School of Civil & Construction Enginooring Bacholor of Enginooring-Civil Enginooring EECQ 4271-Foundatlon Enginooring 1B-Locturor Elly Aligoh MSc Eng. a) Pile foundation Piles are deep foundation elements in the form of a slender column or long cylinder made of materials such as concrete, timber or steel which are used to support structure and transfer the load ata desired depth either by end bearing or skin friction or both. Pile foundations are deep foundations. 's are used to carry vertical loads or lateral loads or a combination of both. Classification of piles; imber piles By material type Conerete piles ) Stee! piles By method of installation; i) Driven piles Cast in situ piles i) Driven and cast Piles are used to i) Carry vertical compression loads To resist uplift loads To resist horizontal o inclined load Piles and pile groups subjected to vertical loads their di ) Determining the vertical bearing capacity of a single ii) Determining the v vertical bearing capacity of group of piles “The bearing capacity of a group of piles connected by a pile cap is determined on the basis of a single pile Whereas the bearing capacity of a single pile will depends on i) Type, size, and length of the pile ii) Type of soil Method of installation‘The allowable load on a pile is determined on the basis of bearing capacity consideration, the settlement of the group at the design load is then computed to be within allowable limits toad from, Super structure (Q) Soft soll Hard Strta End beating End boating Pile installed in a homogenous soil of known physical properties the ultimate load capacity Qu = Qp+OQf=qpuxAbHsxAs discussion the use of dynamic formula above in the design of pile) Where Qu = ultimate bearing capacity Qp= base bearing capacity po «ultimate unit bearing capacity of a pile atthe base fs = unit skin resistance ‘Ab = bearing area of the base of a pile ‘As = total surface area of pile embedded below ground surface Determination of a pile ultimate bearing capacity Qu Qu the ultimate bearing capacity for a pile may be determined by Use of theoretical equation Use of penetration test resultsield load tests iii) Piles may fail during installation for driven piles as nota of slog ple Iwona of apoun ign meee (0) Group of piles easly spaced siege pie a Pilecop (60 Gep of ples wih ples far opr According to studies by Vesic only punching shear failure occurs in deep foundations irrespective of the density of the soil so long as the ratio of D/B is greater than 4 according figure ¢ ‘Therefore the general form of equation presented by various investigators for ultimate point bearing capacity is Op =[(Cx Noxactixy x Bx Ny xay +x Nqxaq)\Ab Where Qp ultimate point bearing capacity B = Width or diameter the pile 4 effective overburden pressure at the base levelNe Nq NY = bearing capacity fretors factors, Wag = shape Ab =base area of foundation When ¢=0 Que Lays Bx Nyxay gs Ngxag When 0=0 , Nq=1 and N¥=0 Then an CxNe xactq The Vesic’s equation for circular deep foundation or square foundation when <0 dpm =acxqxNg=3xqxNq The shape factor ac =3 Under reamed piles be stmeure Oe Fen Exhansve ‘a 46 10 95 ae ms -4 Looe oe +2 Sees“The point bearing capacity of a pile may be increased by undreaming i.e. enlargement of the cross section at some points along its length. Field load test indicate that under-reamed piles work out deeper as compared (o straight bored piles for the same design load, for best result there must be a minimum distance between center to center of bulbs in multi-undreamed piles of 1.5 du where du is diameter of bulb ‘The load carrying capacity of an under-reamed pile may be computed as Qu = Qp+Of = qpuxAb+fsxAs Where Qu = ultimate bearing capacity Qp= base bearing capacity ps «ultimate unit bearing capacity of pile at the base fs = unit skin resistance ‘Ab = bearing area of the base of a pile ‘As =total surface area of pile embedded below ground surface ‘The bearing capacity of skin resistance fs computed as fe=cato, tand Where ca =adhesion g, Average normal pressure on contact area 8= angle of wall friction For an embedded length D of pile the average normal pressure @, may be expressed as pera Dek, a.xk, Where Y= effective average unit weight ks =coefficient of earth pressure qa = average overburden pressureDetermination of pile bearing capacity from dyn nie pile driving formula Vibratory hammer a7] Soils “The resistance offered by the soil to penetration of pile during driving gives indication of its bearing capacity, the relationship developed from pile driving is as Wh=Qus Where W=weight of driving hammer h=height of fall of hammer Wh= energy of nammer Qu= ultimate resistanceto penetration S= pile penetration under one hammer blow Qus = resisting energy of pile Other formulea have been developed for estimating bearing capacity as the Hiley energy . yhxW xh 1+ CPR Wp equation as gua ZxWxh WCE Hp ee eR RyQu may be obtained by dividing Qu with a factor of safely (the above equation becomes invalid when pilr rest on solid rock) ic load test is the Another equation for estimating the Enineering News formula bearing capacity from dynar (for the 29% december 1888 edition of enginerering news aeticle by Aurthur Mellen Wellington published a formula which gave safe load as bellow called Enineering News formula) Which was generality similar to the Hiley’s equation both being generally emperical, but theoretical pile point bearing capacities according to Janbu, Vesic and Meyerhof which were both experimental and theoretical gave Nq values for dry formation in their studies, and the beating capacity factor Nq determined: in dry and saturated sands. In the study for, nine different piles having different diameters (D=50-60-70 mm) and lengths (L=300-400-600 mm) as cast-in-situ reinforced bored piles in sandy soil. Then loaded with stati pile load test in both ry and saturated sands, confirmed that the engineering news formula could be developed from Newtonian impact mechanics Ys=1 and Cr= 1 and a factor of safety =6 express Qu as __™ . 6(s+e) \ where Qu= allowable load in Kg ‘ Qu We= weight of hammer Kg h = height of fall of hammer in em S= final penetration in cm per vhammer blow constant [(2.5 - 0.25) drop hammer - single and double acting hammer] Bearing capacity of piles based on static cone penetration and standard penetration test results Static cone and standard penetration tests can be used to determine the ultimate load bearing capacity of piles. In that the pressure offered by the cone recorded as penetration qoin Kg/em? and one offered by tube as skin resistance fo when piles are driven into granular soils then from static cone penetration resistance value of qo it was suggested by Meyerhof that the ultimate point resistance of a pile qpa will varies between 3103 times the average static penetration resistance qe such that qpa= ae Meyerhof suggested that the ultimate bearing capacity of a pile driven in sand is as qve= qe =4N Ke/em? and that the unit value of skin friction fs on a pile varies from ion fo on pipe sleeve of cone penetration such that 03 times the static skin frfrmzfe For dit laced pile on sand Meyerhof suggested Bearing capacity of bored piles on granular soils De Bear investigated and suggested that the point resistance of bored piles in granular soils is very small compared to driven piles. This was due to i) There will be no compaction of pile at base ii) The soil at the base gets disturbed during boring Method of carrying out pile load test This consist of an arrangement to take the reaction of the load applied on the pile i) A hydraulic jack of sufficient capacity Yo apply load on the pile load ii) A set of tdial gauges to measure settlement of the pile ANCHOR GIRDER OR REACTION GIRDERS HYDRAULIC JACK REFERENCE MARK ANCHOR PILE — ANCHOR PILE “The load may be applied in two methods such as1) Continuous load test ii) Cyclic load test In the continuous load (est settlement of the pile is recorded at each load level While on the cyclic load test method, the load is raised up to a particular level, then released to zero and likewise and settlement recorded at each increment or decrease Determination of allowable Load from a Single Pile load Test Data After the test, the allowable load on a single pile may be determined by use of the test data by plotting a load- settlement curve. The allowable load will then be determined by diving the ultimate load by a suitable factor of safety (2 - 3). Therefore some of the methods for determining either the allowable or ultimate loads from the load ~ settlement curve are i) The ultimate load Qu can be determined as the abscissa of the point where the curved part of the point where the curve changes to a falling straight as ert pinnae ii) Qu is the abscissa of a point of intersection of initial and final tangents of the Joad ~ settlement curve asiii) The allowable load Qa is $0% of the ultimate load at which the total settlement amounts to one-tenth of the diameter of the pole iv) Allowable Qa is taken as equal to Spies of the which causes a total settlement of 12mm ¥) _Theallowable load Qa is taken as equi to two-thirds ot the load which causes‘a net (plastic) settlement of 6mm For group of piles loaded to failure, the ultimate load the group Qpu may be found out by method I or 2 Pile settlement While itis generally recognized that piles do not indeed settle, this is not the original intentions as in the first place they are use4d to prevent the settlement that shallow foundations would have resulted in Ifthe deep foundation is properly designed with reasonable factor of safety, settlement should be in elastic range particularly for end bearing piles. The approach is to use the theory of the point load within an elastic solid (Poulus and Davis) P i Such that AH => AH = pile settlement P= applied surface load L= pile length E = modulus of elasticity of soil at pile end = influence factor (read from specific tables) Vs = poisons ratio of soil at pile tip (from tables)uw Pile group settlement ‘The increase in vertical settlement of a pile due to installation of an adjacent pile may be predicted for a single pile consideration. An empirical approach gives the relation as SS aR, aa? ‘AH =pile group settlement AH; =settlement of a single pile at design load in a pile load test ‘$= ratio of pile spacing to pile diameter r= number of rows in pile group [7 a a Fictitious Fa OR FS ope LOLs f Bet @) (b) cy Lateral movement ‘When a single pile undergoes a horizontal displacement under load that movement based on elastic solution is Where AH= horizontal displacement Es = modulus of elasticity of soil L=length of pile2 He horizontal force M= moment at top of pile Tru =influence factor taken from table KR = pile flexibility Ep =modulus of elasticity of pile material Ip= moment of inertia of pile When no rotation takes place then settlement is computed as Trp influence factor from tables Pile group capacity Since one rarely installed a single pile to support the entire structure, the question is what load will a group of piles support. Also whether the maximum load will a group of piles support. It is possible to attempt to determine pile group capacity out of geometric relationships based on Surface area resulting in pile efficiency E being less than 1 which was multiplied by sum of capacities of individual pile, this approach was deficient as it did not take into account the nature of soil on which piles are founded. It is more rational to consider nature of soil which they may inerease by driving action Its necessary that one must compute the bearing capacity beneath the pile group and the shear strength adjacent to the group to arrive at the pile group load capacity Q, = BLpo+(2B+2L)D,so Where3B Qerpile group capacity L= group length DF group depth Po =point resistance of soil beneath group So = average skin friction adjacent to the group Pile group efficiency The spacing of piles is usually predetermined by practical and economic consideration. The design of pie foundation subjected to vertical lands comprises of i) The determination of the ultimate load bearing capacity of the group Qpu ii) Determine of the settlement of the group Sg under an allowable load Qga Note that the ultimate load of the group is different from the sum of the ultimate loads of individual piles Qu Therefore the pile group efficiency is the factor = Oe Bay OH ‘Type of soils in which the piles are embedded Method of installation either driven or cast — insitu Spacing of piles And depends on parameters as. The pile group efficiency are evaluated as py = Oat (-1) 90mm Where m= numbers of columns of piles in a group n= number of rows side o= tan © in degrees s d=diameter of pile s= spacing of pile Negative Friction on Pile When a filled up soil starts to consolidate under its own over-burden pressure, it develops a drag on the surface of the pile (negative friction)4 ‘Negative friction must be factored when considering the factor of safety on ultimate carrying capacity of piles as Fe wiitimatecarryingcapacityofasin gleorgroupofpiles workingload + negativeskinf rictionload For a single negative friction equals a) For cohesive soil Fn= Px D, xS b) For cohesionless soil Fn $x Px Do? xy xkxtand Where Dn =length of pile is the compressible material S= shear strength of cohesive soils in the filledd up zone P= perimeter of pile Ke carth pressure coefficient that lies between active and passive coefficient 6 =angle of wall friction ( ¢ 9+00)) Negative skin friction can occur on the perimeter of a pile driven through a layer of clay undergoing consolidation (c.g. due to fill recently placed over the clay) into a firm bearing stratum, The consolidating layer exerts a downward drag on the pile therefore the direction of the skin friction in this layer is revised Negative Friction on Pile Group For a group of piles negative friction may be as15 Negative friction lees Frictional “resistance Point resistance ‘Semprecsibie an Negative skin Trietion, ‘iS Bositive shatt Firm Stratum Ree a) Fj, =nFn b) Fng=SD,Pg+7D,Ag ‘Where: N= number of piles in the group O= unit weight of soil within the pile group up to depth Dn Pg = perimeter of pile group ‘Ag= area of pile group within the perimeter Pg = shear strength of a long the perimeter of the group Pile and Pile Groups Subjected to Lateral Loads16 When soil of low bearing eapacity extends to great depth, when piles are used to transmit vertical and lateral loads to the surrounded soil media then the pile foundation may be subjected to a). Vertical loads only ) Lateral loads only ©) A.combination of vertical and lateral loads ® Depending on the point of action of lateral loads pile foundation may be subjected to moment in addition to lateral loads Vertical piles may not be reliable for resisting lateral loads and its ability may depend on a) Nature of soil adjacent to pile b) Size of pile ©) The load compared to one rigidly fixed on the pile cap Load Peck, Thorn burn and Hansen (1958) suggested that when soil on which a pile is fixed has an N -value of 5 and soil unlikely to move horizontally then the maximum of 750Kg horizontal load may be allowed When horizontal load exceed the value suitable for a vertical pile, then batter piles are used in combination with vertical piles. The degree of batter may be up to 30% ic angle between pile and the verticalv7 Ifthe lateral loads acts on the foundation in the direction of the batter it is called an in batter or a negative batter pile. If the lateral load act in the direction opposite of the batter it is. called an out batter or positive batter pile i i i i i i t Pont te ple Veni ile Negune sterile Laterally loaded single pile The analysis of laterally loaded single are based on the following a) The laterally loaded pile behaves as an elastic member and the supporting soil behaves as an elastic material b) The theory of subgrade reaction is applicable ©) There is no axial load 4 4 AN o, AA cyrundiew) Lateral Lead Latest Leas. Crove-Saatznal View j \ b) Outer fous Bazerad )A Frama Dati18 Je— Shoot Pilo Foundation Pile ‘Anchor Pife Pile under Tension Load Piles are commonly used to carry compressive loading, there are a number of situations where piles may be use4d to carry tensile loads as 8) When used as part of a pile group supporting a structure to which horizontal or ‘moment loading is applied b) When used as reaction piles to provide reaction for load test ©) To provide anchorage against uplift under such condition of tension, then itis assumed that the pile resistance is due to shaft friction alone. The base being lifted away from the soil beneath Turing er af A ]b Tiere” aly End Bearing Pile Friction Pll “Tenslon Pile For every pile the length L losses significance because the deflection may be very near zero for much of length of the pile as in sketches above and such piles are called long flexible piles The solution to lateral loaded pile problem involves the obtaining curveds of deflection, slope movement shear and soil reaction. The curves may be for either vertical or inclined piles, so ong as the lateral load Qhp is considered normal to axis of the pile Matlock and Reese (1960) presented generalized solution for laterally loaded vertical piles which may also be applied to battered piles19 Tension Compression Loading Loading ‘Shaft Resistance Tension Loading | Compression Jutesdng (a) __ Base Resistance () Selection of Piles Type The selection of the type of pile to be used in a project depends on several factors e.g. ‘Structural load Location of the site Soil condition and position of water table Required pile length and structural capacity of pile Durability vi) Economy The selection of the material of the pile would depend upon the magnitude of the structural load, for light load, timber piles can be used, while for heavy loads, only steel or reinforced concrete pile can be considered For restricted sites when other structures already in place, large displacement may not be used from consideration of noise, displacement piles help compact the soil i) In loose soils use of displacement piles may result in heaving of soil, hence no displacement piles preferred Driven piles are un-affected by ground water while bored piles may need very careful consideration during conereting20 b) Shoring and Underpinning Shoring is the process of temporary supporting a building, structure or trench with shores when in danger of collapse or during repairs or alteration Shoring of a structure is required 2) To supporta structure which is sinking or tilting due to ground subsidence or instability of the superstructure b) Asa safe guard against possible settlement of a structure when exacting close to and bellow its foundation level ©) To support a structure while marking alterations its foundations or main supporting members Underpinning a method of strengthening the foundation of an existing building or other structures Underpinning of a structure is required a) To supporta structure which is sinking or of the superstructure b) Asa safe guard against possible settlement of a structure when exacting close to and bellow its foundation level ©) To enable the foundation to be deepened for structural reasons e.g, to construct a basement beneath a building d) To increase the width of a foundation to permit heavier loads to be carried for: ‘example when increasing the floors up ©) Toenable a building to be moved bodily to a new site 1g due to ground subsidence or instabilityMethods of Shoring a) Raking and dead shore d_weiipace Fimber grloge Shoring arrangement for raking a five storey building b)Shoring arrangement for flying shores23 4) Packing and wedges Cop Lacing between struts: Needle at this level for underpinning b4}- foundations Folding Folding. wedges Shoring arrangement for dead shores Shoring for Excavation When carrying out excavation work during construction there is great need to be conscious of the depth of excavation and the angle of excavation on safety24 When conditions for unbraced excavation are not possible, some form of lateral support i.e. bracing, must be constructed to retain the soil ‘The bracing system are as follows a) Skeleton sheeting b) Soldier beam and lagging ©) Solid sheeting ‘These are necessary to protect the workers within the excavation from slope failures and cave- ins but also to protect property and equipment in the immediate vicinity.25 On site these should be done as per the occupational and health admin situation (OSHA) regulation for excavation, trenching and shoring Skeleton Sheeting ‘This a cheap way of providing temporary bracing system and can be used in soil which possess some amount of cohesion and can support themselves between the uprights when such bracing is used. If the cohesion of the soil is low for this method, then the upright must be closer. Weaker clays require or granular soils with no cohesion require the upright to be placed so close together that they might just as well be called continuous sheeting. The problem sometimes occur at the bottom of upright which kicks out into the trench because of high soil pressure and lack of embedment. In practice a set of wales and struts is sometimes placed at26 the bottom of the trench below subgrade elevation or stakes driven against the upright to give additional support Continuous sheeting ‘These are similar to skeleton sheeting where the uprights are placed side by side and in terms of design resemble soldier beam and lagging, They may be made from wood ,conerete and steel Soldier Beams and Lagging Soldier beam and lagging are popular method of temporary well construction in the use of beams and lags, The procedure is to drive HI piles prior to any excavation at the location where the face of the wall is desired, ‘The piles are driven with the flanges parallel to the excavation area, Excavation starts when those piles have attained desired depth ‘The construction sequence for installing of soldier beams and lagging,(struts and rocker placed into excavation are for support) Where a) The driving of the soldier beams bb) First stage excavation and installation of lagging ©) The installation of uppermost wales and struts 4) The second stage excavation and installation of lagging ©) The installation of second wales and struts ) The process repeated until completion2” ¢) Methods of Underpinning 8) Under pinning with steel tubes piles Existing (6) a)underpinning. a strip foundation b) underpinning a column base c)underpinning cantilever pile cap28 Trench for injections. Original ground level Wall of . consolidated soil Coarsesandy ” “gravel eye S Opentimbering toface Injection drill holes. b) Underpinning by chemical injection RScolumn Cleats welded focoluma Hydraulicjack. Needle beam: ‘Excavation for’ - underpinning 7| removed = Underpinning “vexeavation (2, (2)29 a) underpinning Support by neddle beams bjunderpinning. support by dead shores Needle beam ___ Fine conerete 3OOmmx 300mm Walland foundation cutaway Excavation for underpinning leg Underpinning rrangement of supporting wall by needling }+— Wall Bearing plate Crib support30 4) Dewatering Techniques both surface and subsurface During construction, measures must be put in place to deal wit water during and after construction processes. For a site depending on the extent of excavation, surface water may be confined by creating spoil banks around the excavated pit to exclude surface water, On large sites where a major excavation is to be undertaken such as construction of a deep basement or raft foundation, surface water needs careful consideration if construction is to proceed during wet weather seasons, Purp Other than surface water containment of water intrusion into deep excavation may also involve the control of subsurface water. For constructions such as dams, then special provisions such as the construction of cofferdams in combination with diversion tunnels or channels to help keep the construction site free of water is undertaken, When dealing with ground water, or subsurface on a construction site, then the principle is to lower the ground water level below the bottom of the excavation by: 8) Use of boreholes ,constructed around the area to be kept free of water intrusion and pumped to keep level of water at desired level.it is limited to expense of borehole construction Impermeat layer Aquifer 231 b)_ Using well-points to pump out water from the ground to lower ground water level. A number of well-points are used configured in either ring type or progressive system. deader pipe beader pte symettical Riser (stage 1) Riser (stage 2) Origional water table ‘Berm and drainage ditch Lower water table Drainage ditch and sump Multi stage well point drainage arrangement32 ©) Use of sheet pile construction to exclude the water from the construction site 4) By freezing the ground by use of ground freezing techniques thereby enabling construction to proceed with no menace from ground water Liquid bolle, evaporation | an =| evaporator FNS Haat Flow33 ©) By electro: osmosis process34 c) Well Foundations Well, or eaissons (box) are used as foundation elements for bridges and other structures that may be sited in water, they have been in use for a very long time. It is noted that an important. (monument, Uttar Pradesh in India that is many hundreds of years old e.g. Taj Mahal) has its foundation erected using caissons. The caissons or wells are either reinforced or mass concrete. Well can be used in very deep under water construction. And wells or caissons arc either in the form of a) Open caisson b) Pneumatic caissons c) Box caissons Caisson are used to provide work space for both men and materials at the starts of construction but eventually form part of foundation. The caissons will be lowered in water one by on as construction progress and form part of the finished foundation SAND FILLING b) Box caisson35 ©) Pneumatic caisson." ‘The Steining -well wall thickness The walls of a well is called steining. The steining may be constructed of cement concretr or masonay.The conerete steining are nomaly reinforced to take care of stresses developed during sinking or due to changes in temperature condition. Similarly masonary steining are also reinforced. A bridge girder and bearing on pier carried on a well foundation36 When deciding on the thickness of steining the following are are taken into consideration. fi 1) It should be possible to sink well without excessive kentledge 2) The well should not get damaged during sinking 3) If the well developed a tilt and shifts during sinking it shoukd be possibleto rectify the tilt without damaging thethebwell 4) The well should be able to resist safely the earth pressure developed during sandblow or other conditionlike sudden drop that may be experienced during driving 5) Stresses at various levels of the steining should be within permissible limits under all load conditions that may be transferred to the well during sinkingor during service — Bottom pug ‘A well foundation used for a bridge pier shall carry both vertcal and lateral loads.vertical loads consist of dead and live loads. The dead loads includes weights of the superstructure and substructure The vertical live loads are brought on the structure due to the passing of vehicle over the bridge.the lateral loads are caused bue to braking or traction of vehicles,water current, wind earthquake etc. The lateral forces might act at different pointson the peir but their effect can be simulated by considering an equavalent lateral force acting at the bearing level. ‘The For rectangular well section all the external loads and resisting forces acting o external forces (loads) are: 2) WT= The vertical load at the bearing level of pier which include the loads of superstructure(excluding pier)and live loads acting on it.37 Sec. elevation ye bBo} b) WS= weight of pier and well(considering relief due to buoyancy) ©) Qh=Equivalent lateral load acting at the bearing level of a height H., above the maximum scour level ‘The external loads are resisted by the soil surrounding the well. The caisson being a rigid body, rotates about a certain axis passing through a point O at a depth nD (=Do) from maximum scour level. The rotation will give rise to the following resisting forces: a) P1,P2=Resultant horizontal forces acting on the front and rear vertical faces of the well respectively b) FIF2=Vertical frictional forces due to the horizontal forces Pland P2 acting on the front and rear faces of the well respectively38 ©) F3,E4=Horizontal frictional forees due to earth pressure at rest condition acting on the faces of the well parallel to the direction of the external load 4) F5=Vertical frictional force due to earth pressure at rest condition acting on faces of the well parallel to the direction of external loads ©) Re Base reaction acting at an eccentricity eb f) Fb= Base frictional force Scour tevel Sandy soil A= Original position ot t axis of well Qs — } L B= Displaced position of axis ot well dhol rs Plan To resolve these forces the following must be known: i) The vertical and lateral loads ii) The cross-section of the well iii) The height of the pier and the well above the maximum scour level Required to be determine will be the depth of well below the maximum scour level (The grip length) with a suitable factor of safety39 Determination of the grip length Methods proposed are: a) Dimensional analysis b) Limit state of equilibrium method Basis of assumptions made are: i) The well is rigid and rotates bodily around some axis due to the action of external forces ii) The well is founded in sandy soil iii) The well is acted upon by a unidirectional horizontalforceeither longitudionalor transverse iv) The problem is assumed as a three-dimensional Limit state equilibrium method of determining the grip length D ‘The limit state equilibrium method gives the ultimate loads. The method is deficit in that it does not give any idea of displacement of structure, either at the time of failure or at working loads. The analysis make use of shear strength parameters of C and 9 of the soil and the angle of wall friction 5 AS ‘et friction, +54 resistance I> Direction of mos os Direction of movement of soll & Direction of frictronal resistance ‘Asa result of the rotation of the well, the soil in contact with the well above point B and B! will be in passive state and the direction of movement of soil is as shown in sketch. ‘The movement of the soil are resisted by the frictional forces offered by the surface of the well. ‘The resultant of the normal pressure P! and the frictional force deviates from the normal in an upward direction by an angle & which isthe angle of wall friction and is positive. The resultant of the normal passive pressure P? and the frictional resistance in this case dips below the normal. The corresponding angle of wall friction is negative, The resistance offered by the soil ‘movement of a well must execed the passive pressure of the end effect,40 External Loads and Resisting Forces Acting on a Well at Limit State Equilibrium a) Dead loads: it includes weight of superstructure (pier/abutment) and self-weight of well, b) Live loads: the design live loads in road bridges, the live loads may be specified via standard specifications and code of practice for road bridges. the impact loads is the result of live load and shall be considered only ofa pier cap and the bridge seat on the abutment, However, for other components of the well this effect shall be neglected. 4) Wind loads: the wind loads shall be seen only on the exposed area in elevation and hence acts laterally on the bridge. ) Water pressure: the water pressure due to water current is acted on the portions of substructure that lies between the water level and the maximum scour level velocity maximum at free surface of water and zero at the deepest scour level. the average velocity is applied 1) Longitudinal forces: longitudinal forces results from tractive and braking forces. The longitudinal forces depend on the type of vehicles and bearing. These forces get transferred/transmitted into the substructure via fixed bearings and friction in movable bearings. 8) Buoyant forces: the buoyancy tends to decrease the effective weight of well. For masonry/conerete Steining 15-20% buoyancy is assumed to account for the porousness h) Earth pressure: The Rankins’s theory and Coulombs theory is utilized to calculate the cearth pressure. i) Temperature stresses: these are longitudinal forces are resulted because of the temperature changes. j) Seismic forces: seismic forces are vital when the wells are constructed in seismic zones. The seismic forces act on every members of the structure.41 ‘The external forces are: Qhu=Ultimate value of lateral load for a given grip length D Mpu = Ultimate value of external moment at scour level = Qhu xH ZI ,Z2= Distances of points of application P1, P2 from point of rotation Kp, KA= Three dimensional passive and active earth pressures coefficient for possitive angle of wall friction K’P,K"A = Three dimensional passive and active earth pressures coefficient for negative angle of wall friction, Also42 1) B=Width of well of square or rectangular section or equivalent with a circular well of the same sectional area g) L=length of well h) Yeffective unit weight of soil Based on the sketch above, the resisting forces are considered positive when they act from left right parallel to the direction of lateral load Qhu. Moments are considered positive when they are clockwise. The various resisting forces that ast on well founded on as shown in sketch are: a) The horizontal earth pressure P1, P2 acting on the front and rear vertical faces of the well respectively. b) The vertical frictional forces F1,F2 acting on the front and rear faces of the well respectively , Where FI= Btand and F2=P,=tand ©) The horizontal frictional forces F3, F4 acting on each of the faces parallel to the direction of lateral load Qhu 4) The vertical frictional forces F, F2 acting on the faces parallel to direction of the lateral Toad Qhu ©) The reaction R acting on the base of the well at an eccentricity of eb f) The base frictional foree=R tan ‘The analysis is simplified by ignoring the forces as ‘Akp=t (Kp -KA) Avkp = ¥z (K'P-K’A) ‘The net passive earth pressure at any depth Z from the scour level normal to the front face of the well is Pp=¥Z (KP - KA) =AxkPxz ‘Atdepth D the unit pressure is PD = AxKPxD Similarly, the corresponding pressure at the rear face of the well are Pz=A'xKpx Z PD=A'xKPx D ‘When well is assumed to rotate about O the algebric sum of the pressure equal to zero ‘Such that 1 P1 =area of triangle AEO multiplied by the length L of the well = 2 nDx L. ZbA! x kp from similar triangle OEG and OFC (i-n) Also EGM and OAM Zb43 Now OM = xtxn=nDxAxkp xn= NDXAxkp-x substitute in (ii) for Zb Ax kp x kynx D AkpnD __ AxkpxnD A'xkp+ Axkpx(l=n) 4 Akp=n) T+ r,(1=n) A'xkp Axkp Ax kp Substitute for x in () and simplify P\= Cy. A xkpx L xD? Ti G l+r,(l-n)] Z, =mD Py=c2xAxKPxLxD Z,=nxD ‘These values are provided in special charts and tables ‘Therefore the frictional force on the base of the well is expressed as Fb=Rtand Conditions for Statistical Equilibrium ‘The magnitude of all the resisting forces and their points of application are now known. At limiting state, all the forces acting on the well should satisfy the following conditions of statistical equilibrium: 1) The sum ofall the vertical forces must be equal to zero ie EVE+0 2) Sum of all the horizontal forces must be equal to zero ie SH=0 3) Sum of the moment of all the forces about any point , say about © , must be equal to zero ie EMI=0 sa) EVE=W -R-Pitand=0 ‘Therefore, R = W- tan 5 (P\-P2) b) SHF=Qhu-Py#P2+R tan d = 044 Substitute for and other res ing forces in equation (b) ‘An expression for calculating grip length D may be D Qhu +1 tand Lx Ax kpx R,(1+ tan? 6) Sun of all moments about the point O=0 ie =MfMgutQhux nD-PiZ-P2Za2(P, ~ P)tand — Reb — Rtand(1-n)D=0 Substitute for Py ,P2,Z; and Zz and R and simplify an equation for grip length D may be expressed as Mgu(l-+ » = woe +(1-m)tand] pte —_p_____ Axkps AIR, ~ R= np tan? 5} + tan 5(R, 8, 5)) Where A=BL Ri=Cinte2nz R= St 2 R3=Ci. Cz