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Surface Texture

Surface Texture measurement: Surface roughness, Waviness, Roughness

Parameter Ra, Rz, RMS etc., Surface roughness symbols, Flatness Test
measurement by Interference principle: Concept of Flatness, Interferometer
principle for measurement, Optical Flats – study of Surface textures under
monochromatic light source, fingertip test technique

Introduction
• With the more precise demands of modern engineering products, the
control of surface texture together with dimensional accuracy has
become more important.
• Surface texture greatly influences the functioning of the machine
parts. The properties such as appearance, corrosion resistance,
wear resistance, fatigue resistance, lubrication, initial tolerance,
ability to hold pressure, load carrying capacity, and noise reduction
in the case of gears are influenced by the surface texture.

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• Whatever the manufacturing process used, it is not possible to

produce a perfectly smooth surface. The imperfections and
irregularities are bound to occur. The manufactured surface always
departs from absolute perfection to some extent.
• These irregularities are responsible to a great extent for the
appearance of the surface of a component and its suitability for an
intended application.
• The surface of the part produced by casting, hot working, and cold
working powder metallurgy will have irregularities associated with
the manufacture of dies etc. used in their production and the
production process itself.

• Irregularities will still be present after the parts have been machined,
by processes such as turning, grinding, honing lapping, shaping, etc.
employed to finish the surface.
• In general attracting processes such as lapping and honing produce a
texture that is irregular and multidimensional, grinding the most
widely used finishing process generally results in a texture that is
irregular but unidirectional.
• The texture produced by cutting processes such as turning, boring,
shaping, etc. tend to be both evenly spaced and unidirectional.

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Factors affecting surface roughness

• Vibrations
• Material of the workpiece
• Type of machining
• Rigidity of the system consisting of machine tool, fixture cutting
tool, and work
• Type, form, material, and sharpness of cutting tool
• Cutting conditions i.e., feed, speed, and depth of cut
• Type of coolant used

Reasons for controlling surface texture

• Heat exchanger tubes transfer heat better when their surfaces are
slightly rough rather than highly finished.
• Brake drums and clutch plates etc. work best with some degree of
surface roughness.
• For components that are subjected to load reversals. Sharp
irregularities act as stress raisers constituting the greatest
potential source of fatigue cracks, therefore, the surface of the
parts that are subjected to high stresses and load reversals are
finished highly smooth.
• For quieter operations the surfaces should be smooth.

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The principal reasons for controlling the surface texture are:

• To improve the service life of the components
• To improve the fatigue resistance
• To reduce the initial wear of the parts
• To have a close dimensional tolerance on the parts
• To reduce frictional wear
• To reduce corrosion by minimising the depth of irregularities
• For good appearance
• If the surface is not smooth enough, a turning shaft may act like a
reamer and the piston rod like a broach. The moving parts can heat
up, bind, and freeze.

However, as already explained perfectly smooth surface is not required,

the requirement of the surface texture depends upon the specific
application of the part.

Orders of geometrical irregularities

As we know that the material machined by chip removal process can’t be
finished perfectly due to some departures from ideal conditions as
specified by the designer. Due to conditions not being ideal, the surface
produced will have some irregularities can be classified into four
categories.

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First Order. The irregularities caused by inaccuracies in the machine

tool itself are called as first-order irregularities.
These include :
(i) Irregularity caused due to lack of straightness of guideways on
which the tool post moves.
(ii) Surface irregularities arising due to deformation of work under
the action of cutting forces, and
(iii)Due to the weight of the material itself.

Second order. The irregularities caused due to vibrations of any kind are
called second order irregularities. These include chatter marks on the
surface of the parts.

Third order. Even if the machine were perfect and completely free from
vibrations some irregularities are caused by machining itself due to
characteristics of the process. This includes : feed mark of the cutting tool.

Fourth order. The fourth order irregularities include those arising from
rupture of material during the separation of the chip.

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The irregularities on the surface of the part produced can also be

grouped into categories :
(i) Roughness or primary texture
(ii) Waviness or secondary texture

Primary texture (Roughness) The surface irregularities of small

wavelengths are called primary texture or roughness. These are
caused by the direct action of the cutting elements on the material i.e.,
cutting tool shape, tool feed rate, or by some other disturbances such
as friction, wear, or corrosion.

These include irregularities of third and fourth order and constitute the
micro-geometrical errors.

The ratio lr/hr denoting micro-errors is less than 50, where lr = length
along the surface and hr =deviation of the surface from the ideal one.

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Secondary Texture.
The surface irregularities of considerable wavelength of a periodic
diameter are called secondary texture or waviness. These irregularities
result from inaccuracies of slides, wear of guides, misalignment of
centers, non-linear feed motion, deformation of work under the action
cutting forces, vibrations of any kind, etc.

• These errors include irregularities first and second order and

constitute the macro- geometrical errors.
• The ratio of lw/hw denoting the macro errors is more than 50.

Where,
lw = length along the surface
hw = deviation of surface from ideal one

Thus any finished surface can be considered as the combination of two

forms of wavelength (large wavelength for waviness and smaller
wavelength for roughness) superimposed upon each other.

These two forms of irregularities superimposed on each other tend to

form a pattern or texture on the surface.

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Elements of Surface Texture

Various elements of surface texture can be defined and explained with
the help of figure which shows a typical surface highly magnified.
• Surface. The surface of a part is confined by the boundary that
separates that part from another part, substance, or space.
• Actual surface. This refers to the surface of a part which is actually
obtained after a manufacturing process.
• Nominal Surface: A nominal surface is a theoretical, geometrically
perfect surface that does not exist in practice, but it is an average of
irregularities that are superimposed on it.
• Profile. The profile is defined as the contour of any section through a
surface.

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Roughness
• The American Society of Tool and Manufacturing Engineers
(ASTME) defines roughness as the finer irregularities in the surface
texture, including those irregularities that result from an inherent
action of the production process.
• Roughness spacing is the distance between successive peaks or
ridges that constitute the predominant pattern of roughness.
Roughness height is the arithmetic average deviation expressed in
micrometres and measured perpendicular to the centre line.

Waviness
• It is the more widely spaced component of surface texture.
• Roughness may be considered to be superimposed on a wavy
surface.
• Waviness is an error in form due to incorrect geometry of the tool
producing the surface.
• On the other hand, roughness may be caused by problems such as
tool chatter or traverse feed marks in a supposedly geometrically
perfect machine.
• The spacing of waviness is the width between successive wave
peaks or valleys. Waviness height is the distance from a peak to a
valley.

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• Roughness Height. This is rated as the arithmetical average

deviation expressed in micro-meters normal to imaginary centre
line, running through the roughness profile.

• Roughness width. Roughness width is the distance parallel to the

normal surface between successive peaks or ridges that constitutes
the predominant pattern of the roughness.

• Roughness width cut-off. This is maximum width of surface

irregularities that is included in the measurement of roughness
height. This is always greater than roughness width and is rated in
centimetres.

• Lay It is the direction of the predominant surface pattern, ordinarily

determined by the production process used for manufacturing the
component. Symbols are used to represent lays of surface pattern.

• Flaws These are the irregularities that occur in isolation or

infrequently because of specific causes such as scratches, cracks, and
blemishes.
• Surface texture It is generally understood as the repetitive or
random deviations from the nominal surface that form the pattern of
the surface. Surface texture encompasses roughness, waviness, lay,
and flaws.
• Errors of form These are the widely spaced repetitive irregularities
occurring over the full length of the work surface. Common types of
errors of form include bow, snaking, and lobbing.

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Sampling length.

It is the length of profile necessary for the evaluation of the

irregularities to be taken into account. It is also known as cut-off
length. It is measured in a direction parallel to the general direction of
the profile.

The sampling length should bear some relation to the type of profile. It
is found that the required length can be related to the process employed
for finishing and a series of Indian standard sampling lengths, or cut-
off values, have been evolved to cover the majority of finishing
processes normally used.

These standard lengths are 0.08, 0.25, 0.8, 2.5 and 25 mm.

Table gives the recommended sampling lengths for various finishing

processes. However, when it is not specified it is considered to be 0.8
mm for majority of finishing processes :

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Mean line of profile.

It is the line dividing the effective
profile such that within the
sampling length the sum of the
squares of vertical ordinates ( y1,
y2,......) between the effective
profile points and the mean line is
minimum.
Centre line of profile.
It is the line dividing the effective profile such that the area embraced by
the profile above and below the line are equal. For repetitive wave form
(profile) the centre line and mean line are equivalent. Through true
respective profile is impossible in any manufacturing process, mean line
and centre line are assumed to be equivalent for practical purposes.

Evaluation of surface finish.

A numerical assessment of surface finish can be carried out in a

number of ways. These numerical values are obtained with respect to
datum. In practice, the following three methods of evaluating primary
texture (roughness) of a surface are used:

(1)Peak to valley height method

(2)The average roughness

(3)Form factor or bearing curve.

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1. Peak to valley height

This method is largely used in Germany and Russia. It measures the
maximum depth of surface irregularities over a given sample length, and
largest value of the depth is adopted as a measure of roughness. The
drawback of this method is that it may read the same hmax for two largely
different texture. The value obtained would not give a representative
assessment of the surface. To overcome this PV (Peak to
Valley) height is defined as the
distance between a pair of lines
running parallel to general lay of
trace positioned so that the length
lying within the peaks at the top is 5
% of the trace length, and that
within the valleys at the bottom is
10% of the trace length. This is
represented graphically in the
figure.

ANALYSIS OF SURFACE TRACES

It is required to assign a numerical value to surface roughness in order to
measure its degree. This will enable the analyst to assess whether the
surface quality meets the functional requirements of a component.

1. Ten-point Height Average Value

It is also referred to as the peak-to-valley height. In this case, we
basically consider the average height encompassing a number of
successive peaks and valleys of the asperities.

In this method, the average difference between the five highest peaks
and five lowest valleys of surface texture within the sampling length,
measured from a line parallel to the mean line and not crossing the
profile is used to denote the amount of surface roughness.

Mathematically, Rz =ten point height of irregularities.

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The average peak-to-valley height Rz is given by the following expression:

R=(1/5)[(R1 +R2 +R3 +R4 +R5)-(R6 +R7 +R8 +R9 + R10)]

This method is relatively simple method of analysis and measures the total
depth of surface irregularities within the sampling length. But it does not
give sufficient information about the surface, as no account is taken of
frequency of the irregularities and the profile shape. It is used when it is
desired to control the cost of finishing for checking the rough machining.

2. Root Mean Square Value

Until recently, RMS value was a popular choice for quantifying surface
roughness; however, this has been superseded by the centre line average
value. The RMS value is defined as the square root of the mean of squares
of the ordinates of the surface measured from a mean line.

In this method also, the roughness is measured as the average deviation

from the nominal surface. Root mean square value measured is based on
the least squares.R.M.S. Value is defined as the square root of the
arithmetic mean of the values of the squares of ordinates of the surface
measured from a mean line.

(y1, y2, y3,........) and then taking the root of mean squared ordinates.
Let us assume that the sample length L is divided into n equal parts and
y1, y2, y3, .......yn are the heights of the ordinates erected at those points

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(y1, y2, y3,........) and then

taking the root of mean
squared ordinates.

Let us assume that the

sample length L is divided
into n equal parts and y1, y2,
y3, .......yn are the heights of
the ordinates erected at
those points

y12  y 22  ......  y 2n
Then, RMS average 
n
1/ 2
1 L 2 
yrms    y dL 
L 0 

3.Centre Line Average Value

The Ra value is the prevalent standard for measuring surface roughness.
It is defined as the average height from a mean line of all ordinates of the
surface, regardless of sign.

In this method, the surface roughness is measured as the average

deviation from the nominal surface. Centre line average or arithmetic
average is defined as the average values of ordinates from the mean line,
regardless of the arithmetic signs of the ordinates.
C.L.A. value
= (h1 +h2 +h3 +.....+hn)/n

Also

C.L.A.=(A1 +A2 +....+

An)/L

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Interestingly, four countries (USA, Canada, Switzerland, and

Netherlands) have exclusively adopted Ra value as the standard for
measuring surface roughness. All other countries have included other
assessment methods in addition to the Ra method. For instance, France
has seven additional standards.

It should be mentioned here that the Ra value is an index for surface

texture comparison and not a dimension. This value is always much less
than the peak-to-valley height. It is generally a popular choice as it is
easily understood and applied for the purpose of measurement.

3. Form factor and bearing curves:

There are other certain characteristics which may be used to evaluate

surface texture.

Form Factor: The load carrying area of every surface is often much less
than might be thought. This is shown by reference to form factor. This form
factor is obtained by measuring the area of material above the arbitrarily
chosen base line in the section and the area of the enveloping rectangle.
Then,
Degree of fullness (K)=
(Area of metal)/(area of enveloping
rectangle)

Degree of emptiness=(Kp )=1-K

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Conventional method for designating surface finish

As per IS: 696 surface texture specified by indicating the following
main characteristics in the symbols:
(a) Surface roughness value : It is expressed as Ra value in micron
(m). If a single Ra value is stated it is understood that any Ra value
from zero to that stated is acceptable.
(b) Limiting values : When both minimum and maximum Ra values
needed to be specified theses shall be expressed as follows :
Ra 8.0/16.0 or alternatively, Ra 8.0-16.0

(c) Sampling length (instrument cut-off) : The sampling length is

indicated in parenthesis following the roughness value as follows: Ra
8.0 (2.5) here, Ra value is 8.0 and sampling length 2.5 mm.
(d) Lay : It is sometimes necessary to specify the direction of lay.
It is expressed in accordance with following example: Ra lay
parallel
Unless otherwise specified, it is assumed that the surface roughness
shall be across the direction of lay.
(e) Process : When it is necessary to limit the production of a
surface to the use of one particular process, the process shall be
stated.

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For example, a milled surface with 1.2mm machining allowance

having Ra value 6.3 m, with cut-off length 2.5 mm and direction
of lay parallel will be represented as shown in figure.

The surface roughness on drawings is represented with inverted

triangles as per IS: 3973.

Preferred values of Ra and Rz

Preferred values for arithmetical mean deviation Ra in m are selected
from : 0.025, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6, 3.2, 6.3, 12.5, and 25 and the
preferred values for ten point height irregularities Rz in m are selected
from: 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6, 3.2, 6.3, 12.5, 25, 50, and 100.

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INDICATION OF SURFACE TEXTURE

The basic symbol consists of two legs of unequal length

inclined at approximately 60’ to the line representing the
considered surface
The symbol must be represented by thin line
• If the removal of material by machining is
required, a bar is added to the basic symbol,
• If the removal of material is not permitted, a
circle is added to the basic symbol.
• When special surface characteristics have to be
indicated, a line is added to the longer arm of any
of the above symbols
• Basic symbol: only be used alone when its
meaning is explained by a note

Indication of Surface Roughness

• The value or values defining the principal criterion of roughness
are added to the symbols. a- surface roughness value

Roughness a obtained by any production process

Roughness a obtained by removal of material by machining

Roughness a shall be obtained without removal of any material

If it is necessary to impose maximum and minimum limits of the

principal criterion of surface roughness, both values shall be
shown: maximum limit (a1) ; minimum limit (a2).

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If it is required that the required surface texture be produced by one

particular production method, this method shall be indicated in plain
language on an extension of the longer arm of the symbol

Indication of machining allowance where it is necessary to specify the

value of the machining allowance, this shall be indicated on the left of the
symbols. This value shall be expressed in millimeters.

Generally to indicate the surface roughness, the symbol is used

instead of value. The relation is given in following table.

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Machining Symbols

This symbol may also be used in a drawing, relating to a production process , to indicate
that a surface is to be left in the state ,resulting from a preceding manufacturing process,
whether this state was achieved by removal of material or otherwise

Position of the Specifications of the Surface Texture in the Symbol –

The specifications of surface texture shall be placed relative to the symbol as shown in
figure.

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Symbol Interpretation

Parallel to the plane of

projection of the view in which
the symbol is used
Perpendicular to the plane of
projection of the view in
which the symbol is used

Crossed in two slant direction

relative to the plane of
projection of the view in
which the symbol is used
Multidirectional

Approximately circular
relative to the centre of the
surface to which the symbol is
applied
Approximately radial relative
to the centre of the surface to
which the symbol is applied

Symbols with Additional Indications.

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Surface Roughness expected from manufacturing processes

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Measurement of Surface Finish/Surface Texture :

The methods used for measuring the surface finish can be classified
broadly into two groups.
(1)Inspection by comparison
(2)Direct instrument measurement.
Inspection by comparison methods :
• The surface texture is assessed by observation of the surface.
• These are the methods of qualitative analysis of the surface texture.
• The texture of the surface to be tested is compared with that of a
specimen of known roughness value and finished by similar machining
processes.
• Though these methods are rapid, the results are not similar techniques.

The various methods available for comparison are :

1. Visual inspection
2. Touch inspection
3. Scratch inspection
4. Microscopic inspection
5. Surface photographs
6. Micro-interferometer
7. Reflected light intensity

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1. Visual inspection :

• In this method surface is inspected by the naked eye.

• This method is always likely to be misleading particularly when
surfaces with high-degree finish are inspected.
• It is therefore limited to rougher surfaces.
• The product and the specimen are seen simultaneously and the
roughness of the product is compared with that of the specimen by
the naked eye.

2. Touch inspection :

• This method can simply assess which surface is more rough, it

cannot give the degree of surface roughness.
• Secondly, the minute flaws can not be detected.
• The fingertip is moved along the surface at a speed of about 25 mm
per second and irregularities as small as 0.0125 mm can be detected.
• In touch inspection, the feel of the surface is experienced by moving
the fingernail lightly across the lay of the roughness of the product to
be tested and afterward moving across the surface of the specimen of
known roughness value.

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• Then the two feels are compared to assess the surface roughness of
the product.
• In the modified method a tennis ball is rubbed over the surface and
surface roughness is judged thereby.
• These specimens have also proved to be very good devices for
training the personnel to judge the Ra value by the feel and
appearance of the surfaces.
• It should be noted that the surface being compared should be clean
and dry. However, the results obtained by comparison vary from
person to person.

• Errors may also be caused due to differences in the material, shape,

method of machining method of finish, etc of the product and the
specimen.
3. Scratch surfaces :
• In this method a softer material like lead, Babbit, or plastic is rubbed
over the surface to be inspected.
• The impression of the scratches on the surface produced is then
visualized.
4. Microscopic inspection :
• This is probably the best method for examining the surface texture
by comparison.

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• But, since, only a small surface can be inspected at a time several

readings are required to get an average value.
• In this method, a master finished surface is placed under the
microscope and compared with the surface under inspection.
• Alternatively, a straight is placed under the microscope and compared
with the surface under inspection.
• Alternatively, a straight edge is placed on the surface to be inspected
and a beam of light is projected at about 60o to the work.
• Thus the shadow is cast into the surface, the scratches are magnified
and the surface irregularities can be studied.

5. Surface photographs :

• In this method magnified photographs of the surface are taken with

different types of illumination to reveal the irregularities.
• If vertical illumination is used then defects like irregularities and
scratches appear as dark spots and a flat portion of the surface
appears as a bright area.
• In the case of oblique illumination, the reverse is the case.
• Photographs with different illumination are compared and the result is
assessed.

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6. Micro interferometer :
• In this method, an optical flat is placed on
the surface to be inspected and illuminated
by a monochromatic source of light.
• Interference bands are studied through a
microscope.
• The scratches on the surface appear as
interference lines extending from the dark
bands into the bright bands.
• The depth of the defect is measured in
terms of the fraction of the interference
bands.

7. Reflected light intensity :

• In this method a beam of light of known quantity is projected upon

the surface.
• This light is reflected in several directions as beams of lesser
intensity and the change in light intensity in different directions is
measured by a photocell.
• The measured intensity changes are already calibrated using
readings taken from the surface of known roughness by some other
suitable method.

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DIRECT INSTRUMENT MEASUREMENTS

• Direct methods enable to determination of a numerical value of the
surface finish of any surface.
• These methods are quantitative analysis methods and the output is
used to operate recording or indicating instruments.
• Direct Instruments are operated by electrical principles.
• These instruments are classified into two types according to the
operating principle.
• The one is operated by the carrier-modulating principle and the
other is operated by the voltage-generating principle, and in both
types, the output is amplified.

Some of the direct measurement instruments are:

1. Stylus probe instruments.
2. Tomlinson surface meter.
3. Taylor-Hobson Talysurf
4. Profilometer.

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1. Stylus probe instruments.

There are two types of stylus instruments:
o True datum-skid less
o Surface datum-skid type, respectively.
• In the skid less instrument, the stylus is drawn across the surface by
a mechanical movement that results in a precise path. The path is the
datum from which the assessment is made.
• In the skid-type instrument, the stylus pickup unit is supported by a
member that rests on the surface and slides along with it. This
additional member is the skid or the shoe.

• Skids are rounded at the bottom and fixed to

the pickup unit. They may be located in front of
or behind the stylus. Some instruments use a
shoe as a supporting slide instead of a skid.
• Shoes are flat pads with swivel mountings in Fig. Skid and stylus type
the head. The datum created by a skid or a
shoe is the locus of its centre of curvature as it
slides along the surface.
• The stylus is typically a diamond having a cone angle of 90° and a
spherical tip radius of 1–5 μm or even less.

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• The stylus tip radius should be small enough to follow the details of
the surface irregularities, but should also have the strength to resist
wear and shocks.
• Stylus load should also be controlled so that it does not leave
additional scratch marks on the component being inspected.
• To capture the complete picture of surface irregularities, it is
necessary to investigate waviness (secondary texture) in addition to
roughness (primary texture).
• Waviness may occur with the same lay as the primary texture. While
a pointed stylus is used to measure roughness, a blunt stylus is
required to plot the waviness.

Advantage:
Any desired roughness parameter can be recorded.

Disadvantages:
1. Fragile material cannot be measured.
2. High Initial cost.
3. Skilled operators are needed to operate.

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2. Tomlinson Surface Meter.

• The sensing element is the

stylus, which moves up and
down depending on the
irregularities of the workpiece
surface.
• The stylus is constrained to
move only in the vertical
direction because of a leaf
spring and a coil spring.
Fig. Tomlinson surface meter

• The tension in the coil spring P causes a similar tension in the leaf
spring. These two combined forces hold a cross-roller in position
between the stylus and a pair of parallel fixed rollers.
• A shoe is attached to the body of the instrument to provide the
required datum for the measurement of surface roughness.
• A light spring steel arm is P Spring attached to the cross-roller and
carries a diamond tip.
• The translatory motion of the stylus causes rotation of the cross
roller about the point A, which in turn is converted to a magnified
motion of the diamond point.

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• The diamond tip traces the profile of the workpiece on a smoked glass
sheet.
• The glass sheet is transferred to an optical projector and magnified
further.
• Typically, a magnification of the order of 50–100 is easily achieved in
this instrument.
• To get a trace of the surface irregularities, a relative motion needs to be
generated between the stylus and the workpiece surface.
• Usually, this requirement is met by moving the body of the instrument
slowly with a screw driven by an electric motor at a very slow speed.
• Anti-friction guide-ways are used to provide friction-free movement in
a straight path.

3. Taylor–Hobson Talysurf.

• The Taylor–Hobson Talysurf works on the same principle as that of

the Tomlinson surface meter.
• However, unlike the surface meter, which is purely a mechanical
instrument, the talysurf is an electronic instrument.
• This factor makes the talysurf a more versatile instrument and can
be used in any condition, be it a metrology laboratory or the factory
shop floor.
• The stylus is attached to an armature, which pivots about the centre
of piece of an E-shaped stamping. The outer legs of the E-shaped
stamping are wound with electrical coils.

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• A predetermined value of alternating current (excitation current) is

supplied to the coils.
• The coils form part of a bridge circuit. A skid or shoe provides the
datum to plot surface roughness.
• The measuring head can be traversed in a linear path by an electric
motor.
• The motor, which may be of a variable speed type or provided with a
gearbox, provides the required speed for the movement of the
measuring head.

Fig. Taylor–Hobson Talysurf

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• As the stylus moves up and down due to

surface irregularities, the armature is also
displaced.
• This causes variation in the air gap, leading to
an imbalance in the bridge circuit.
• The resulting bridge circuit output consists of
only modulation.
Fig. Bridge circuit and electronics
• This is fed to an amplifier and a pen recorder
is used to make a permanent record.
• The instrument can calculate and display the
roughness value according to a standard
formula.

4. Profilometer.
• A profilometer is a compact device that can be used for the direct
measurement of surface texture.
• A finely pointed stylus will be in contact with the workpiece surface.
• An electrical pickup attached to the stylus amplifies the signal and
feeds it to either an indicating unit or a recording unit.
• The stylus may be moved either by hand or by a motorized
mechanism.
• The profilometer is capable of measuring roughness together with
waviness and any other surface flaws.
• It provides a quick-fix means of conducting an initial investigation
before attempting a major investigation of surface quality.

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What is Profilometer:
• This Profilometer is used to find the
roughness value of the surface.
• It is also called as Abbot Profilometer.
• It consist of a diamond stylus and a
spring attached to it which used to
vibrates when this meter moves on the
surface of the measuring object.

• This type of measurement is used to measure the accurate and a clear

surface roughness.
• With the help of a galvanometer the measurement is done and it consist of a
chart to store the required data which is obtained from the measurement.

Other methods for measuring surface roughness

Profilograph

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• The surface finish to be checked work piece is placed on the table.

• The table can move either side by lead screw and the stylus is
pivoted over the tested surface, so the oscillation in the stylus due to
surface irregularities are transmitted to the mirror.
• A light source sends a beam of light through lens and a precision slit
to the mirror, and the reflected beam is directed to revolving drum.
• Upon the revolving drum a sensitive film is attached. The revolving
drum can be rotated by two bevel gears and the gears are attached to
the same lead screw.
• Finally, the profilogram will be obtained from the sensitive film and it
is analysed.

Measuring Flatness vs Parallelism

• Flatness measures the degree to which a single surface is level and

smooth, while parallelism measures the degree to which two surfaces
are aligned with each other.
• Flatness is an individual property, while parallelism is a comparative
property.
• Flatness is typically measured using a surface plate and a dial
indicator, while parallelism is typically measured using a surface plate
and a height gauge or dial indicator.

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• The readings are taken at different locations across the surface of

the part to ensure that it is uniformly flat.
• The flatness of the surface is then calculated by comparing the
readings taken at each point to determine the deviation from the
perfect flatness.
• A flat surface has no high points or low points and is completely
even.

• Parallelism refers to the degree to which two surfaces are perfectly

parallel to each other. In other words, parallelism measures how closely
two surfaces are aligned with each other.
• To measure parallelism, two parts are placed on the surface plate, with
one part resting on top of the other.
• The height gauge or dial indicator is then used to measure the distance
between the two parts at various points along their surfaces.
• The readings are taken at multiple locations to ensure that the two
surfaces are uniformly parallel.
• The parallelism of the surfaces is then calculated by comparing the
readings taken at each point to determine the deviation from perfect
parallelism.

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Parallelism

Optical Flat and Calibration

An optical Flat is an instrument that is used for testing the flatness of
workpieces, gauge blocks, micrometre anvils, etc. Such measurements are
based in interferometry; the science of measuring with light waves

1. Optical flat are flat lenses, made from

quartz, having a very accurate surface to
transmit light.
2. They are used in interferometers, for
testing plane surfaces.
3. The diameter of an optical flat varies from
50 to 250 nun and thickness varies from
12 to 25 mm.

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1. Optical flats are made in a range of sizes and shapes.

2. The flats are available with a coated surface.
3. The coating is a thin film, usually titanium oxide, applied on the
surface to reduce the light lost by reflection.
4. The coating is so thin that it does not affect the position of the fringe
bands, but a coated flat

Interference Bands by Optical Flat

• Optical flats arc blocks of glass finished to

within 0.05 microns for flatness.
• When art optical flat is on a flat surface
which is not perfectly flat then optical flat
will not exactly coincide with it, but it will
make an angle e with the surface as shown
in Figure 2.8.

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Types of Optical Flat

• Type A: It has only one surface flat. The working surface of this
type of flat is indicated by an arrowhead on the cylindrical surface
pointing towards the working surface. This type of flat is used for
testing the flatness of precision measuring surfaces of flats, slips,
etc.

• Type B: It has both surface flat and parallel to each other. This type
of flat is used for testing measuring surfaces of micrometres and
measuring anvils.

Measuring Flatness with Optical Flats

• First clean the surfaces of the component and optical flat with a lens
tissue or soft lint-free cloth. Both faces must be absolutely clean.
• Place the optical flat carefully on top of the component. Do not slide it
across.
• As the optical flat and component come together lines will appear
through the flat.
• Manipulate it to obtain a line pattern, as illustrated. The lines are
interference fringes or bands and are an indication of the level the
component’s surface has risen or fallen in relation to the optical flat.

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• After obtaining the line pattern, you

can start to interpret it to measure
the surface of the component.
• The width of each fringe corresponds
to the distance between the
component and the optical flat at that
point.
• In general, wider fringes indicate a
larger distance, while narrower
Light band reading Showing perfect flatness
fringes indicate a smaller distance.

CONCAVE
CONVEX
Ring pattern moves away from
Ring pattern moves towards finger
finger pressure. If workpiece is
pressure. If workpiece is convex
concave the lapping plate is
the lapping plate is concave.
convex.
Lapping Plate Flatness

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Working Principle
• Interference is the principle behind the working of optical flats. An
optical flat is placed on a surface, in order to measure its flatness,
before a monochromatic light is made to pass through the area of
contact.
• In cases where the test surface is perfectly flat, there will be no gap
between the two surfaces.
• In cases where the test surface is not flat, interference fringes will
be formed, and will be visible in the form of dark and light bands.The
elevation of the surface is determined by counting the fringe
differences.

• In use the flat is placed upon the object to be tested and a light
having a single color (monochromatic light) is thrown upon it.
• Helium is most commonly used in industry as a source of
monochromatic or single wave-length light because of its
convenience.
Construction
• Most optical flats are made out of quartz. Some are made out of glass.
Optical flats made of quarts are often coated on one side, to give
higher reflectivity.
• Optical flats are in the shape of discs, having parallel surfaces.

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• The ray of light penetrates the flat, and as it reaches the bottom
surface it is divided into two rays.
• One ray is reflected back to the eye from the bottom surface of the
flat, while the other is reflected back from the top surface of the
object being tested.
• If the rays are in phase when they reform, their energies reinforce
each other, and they appear bright.
• If they are out of phase, their energies cancel and they are dark.
• The rays have the same wave-length, but the second ray will lag
behind the first ray by an amount equal to twice the space between
the flat and the work.

• If this space is equal to half a wavelength, the second ray will be in

step with the first one when it joins it again in air.
• If it is a full wavelength, the second will also join the first one. But, if
the distance is equal to one-fourth or three-fourths of a wave
three-fourths-length, the second ray will be a half wave length out
of step with the first one and will neutralize it when they join and
create a dark band.
• Since each dark band indicates a change of one-half wavelength in
distance separating the work surface and flat, measurements are
made very simply by counting the number of these bands or
interference lines and multiplying that number by the one-half
wavelength of the light source.

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The main applications of optical flats are listed below:

• Calibration of flatness of various optical surfaces

• Inspection of gauge blocks
• Testing of filters, mirrors, and prisms
• Spectrophotometry

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