we
must undergo the memorable experience of challenging our preconceived notions of reality—or, as the Romantic
poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge suggested, “suspend our sense of disbelief” in narratives that break the natural,
logical rules of everyday existence.
Source: Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King/New Line Cinema

filmmaker’s control. Although these forces lie outside the film itself, they can have
an effect on how we experience a film. Awareness of these forces should help us
overcome them or at least minimize their effect.

Be Aware of Personal Biases

One of the most difficult prejudices to overcome is that which leads us to dismiss
certain categories of films. Although it is natural to prefer some types to others,
most of us can appreciate or enjoy aspects of almost any film. We should keep in
mind that not all films will fit our preconceived notions. For example, a person who
dislikes gangster movies might stay away from Bonnie and Clyde; another, who dis-
likes musicals, might shun Chicago, and a third, who dislikes fantasy movies, might
ignore The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (Figure 1.3). All would lose a
memorable film experience, for those three films are more than simple formula
pieces.
Others may reject worthwhile movies because of their unwillingness to ven-
ture beyond the norm. Some may stay away from black-and-white films, always
preferring color. Others may shun foreign-language films because they dislike read-
ing subtitles or because they are bothered by dubbing that is not perfectly synchro-
nized with mouth movement.
Also narrow in their outlook are filmgoers who have inflexible preconcep-
tions about what movies are supposed to be. This type of categorical rejection
may be illustrated by two extreme examples. At one end of the spectrum are
filmgoers who say, “I just want to be entertained,” and are offended by a film
that is grim and depressing. At the other end are viewers, equally limited in their
outlook, who expect every film to make a profound artistic statement about the

The Art of Watching Films 9

 human condition and who are disappointed if a film is not grim and depressing.
Closely related are those who set up their own criteria for what makes a good
film and reject movies that operate under different rules. Viewers who demand
to comprehend all the plot details by the film’s end would reject, for example,
Christopher Nolan’s Memento, which deliberately requires multiple viewings.
Moviegoers who insist that a film hold them in a tight grip may dismiss Stanley
Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey for its slow-moving segments. Excellent films
may be discounted because the characters are not sympathetic or the action is not
realistic. We must avoid these kinds of misconceptions and instead try to be open
to the film’s goals and meanings.

Watch the Whole Film

Almost as detrimental as categorical rejection is the blindness caused by over-
responding to individual elements rather than to the film as a whole. An example
of this prejudice is offered by viewers who are infected with a near-fatal case of
actor worship or antipathy: “I just love all Johnny Depp pictures!” or “I can’t stand
Julia Roberts movies!” Such extreme reactions are certainly common among view-
ers who refuse to see the actor as subordinate to the film.
Less radical illustrations of this blindness include over-response to certain film
elements. The two ingredients most likely to cause this kind of reaction are sex
and violence. Certainly, some filmmakers exploit these ingredients and emphasize
them to the point of the ridiculous, but this is not always the case. Films some-
times demand the use of nudity or violence to present honestly the story they have
to tell. Thus, a perceptive filmgoer does not condemn the use of sex or violence
per se, without considering the film as a whole, and neither does he or she reject
or praise a movie simply because of its treatment of sex or violence. For example,
many would argue that the violent ending of Bonnie and Clyde does not, by itself,
determine the overall quality of that film. And works as diverse as The Girl With
the Dragon Tatto and The Twilight Saga: Eclipse actually require some emphasis on
sexuality to tell their ­stories. The popular film reviewer Roger Ebert, in responding
to an objection by one of his readers about the sexual scenes in Paul Schrader’s
Auto Focus, repeated what Ebert often identified as one of his favorite and most
telling critical observations: “a crucial rule for anyone seriously interested in mov-
ies: It’s not what the movie is about that makes it good or bad, but how it is about
it.” Even if viewers reject this suggestion about the supremacy of style or “form,”
they also must surely not insist that subject matter or “content” is always most
significant.

Consider Your Expectations

Another subjective factor that influences film evaluation is expecting too much
from a movie, whether it has won awards, critical acclaim, or great reviews from our
friends. Expectations may also run too high if we are particularly fond of a novel that
is later adapted to film. When our expectations are too high, a film can’t possibly mea-
sure up, and our disappointment clouds a work that we would otherwise have liked
immensely.

10 CHAPTER 1
Another random document with
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See also Analecta Hymnica.
Ducange. Glossarium mediae et infimae Latinitatis conditum a
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Dugdale. Origines Iuridiciales: or, Historical Memorials of the
English Laws ... Inns of Court and Chancery. By W. Dugdale. 2nd ed.
1671.
Dugdale, Monasticon. Monasticon Anglicanum: or, the History of
the Ancient Abbies and other Monasteries, Hospitals, Cathedral and
Collegiate Churches in England and Wales. By Sir W. Dugdale. A
new edition by J. Caley, Sir H. Ellis, and the Rev. B. Bandinel. 6 vols.
1846.
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Du Méril, La Com. Histoire de la Comédie. Par É. du Méril.
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Dümmler. Epistolae Merowingici et Karolini Aevi. Recensuit E. L.
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Durandus. Rationale Divinorum Officiorum editum per ...
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Dürr. Commentatio Historica de Episcopo Puerorum, vulgo von
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Du Tilliot. Mémoires pour servir à l’Histoire de la Fête des Foux.
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Eckhardt. Die lustige Person im älteren englischen Drama (bis
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E. H. Review. The English Historical Review. 18 vols. 1886-1903.
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Elton. Origins of English History. By C. I. Elton. 2nd ed. 1890.
Evans. English Masques. With an introduction by H. A. Evans,
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Fabian. The New Chronicles of England and France. By R.
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Fairholt. Lord Mayor’s Pageants. Edited by F. W. Fairholt. 2
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Feasey. Ancient English Holy Week Ceremonial. By H. J. Feasey,
1897.
Fischer. Zur Kunstentwickelung der englischen Tragödie von
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Fitch. Norwich Pageants. The Grocers’ Play. From a manuscript
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 F. L. Folk-Lore: a Quarterly Review of Myth, Tradition, Institution,
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F. L. Congress. The International Folk-Lore Congress, 1891.
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F. L. Journal. The Folk-Lore Journal, 7 vols. 1883-9. [Organ of F.
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F. L. Record. The Folk-Lore Record. 5 vols. 1878-82. [Organ of F.
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Fleay. C. H. A Chronicle History of the London Stage, 1559-
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Flögel. Geschichte der Hofnarren. Von C. F. Flögel, 1789.
F. L. S. = Folk-Lore Society.
Fournier. Le Théâtre français avant la Renaissance. Par E.
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Fowler. The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic: an
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Foxe. The Acts and Monuments of John Foxe. With a Life of the
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Frazer. The Golden Bough: a Study in Comparative Religion. By
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Frazer, Pausanias. Pausanias’s Description of Greece.
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Frere. The Winchester Troper. Edited by W. H. Frere, 1894.
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Frere, Use of Sarum. The Use of Sarum. Edited by W. H. Frere.
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See also Procter-Frere.
 Freymond. Jongleurs und Menestrels. Von E. Freymond, 1883.
[Halle dissertation.]
Friedländer. Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms in
der Zeit von August bis zum Ausgang der Antonine. Von L.
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Froning. Das Drama des Mittelalters. Herausgegeben von R.
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Froude. History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat
of the Spanish Armada. By J. A. Froude. 2nd ed. 1889-95.
Furnivall. The Digby Plays, with an Incomplete Morality of
Wisdom, who is Christ. Edited by F. J. Furnivall, 1882. [N. S. S.
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See also Laneham, Mannyng, Stafford, Stubbes.
Furnivall Miscellany. An English Miscellany Presented to Dr.
Fumivall in Honour of his Seventy-fifth Birthday, 1901.
Gaidoz. Études de Mythologie gauloise. Par H. Gaidoz. I. Le
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Gaspary. The History of Early Italian Literature to the Death of
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Gasté. Les Drames liturgiques de la Cathédrale de Rouen. Par
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Gautier. Les Épopées françaises. Par L. Gautier, vol. ii. 2nd
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Propagateurs des Chansons de Geste. References to this work may
be distinguished from those to Les Tropaires by the presence of a
volume-number.]
Gautier, Bibl. Bibliographie des Chansons de Geste. Par L.
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 Gautier, Orig. Origines du Théâtre moderne. Par L. Gautier,
1872. [In Le Monde.]
Gautier, Tropaires. Histoire de la Poésie liturgique au Moyen
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Gayley. Representative English Comedies: from the Beginnings
to Shakespeare. Edited by C. M. Gayley, 1903.
Gazeau. Les Bouffons. Par A. Gazeau, 1882.
Genée. Die englischen Mirakelspiele und Moralitäten als
Vorläufer des englischen Dramas. Von R. Genée, 1878. [Serie xiii,
Heft 305 of Sammlung gemeinverständlicher wissenschaftlicher
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Gibbon. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire. By E. Gibbon. Edited by J. B. Bury. 7 vols. 1897-1900.
Gilpin. The Beehive of the Romish Church. By G. Gilpin, 1579.
[Translated from Isaac Rabbotenu, of Louvain, 1569.]
Gloucester F. L. See County Folk-Lore.
Goedeke. Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung,
aus den Quellen. Von K. Goedeke. 2nd ed. 7 vols. 1884-1900. [In
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Golden Legend. The Golden Legend: or, Lives of the Saints, as
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Gölther. Handbuch der germanischen Mythologie. Von W.
Gölther, 1895.
Gomme. Ethnology in Folk-lore. By G. L. Gomme, 1892.
Gomme, Brit. Ass. On the Method of determining the Value of
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Gomme, Nature. Christmas Mummers. By G. L. Gomme, 1897.
[Nature, vol. lvii.]
 Gomme, Vill. Comm. The Village Community: with special
Reference to the Origin and Form of its Survivals in Britain. By G. L.
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Gomme, Mrs. The Traditional Games of England, Scotland, and
Ireland, with Tunes. Collected and annotated by A. B. Gomme. 2
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Googe. See Kirchmayer.
Gracie. The Presentation in the Temple: A Pageant, as originally
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Grass. Das Adamsspiel: anglonormannisches Gedicht des xii.
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Gratian. See C. I. Can.
Greenidge. Infamia: Its Place in Roman Public and Private Law.
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Greg, Masques. A list of Masques, Pageants, &c.
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Greg, Plays. A List of English Plays written before 1643, and
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Gregory. Gregorii Posthuma: on Certain Learned Tracts written
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Innocentium: or, A Discovery of an Ancient Custom in the Church of
Sarum, of making an Anniversary Bishop among the Choristers.]
Gregory’s Chronicle. The Historical Collections of a Citizen of
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 Grein-Wülcker. Bibliothek der angelsächsischen Poesie.
Herausgegeben von C. W. M. Grein. Neu bearbeitet, vermehrt und
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Grenier. Introduction à l’Histoire générale de la Province de
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Grimm. Teutonic Mythology. By J. Grimm. Translated from the 4th
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Gröber. Zur Volkskunde aus Concilbeschlüssen und
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Gröber, Grundriss. Grundriss der romanischen Philologie.
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Groos. Play of Animals. The Play of Animals: a Study of Animal
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Groos. Play of Man. The Play of Man. By K. Gross. Translated
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Grosse. Les Débuts de l’Art. Par E. Grosse. Traduit par E. Dirr.
Introduction par L. Marillier. 1902. [Bibliothèque Scientifique
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Grove. Dancing. By L. Grove, and other writers. With Musical
examples. 1895. [Badminton Library.]
Gummere, B. P. The Beginnings of Poetry. By F. B. Gummere,
1901.
Gummere, G. O. Germanic Origins: a Study in Primitive Culture.
By F. B. Gummere, 1892.
Gutch. A Lytell Geste of Robin Hood, with other Ballads relative
to Robin Hood. Edited by J. M. Gutch. 2 vols. 1847.
Guy. Essai sur la Vie et les Œuvres littéraires du Trouvère Adan
de le Hale. Par H. Guy, 1898.
 Haddan-Stubbs. Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents relating
to Great Britain and Ireland. Edited, after Spelman and Wilkins, by A.
W. Haddan and W. Stubbs. 3 vols. 1869-78.
Haddon. The Study of Man. By A. C. Haddon, 1898.
[Progressive Science Series.]
Haigh. The Tragic Drama of the Greeks. By A. E. Haigh, 1896.
Hall. The Union of the Families of Lancaster and York. By E.
Hall. Edited by H. Ellis. 1809.
Halliwell-Phillipps. Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare. By J.
O. Halliwell-Phillipps. 9th ed. 2 vols. 1890.
Halliwell-Phillipps. Revels. A Collection of Ancient Documents
respecting the Office of Master of the Revels, and other Papers
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1870.
Hampson. Medii Aevi Kalendarium: or Dates. Charters and
Customs of the Middle Ages, &c. By R. T. Hampson. 2 vols. 1841.
Handlyng Synne. See Mannyng.
Harland. Lancashire Folk-Lore. By J. Harland and T. T.
Wilkinson, 1867.
Harris. Life in an Old English Town: a History of Coventry from
the Earliest Times. Compiled from Official Records by M. D. Harris,
1898. [Social England Series.]
Hartland. The Legend of Perseus: a Study of Tradition in Story,
Custom and Belief. By E. S. Hartland. 3 vols. 1894-6.
Hartland. Fairy Tales. The Science of Fairy Tales: an Inquiry
into Fairy Mythology. By E. S. Hartland, 1891. [Contemporary
Science Series.]
Hartzheim. See Schannat.
Hase. Miracle Plays and Sacred Dramas. By C. A. Hase.
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 Hastings. Le Théâtre français et anglais: ses Origines grecques
et latines. Par C. Hastings, 1900.
Hastings. The Theatre: its Development in France and England.
By C. Hastings. Translated by F. A. Welby, 1901.
Hauck. Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands. Von A. Hauck. 2nd ed.
3 vols. 1896-1900.
Havard. Les Fêtes de nos Pères. Par O. Havard, 1898.
Hazlitt. Remains of the Early Popular Poetry of England.
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Hazlitt, E. D. S. The English Drama and Stage under the Tudor
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Hazlitt, Liv. The Livery Companies of London. By W. C. Hazlitt,
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Hazlitt, Manual. A Manual for the Collector and Amateur of Old
English Plays. By W. C. Hazlitt, 1892.
Hazlitt-Dodsley. A Select Collection of Old Plays. By R.
Dodsley. Chronologically arranged, revised and enlarged by W. C.
Hazlitt. 4th ed. 15 vols. 1874-6.
Hazlitt-Warton. History of English Poetry, from the Twelfth to
the close of the Sixteenth Century. By T. Warton. Edited by W. C.
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H. B. S. = Henry Bradshaw Society.
Heales. Easter Sepulchres: their Object, Nature, and History. By
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Heinzel. Beschreibung des geistlichen Schauspiels im
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 Henderson. Notes on the Folk-Lore of the Northern Counties of
England and the Borders. By W. Henderson. 2nd ed. 1879. [F. L. S.]
Herbert. Antiquities of the Inns of Court and Chancery. By W.
Herbert, 1804.
Herbert, Liv. History of the Twelve Great Livery Companies of
London. By W. Herbert. 2 vols. 1836-7.
Hereford Missal. Missale ad usum percelebris Ecclesiae
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Herford. The Literary Relations of England and Germany in the
Sixteenth Century. By C. H. Herford, 1886.
Herrtrich. Studien zu den York Plays. Von O. Herrtrich, 1886.
[Breslau dissertation; not consulted.]
Higgs. The Christmas Prince. By Griffin Higgs, 1607. [In
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Hilarius. Hilarii Versus et Ludi. Edidit J. J. Champollion-Figeac,
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Hirn. The Origins of Art: a Psychological and Sociological
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Hist. d’Autun. Histoire de l’Église d’Autun. Autun, 1774.
Hist. Litt. Histoire littéraire de la France. Par des Religieux
bénédictins de la Congrégation de S. Maur. Continuée par des
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Hist. MSS. Reports of the Historical Manuscripts Commission,
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Hobhouse. Churchwardens’ Accounts of Croscombe, Pilton,
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Hodgkin. Italy and her Invaders. By T. Hodgkin. 8 vols. 1892-9.
Hohlfeld. Die altenglischen Kollektivmisterien, unter besonderer
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 Holinshed. Holinshed’s Chronicles of England, Scotland, and
Ireland. 6 vols. 1807-8.
Holthausen. Noah’s Ark: or, the Shipwright’s Ancient Play or
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Högskola’s Ärsskrift.]
Hone. Ancient Mysteries described, especially the English
Miracle Plays, founded on Apocryphal New Testament Story, extant
among the unpublished Manuscripts in the British Museum. By W.
Hone, 1823.
Hone, E.D.B. The Every Day Book and Table Book. By W. Hone.
3 vols. 1838.
Household Ordinances. A Collection of Ordinances and
Regulations for the Government of the Royal Household, made in
divers Reigns from King Edward III to King William and Mary, 1790.
[Society of Antiquaries of London.]
Hrotsvitha. Hrotsvithae Opera. Recensuit et emendavit P. de
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Hubatsch. Die lateinischen Vagantenlieder des Mittelalters. Von
O. Hubatsch, 1870.
Indiculus. See Saupe.
Jahn. Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und
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Jeanroy. Les Origines de la Poésie lyrique en France au Moyen
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inédits. Par A. Jeanroy, 1889.
Jevons. An Introduction to the History of Religion. By F. B.
Jevons, 1896.
Jevons, Plutarch. Plutarch’s Romane Questions. Translated a. d.
1603 by Philemon Holland. Now again edited by F. B. Jevons. With
Dissertations on Italian Cults, 1892.
 See also Schräder.
Jones, Fasti. Fasti Ecclesiae Sarisburiensis, or A Calendar of the
Bishops, Deans, Archdeacons, and Members of the Cathedral Body
at Salisbury, from the Earliest Times to the Present. By W. H. Jones,
1881. [Pages 295-301 contain an account of the Boy Bishop at
Salisbury.]
Jordan. The Creation of the World. By W. Jordan. Edited with a
translation by Whitley Stokes, 1863. [Transactions of Philological
Society.]
Jubinal. Jongleurs et Trouvères: Choix de Pièces des xiiie et xive
Siècles. Par M. L. A. Jubinal, 1835.
Jubinal, Myst. Mystères inédits du xve Siècle. Par M. L. A.
Jubinal. 2 vols. 1837.
Jubinal, N. R. Nouveau Recueil de Contes, Dits, Fabliaux, et
autres Pièces inédites des xiiie, xive, et xve Siècles. Par M. L. A.
Jubinal. 2 vols. 1839-42.
Julian. Iuliani Imperatoris quae supersunt. Recensuit F. C.
Hertlein. 2 vols. 1875-6.
Julleville. See Petit de Julleville.
Jusserand. Le Théâtre en Angleterre depuis la Conquête
jusqu’aux Prédécesseurs immédiats de Shakespeare. Par J. J.
Jusserand. 2nd ed. 1881.
Jusserand, E. L. A Literary History of the English People from
the Origins to the Renaissance. By J. J. Jusserand. Vol. i, 1895. [In
progress.]
Jusserand, E. W. L. English Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages.
By J. J. Jusserand. Translated by L. T. Smith. 4th ed. 1892. [The
English translation has valuable illustrations.]
Keary. The Vikings in Western Christendom: a. d. 789 to a. d.
888. By C. F. Keary, 1891.